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Commotes of Medieval Wales
Note that some areas are shown as reorganised by the Normans, for hundred-style purposes, or in a manner that is not chronologically consistent

A commote (Welsh: cwmwd, sometimes spelt in older documents as cymwd, plural cymydau, less frequently cymydoedd)[1] was a secular division of land in Medieval Wales. The word derives from the prefix cym- ("together", "with") and the noun bod ("home, abode").[1] The English word "commote" is derived from the Middle Welsh cymwt.[2]

The basic unit of land was the tref, a small basic village or settlement. In theory, 100 trefi made up a cantref (literally, "one hundred settlements"; plural: cantrefi), and half or a third of a cantref was a cymwd, although in practice the actual numbers varied greatly. Together with the cantrefi, commotes were the geographical divisions through which defence and justice were organised. In charge of a commote would be a chieftain probably related to the ruling Prince of the Kingdom. His court would have been situated in a special tref, referred to as a maerdref. Here, the bonded villagers who farmed the chieftain's estate lived, together with the court officials and servants.[3] Commotes were further divided into maenorau or maenolydd.

Domesday Book and later history

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Domesday Book has entries for those commotes that in 1086 were under Norman control, but still subject to Welsh law and custom. However, it refers to them using the Anglo-Norman word "commot" instead of hundred[citation needed], the word used at the time for the equivalent land division in England. The commotes mentioned in the Domesday Book, in general, represented recent Anglo-Norman advances into Welsh territory. Although the commotes were assessed for military service and taxation, their obligations were rated in carucates (derived from Latin for cattle or oxen), not in hides as on the English side of the border.

The customs of the commotes are described in the Domesday accounts of the border earldoms of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire and Cheshire. The principal commotes described in Domesday were Archenfield, Ewias, and the commotes of Gwent in the south; Cynllaith, Edeirnion, and Iâl (Shropshire accounts); and Englefield, Rhos and Rhufoniog (Cheshire accounts).

In legal usage, the English word 'commote' replaced cwmwd following the Edwardian conquest of Wales in the 13th century, when English was made the official language for all legal documents. The Welsh, most of whom knew not a word of English, naturally continued to use cwmwd and still do so today. In much of Wales, commotes had become more important than cantrefi by the mid-13th century and administration of Welsh law became the responsibility of the commote court rather than the cantref court. Owain Glyndŵr called representatives from the commotes for his two parliaments during the rising of 1400–1409[broken anchor].

The boundaries of commotes, or in some cases cantrefi, were in many cases subsequently more accurately represented by church rural deaneries than by the hundreds issuing from the 16th century Acts of Union.

Is and Uwch in commote names

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A considerable number of the names of adjacent medieval Welsh commotes contain is (meaning "lower", or "below" as a preposition) and uwch (originally uch and meaning "higher", or "above" as a preposition), with the dividing line between them being a natural boundary, such as a river, mountain or forest. Melville Richards noted that, in almost every instance where this occurs, the point of central authority was in the "is division" when the commote was named, and he suggested that such commotes were originally named in the sense of 'nearer' and 'farther' based on the location of that central authority—i.e., the terminology is for administrative purposes and not a geographical characterisation.[4]

Richards attributed the use of is and uwch to some confusion in translating Latin sub (meaning "lower") and supra (meaning "upper") into Welsh in too literal a sense, when the proper sense was to consider sub to be an administrative synonym for Latin cis (meaning "this side of"), and to consider supra to be an administrative synonym for Latin trans (meaning "the other side of").[4]

A number of smaller units, such as manors, parishes and townships, also use the administrative distinction of is and uwch, sometimes in their Latin forms (e.g., the manor of Clydach in Uwch Nyfer, divided into Sub Clydach and Ultra (Supra) Clydach).[5]

This is unrelated to the common use of isaf and uchaf in farm names, where the terms are used in the geographical sense.[6]

List of commotes, organised by cantref

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The Red Book of Hergest (1375–1425) provides a detailed list of commotes in the late 14th and early 15th centuries.[7] The list has some overlaps and is ambiguous in parts, especially in the Gwynedd section. It should also be borne in mind that the number and organisation of the commotes was different in the earlier Middle Ages; some of the units and divisions listed here are late creations. The original orthography of the manuscript is given here together with the standard modern Welsh equivalents.

Gwynedd

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Powys

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Maelienydd

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  • Cantrefoed Maelenyd
    • Kymwt Llwythyfnwc

Buellt

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Elfael

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Brecheinawc (Brycheiniog)

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Ystrad Tywi

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  • Cantref Bychan
    • Kymwt Hirvryn
    • Kymwt Perued
    • Kymwt Iskennen
  • Cantref Eginawc (Eginog)
    • Kymwt Kedweli (Cydweli)
    • Kymwt Carnywyllawn (Carnwyllion or Carnwyllon now Llanelli)
    • Kymwt Gwhyr (Gŵyr now Swansea)
  • Cantref Mawr
    • Kymwt Mallaen
    • Kymwt Caeaw
    • Kymwt Maenawr Deilaw
    • Kymwt Cetheinawc
    • Kymwt Mab Eluyw
    • Kymwt Mab Utryt
    • Kymwt Widigada

Ceredigyawn (Ceredigion)

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  • Cantref Penweddig
    • Kymwt Geneurglyn (Cwmwd Genau'r Glyn)
    • Kymwt Perued (Cwmwd Perfedd)
    • Kymwt Creudyn (Cwmwd Creuddyn)
  • Cantref Mabwynyon (Cantref Mabwnion)
    • Kymwt Meuenyd (Cwmwd Mefenydd)
    • Kymwt Anhunyawc (Cwmwd Anhuniog)
    • Kymwt Pennard (Cwmwd Penardd)
  • Cantref Caer Wedros (Cantref Caerwedros)
    • Kymwt Wenyionid (Cwmwd Gwinionydd)
    • Kymwt Is Coed (Cwmwd Is Coed)

Dyfed

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Morgannwg

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  • Cantref Gorvynyd
    • Kymwt Rwng Net A Thawy
    • Kymwt Tir Yr Hwndryt
    • Kymwt Rwng Neth ac Avyn
    • Kymwt Tir Yr Iarll
    • Kymwt Y Coety
    • Kymwt Maenawr Glyn Ogwr
  • Cantref Penn Ychen
    • Kymwt Meisgyn
    • Kymwt Glyn Rodne
    • Kymwt Maenawr Tal y Vann
    • Kymwt Maenawr Ruthyn
  • Cantref Breinyawl
    • Kymwt Is Caech
    • Kymwt Uch Caech
    • Kymwt Kibwr (Ceibwr; later Kibbor)
  • Cantref Gwynllwc
    • Kymwt Yr Heid
    • Kymwt Ydref Berued
    • Kymwt Edelygyon
    • Kymwt Eithyaf
    • Kymwt Y Mynyd
  • Cantref Gwent
    • Kymwt Is Coed
    • Kymwt Llemynyd
    • Kymwt Tref y Gruc
    • Kymwt Uch Coed

Citations

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  1. ^ a b Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru (University of Wales Dictionary), p. 643
  2. ^ Brown, Lesley (ed), "New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993 ISBN 0-19-861134-X
  3. ^ Rhys & Brynmor-Jones 1906:401–402, The Welsh People
  4. ^ a b Richards 1964:9–10
  5. ^ Richards 1964:17–18
  6. ^ Richards 1964:18
  7. ^ Rhys & Evans 1890:407–412, Red Book of Hergest, Cantreds and Commotes of Wales.

References

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[edit]
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Commote

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A commote (Welsh: cwmwd, meaning "abode together") was a secular administrative division of land in medieval Wales, functioning as a subdivision of the larger territorial unit known as the and possessing its own local court. These divisions underpinned Welsh governance, landholding, and legal administration from at least the , reflecting a system of hereditary lordship and communal obligations under customary codified around the 10th century by . Typically comprising multiple maenorau (townships or vills), each commote was overseen by officials such as the maer (steward) responsible for royal or princely estates, facilitating taxation, justice, and military levies within its bounds. Following the Edwardian conquest of in 1282–1283, the term "commote" in English legal usage supplanted cwmwd, with many such units retained under Marcher lordships while adapting to hybrid Anglo-Welsh tenurial systems, though their distinct Welsh-law courts gradually diminished. Commotes thus represent a key element of pre-modern Welsh territorial organization, mapped today using late-medieval manuscripts and parish records to reconstruct boundaries that illuminate historical patterns of power and settlement.

Definition and Etymology

Origins and Meaning

The term commote, anglicized from the Welsh cwmwd (plural cymydau), denoted a primary administrative and judicial district in medieval Wales, typically encompassing multiple townships (maenors) and serving as a subunit of the larger cantref. This division facilitated local courts (manors or rheolaeth), land allocation, and customary law enforcement, mirroring the English hundred in scale and function but rooted in native Welsh territorial organization. The commote's conceptual origins lie in the pre-Norman Welsh principalities, where it emerged as a practical unit for managing agrarian communities and kinship-based societies, likely by the 10th or amid the consolidation of kingdoms such as and . By the late , commotes were recognized in border regions under partial Norman influence, as documented in early Anglo-Welsh records, though their structure predated such interactions and reflected indigenous Celtic administrative traditions rather than imposed feudal models. The system's endurance through the Norman era underscores its adaptability, with commotes retaining autonomy in Welsh-held territories until the Edwardian of 1282–1283. Semantically, cwmwd connoted a bounded communal , emphasizing habitation and within defined boundaries, often aligned with natural features like rivers or hills for defensibility and economic coherence. This meaning persisted in legal texts, where commotes held fiscal obligations, such as rendering rents (gwestfa) to overlords, and hosted assemblies for , distinguishing them from parishes or mere geographic locales.

Linguistic Derivation

The English term commote (also spelled commot) entered the language as a borrowing from Welsh cwmwd, with the earliest recorded use in English dated to 1495 in parliamentary records. The Welsh cwmwd derives from Middle Welsh kymhwt, a compound formed from the prefix cy(m)- meaning "together" or "with" and the noun bod signifying "home" or "abode," yielding a literal sense of "abode together" or "collective dwelling," which semantically evolved to denote a communal land division. This etymological structure reflects a Brythonic linguistic pattern emphasizing shared territorial habitation, cognate with Old Breton compot ("division of land") and modern Breton kombod ("compartment"). In medieval Welsh administrative contexts, cwmwd (plural cymydau) specifically referred to a subunit of land governance, underscoring communal organization rather than mere geography, distinct from broader terms like cantref. The anglicization to commote preserved the phonetic core while adapting to English orthography, appearing in post-Norman documents to describe Welsh territorial units without altering the underlying Brythonic semantics of collective residency.

Historical Development

Pre-Norman Period

In early medieval Wales, prior to the Norman invasions commencing in the late 11th century, the cymwd (commote) constituted a fundamental territorial and administrative subunit within the cantref framework, organizing land tenure, tribute collection, and local governance among the native Welsh principalities. Typically encompassing multiple maenorau—clusters of bond townships (trefi) worked by free and unfree tenants—the commote centered on a princely court (llys) where rulers or their reeves (maer) adjudicated disputes, enforced Welsh law (cyfraith Hywel), and oversaw seasonal renders such as food, labor, and military service. This structure reflected a decentralized system suited to the hilly terrain and fragmented polities of Wales, with principalities like Gwynedd and Deheubarth comprising dozens of such units under hereditary tywysogion (princes) who itinerated to maintain authority. The earliest surviving reference to a specific commote appears in a memorandum within the Lichfield Gospels, dating to approximately 830–850 AD, which mentions Cymwd Caeo in the context of ecclesiastical or territorial delineation in south Wales. This attestation underscores the commote's role in pre-urban, kin-based societies where boundaries often aligned with natural features like rivers and ridges, preserving Iron Age or sub-Roman tribal divisions adapted to post-Roman conditions. Commotes varied in size but generally supported a population sufficient for a local host, with two to four forming a cantref—a hundred-township entity that served as the prince's core domain for fiscal and military obligations. Governance emphasized and over written records, with the commote's rheolwr (steward) managing bondsmen (taeogion) who rendered fixed portions of produce—known as gwestfa—to the llys during the ruler's circuits. Archaeological evidence from sites like early llys enclosures reveals fortified homesteads rather than stone castles, indicating reliance on communal levies for defense against Viking raids or inter-princely conflicts, as seen in the disruptions following the unification attempts of (d. 878). While the system lacked centralized taxation, it enabled flexible mobilization, with commotal units contributing warriors proportionally to their holdings, a practice rooted in the heroic ethos of Welsh poetry and genealogies.

Domesday Book References

The , completed in 1086 under , records a limited number of Welsh commotes primarily in the border marches where Norman forces had established control prior to the survey, while these areas retained Welsh legal customs and were exempt from administrative structures like . These entries appear in appended "" folios to counties such as , , and , reflecting piecemeal conquests rather than systematic coverage of . Commotes were valued for taxation and military obligations under native Welsh tenure, often noting pre-1066 devastation by Welsh rulers like Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, which obscured earlier holdings. Archenfield (Old Welsh Erging), located in southwestern beyond , is explicitly treated as a distinct commote or liberty in the Herefordshire folios, encompassing about 70 hides and subject to autonomous Welsh customs including galanas (blood money) and sarhaed (insult fines), outside the hundred system. Holdings there were granted to Norman lords like William fitz Osbern, with recorded resources including mills, meadows, and ploughlands, though much land remained waste due to prior conflicts. In southeastern , commotes within Gwent—such as those between the rivers Wye and —are detailed in a disorganized section following (folios 162v–163r), evidencing early Norman colonization via castles at , Monmouth, and , with assessments of vill holdings and renders in kind. Ewias, another southern commote straddling the Hereford-Monmouth border, appears similarly, held by figures like of Chandos and valued for its pastoral and arable potential under hybrid Norman-Welsh oversight. Northern border commotes like Cynllaith (in near ), Edeirnion (along the Dee valley), and Iâl (Yale) are referenced in Shropshire appendices, marking Norman incursions into eastern and illustrating commotal boundaries as units of fiscal accountability amid ongoing Welsh resistance. Overall, these references underscore the commote's role as a resilient pre-Norman administrative subunit, adapted but not fully supplanted in conquered fringes, with totals suggesting modest Norman gains: for instance, Archenfield's 12 recorded places yielded around 200 households by 1086.

Post-Conquest Evolution

Following the Norman incursions into after , commotes in conquered territories were frequently incorporated into the emerging marcher lordships, with Norman barons adapting existing boundaries for their feudal grants rather than imposing entirely new divisions. In regions like Gwent, controlled by 1086, the documented commotes such as those in the lordship of , where payments reflected persistent Welsh customs alongside nascent Norman oversight. This pragmatic retention allowed lords to leverage local structures for administration and revenue, as evidenced by the transformation of the commote of Gwyr into the basis for the Norman lordship of Gower in the late . The administrative framework of commotes endured largely unchanged in both the native Welsh and the semi-autonomous marcher lordships, functioning as the primary unit for , judicial functions, and under a hybrid of and feudal obligations. In lowland areas subject to intensive settlement, such as the Gwent Levels, Anglo-Norman influences introduced manorial , open-field systems, and boroughs—evident in with 294 burgage plots by 1306—while overlaying these on commotal divisions without wholesale replacement. Upland commotes, like those around Dingestow, preserved more traditional dispersed settlements and pastoral economies, resisting fuller feudalization due to terrain and lower strategic value. By the 12th and 13th centuries, commotes increasingly served as subunits within larger lordships, with castles like (pre-1100) and monasteries reinforcing Norman control at key nodes, yet the units retained jurisdictional autonomy under alien lords until the Edwardian conquests of 1277–1283. Post-1283, Edward I's shire system in north and superimposed English hundreds on commotal lines in some areas, but the native divisions continued for local courts and taxation in hybrid form. This evolutionary persistence underscores the resilience of pre-conquest structures against Anglo-Norman innovation, only fully supplanted by the Laws in Wales Acts of 1535–1542, which abolished commotes in favor of standardized counties.

Administrative Framework

Integration with Cantref and Kingdoms

In medieval Wales, commotes functioned as the fundamental subdivisions of cantrefi, establishing a tiered administrative hierarchy that underpinned the governance of larger principalities such as Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth. Cantrefi, in turn, were aggregated to form these kingdoms, with commotes providing the localized units for resource management, military obligations, and preliminary judicial proceedings. This structure evolved from earlier tribal arrangements, formalized under Welsh customary law by the 10th century, allowing princes to delegate authority while retaining central oversight through itinerant courts. Theoretically, a cantref encompassed 100 trefi (townships or vills), divided into commotes each covering about 50 trefi, though practical implementations deviated significantly due to geographical and historical factors. A single typically included two to three commotes, with variations up to seven in some cases, reflecting adaptations to terrain and . Commotes integrated with cantrefi by aligning local maenors (manors or estates) under a maer (steward) responsible for collecting renders and organizing levies, which were then coordinated at the cantref level for princely demands. This ensured that royal trefi within commotes—such as maerdrefi serving as administrative centers—supported the broader fiscal and defensive needs of the kingdom. In , the largest principality, 15 cantrefi were subdivided into 36 commotes, illustrating scalable integration that accommodated expansion and fragmentation among ruling lineages. Comparable arrangements existed in and , where cantrefi like Cantref Mawr retained semi-autonomous status under princely houses even amid Norman incursions post-1093. Initially, cantrefi hosted primary courts for administration, but by the 12th-13th centuries, commotes assumed greater roles in routine justice and defense, decentralizing power while preserving hierarchical loyalty to the crown. Boundaries, often delineated by rivers and uplands, persisted in records like those compiled by Gruffudd Hiraethog around 1564, underscoring the enduring framework despite conquests.

Governance and Judicial Functions

In medieval Wales, each commote functioned as a primary administrative unit subordinate to the , centered on a llys (royal or princely ) and an associated maerdref (the ruler's inhabited by bond tenants responsible for cultivating royal lands). The maer y commot (reeve of the commote) served as the key local official, overseeing the management of the prince's or lord's estates, collecting food renders and rents, supervising the labor of unfree tenants (taeogs), and ensuring the maintenance of facilities such as halls and chambers. This structure supported the itinerant nature of princely governance, with rulers circuiting between commotes to administer their realms directly. Judicial authority resided primarily in the commote courts, which by the later Middle Ages had assumed most routine legal functions previously handled at the cantref level, including resolution of land boundary disputes, inheritance claims, minor criminal matters, and enforcement of Welsh customary law known as Cyfraith Hywel. The maer typically presided over these assemblies, drawing on local freeholders and bondsmen for testimony and enforcement, while the llys provided the physical venue for hearings when the prince was present. In northern Wales, such as Gwynedd, professional judges (ynad) supplemented the maer for complex cases, ensuring consistency in applying fines, sureties, and sarhaed (compensation) under native legal codes. Commotes also facilitated military obligations, with the maer organizing levies of troops and provisions from bond tenants during campaigns, integrating administrative and defensive roles under the prince's command. Following the Edwardian conquest of 1282–1283, many commote frameworks persisted under English oversight, with courts adapting to hybrid Anglo-Welsh jurisdictions until the Acts of Union in 1536–1543 imposed shire-based English common law, though local maers continued in diminished capacities for manorial affairs.

Naming Patterns

Is and Uwch Designations

In medieval Welsh administrative , the prefixes is (meaning "lower" or "below") and uwch (meaning "upper" or "above") frequently designated commotes based on their relative positions to geographical features, particularly or upland-lowland divides. These terms facilitated the subdivision of larger cantrefi into paired or adjacent commotes, reflecting topographic realities that influenced settlement, , and . For instance, a often served as the boundary, with the uwch commote encompassing upstream or higher elevations and the is commote the downstream or lower areas. This system underscored the practical integration of landscape with territorial organization in pre-Norman . Such designations appear across various regions, as evidenced in historical records. In the of Ardudwy, the River Artro divided Uwch Artro (upper Artro) from Is Artro (lower Artro), aligning administrative units with hydrological features that shaped local economies and defenses. Similarly, in , the of Cemais included commotes of Uwch Nevern and Is Nevern, subdivided relative to the River Nevern, as noted in medieval manuscripts like the Hengwrt MS 34 circa 1450. In Penllyn, the commote was further divided into Uwch Meloch and Is Meloch, likely referencing a local stream or ridge. The pattern extended to areas like the River Dulas, where Uwch Dulas and Is Dulas denoted divisions west and east of the watercourse, respectively.
Region/CantrefUwch CommoteIs CommoteDividing Feature
ArdudwyUwch ArtroIs ArtroRiver Artro
Cemais ()Uwch NevernIs NevernRiver Nevern
PenllynUwch MelochIs MelochMeloch stream/ridge
Dulas areaUwch DulasIs DulasRiver Dulas
These examples illustrate a consistent convention, though not all commotes followed strict pairing, and some uwch or is designations stood alone, such as Uwch Aeron in Ceredigion's of Aeron. The usage persisted into post-Conquest records, aiding in descriptions and jurisdictional clarity amid Anglo-Norman influences. Primary sources, including legal extents and charters, confirm the enduring role of these terms in delineating fiscal and judicial boundaries without evident ideological distortion.

Geographical and Descriptive Elements

Commotes in medieval were administrative divisions that closely mirrored the country's varied , encompassing coastal lowlands, fertile river valleys, upland pastures, and rugged mountainous interiors. These units typically ranged from coastal strips fringed by the or to inland areas dominated by hill country and moorlands, with boundaries often delineated by natural features such as rivers, watersheds, and escarpments to align with local resource distribution and settlement patterns. For example, the commote of Caerwedros in extended along the coastline to the west, providing access to maritime resources, while its eastern extents rose toward the Pumlumon mountain range, which reaches elevations of 752 meters above mean , influencing settlement density and agricultural practices confined to lower slopes and valleys. Similarly, commotes such as Is-Aled and Uwch-Aled in primarily occupied the expansive moorlands of Mynydd Hiraethog, characterized by peat bogs, heather-dominated uplands, and limited , which shaped pastoral economies and sparse population centers. In southern regions like , commotes often followed river systems such as the Tywi, integrating floodplain meadows suitable for grazing with adjacent hilly terrains, as evidenced by historical delineations tying administrative units to hydrological divides. This geographical alignment ensured that commotes functioned as self-contained economic and judicial territories, with coastal examples like Caerwedros supporting and alongside , while upland variants emphasized between lowland farms and summer pastures (hafodau). Elevations within commotes could span from near-sea-level plateaus—often 100 to 700 feet along western coasts—to higher inland plateaus exceeding 1,000 feet, reflecting ' predominantly upland character that constrained large-scale cultivation in favor of dispersed homesteads. Such descriptive elements, derived from terrain-specific adaptations, underscored the pragmatic integration of governance with environmental realities rather than arbitrary impositions.

Catalog of Commotes

The commotes of formed the foundational local administrative units within the Kingdom of , a major Welsh polity in north and northwest during the medieval period, subdivided under 15 cantrefs and totaling 36 commotes as documented in the (compiled c. 1382–1425). These divisions facilitated judicial, fiscal, and military functions, centered around lys (royal courts) where local officials (rhaglaw) administered , collected renders, and mobilized forces for the princes of , such as Llywelyn the Great (r. 1195–1240) and (r. 1258–1282). Eastern commotes like those in Tegeingl and Rhufoniog faced repeated Anglo-Norman incursions from the onward, leading to partial incorporation into the Earldom of by 1132, while western and island commotes remained more securely under control until Edward I's conquest in 1282–1283. The enumeration, derived from earlier traditions, groups commotes by , reflecting geographical and tribal alignments; modern scholarship aligns these with historical regions like (Môn), Arfon, Llŷn, , and the Perfeddwlad (eastern lowlands). Key -commote structures include:
  • Cantref Tegeingl (eastern coastal plain): Commotes of Insel ( area), Prestan (), and , strategic for trade and defense but lost to Norman control post-1066.
  • Cantref Dyffryn Clwyd (Vale of ): Commotes of Colyan, Llannerch, and Ystrad, agricultural heartlands contested in the .
  • Cantref Rhufoniog (inland northeast): Commotes of Rhuthyn (), Uch Alech, and Is Alech, with fortified lys sites evidencing 13th-century royal oversight.
  • Cantref Rhos (northeast): Commotes of Uch Dulas, Is Dulas, and Ykreudyn (Creuddyn), bordering English advances.
  • Cantref Môn (): Commotes of Llan Uaes, Cemeis, Talebolyon, (dynastic seat with origins in the ), Penn Rhos, and Rosvyrr, vital for naval power and insulated by the .
  • Cantref Arllechwedd ( foothills): Commotes of Treffryw and Aber, rugged terrains used for guerrilla resistance.
  • Cantref Arfon (around ): Commotes of Uch Conwy and Is Conwy, core to Gwynedd's heartland with major lys at Cricieth and Dolwyddelan.
  • Cantref Dunoding ( and Eifionydd): Commotes of Rifnot (Eifionydd) and Ardudwy.
  • Cantref Llŷn: Commotes of Inmael, Clogyon, and Cwmdinam, remote western peninsula focused on pastoral economy.
  • Cantref Meirionnydd: Commotes of Eftumaneyr (Ystumanner) and Talybont.
  • Cantref Eryri (): Commotes of Cyueilawc (Cwmllan), Madeu (Mawddwy), Uch Meloch, Is Meloch, Llan Gonwy, Dinmael, and Glyndyudwy (Glŷndyfrdwy), mountainous strongholds central to Gwynedd's military resilience.
Post-1283, many commotes were reorganized into English shires like and , with boundaries influencing modern Welsh counties. Variations in lists arise from fluid borders and later compilations, but the Red Book reflects 14th-century perspectives.

Powys

The Kingdom of , a major medieval Welsh spanning central and eastern , was subdivided into , many of which contained multiple commotes serving as local administrative and judicial units. These divisions facilitated governance, land tenure under , and military obligations, with boundaries often aligned to natural features like rivers and uplands. Powys's structure reflected its fragmented history, splitting into northern Powys Fadog and southern after the death of in 1160, though earlier unity prevailed under rulers like Cyngen ap Cadell (d. c. 854). Northern Powys Fadog included cantrefs such as Tegeingl, divided into commotes of Rhuddlan, Coleshill, and Prestatyn; this area was seized by Mercia by the 8th century but partially reconquered by Owain Gwynedd in the 12th century. Iâl formed an upland strip in the western Alun valley near the Dee gorges, serving as a core of northern Powys resistance. Glyndyfrdwy was a small commote upstream along the Dee, later associated with Owain Glyndŵr's 15th-century revolt. Edeirnion encompassed plains west of Glyndyfrdwy, incorporating Dinmael and Corwen with its ancient cross, named after the legendary Edern ap Cunedda. Penllyn, centered on Bala Lake, bordered Gwynedd and fell under Llywelyn ab Iorwerth's control in the early 13th century. Nanheudwy followed the Dee-Ceiriog ridge, including Llangollen. Cynllaith focused on Llansilin and Sycharth. Mochnant covered fertile plains under the Berwyn range, split into commotes of Uwch Rhaeadr and Is Rhaeadr, centered on Llanrhaeadr Mochnant. Mechain, in the Vyrnwy valley, divided into Mechain Uwch Coed and Is Coed, with key sites like Llys Fechain and Meifod as a premier church and royal burial ground until the rise of Cistercian abbeys. Southern Powys Wenwynwyn featured cantrefs like Deuddwr at the Vyrnwy-Severn confluence, Ystrad Marchell around Guilsfield (Cegidfa), and Llannerch Hudol south and west of Welshpool. Caereinion represented the heartland of southern Powys, encompassing rolling hills and the royal site of Mathrafal. Cedewain lay between the Rhiw and Severn rivers, including Berriew and Dolforwyn Castle. Arwystli, at the Severn headwaters, included Llandinam and Llangurig, with ties to Gwynedd and Bangor dioceses; it later divided into Arwystli Is Coed and Uwch Coed. Cyfeiliog, the westernmost commote touching the Dovey estuary, included Tafolwern. Mawddwy, sheltered by Aran Fawddwy, centered on Llan ym Mawddwy. Adjacent southern extensions under Powys influence included Meirionydd (formerly Cantref Orddwy), with sites like Talybont, Ystumanner, and Towyn. The border region Rhwng Gwy a Hafren (between Wye and Severn) comprised sub-divisions such as Gwerthrynion (between Wye and Lugg, linked to Vortigern), Buellt (north of Epynt, with commotes Treflys, Penbuellt, Dinan, Is Irfon), Elfael (highlands divided into Uwch Mynydd and Is Mynydd), and Maelienydd (from Teme to Radnor Forest, with Rhiwlallt, Buddugre, Dineithon). Offa's Dyke influenced boundaries in areas like Tegeingl and Maelor, marking early Anglo-Welsh frontiers.

Deheubarth Regions (including Ceredigion, Dyfed, Ystrad Tywi)

The regions, encompassing , , and Ystrad Tywi, featured a network of cantrefs subdivided into commotes that facilitated local , , and judicial administration under Welsh princes prior to the . , centered on , comprised approximately ten commotes across cantrefs such as Penweddig, Uwch Aeron, and Is Aeron, reflecting its coastal and riverine geography along the Aeron and Teifi rivers. , the core of the former Demetian kingdom, included seven cantrefs with a higher density of commotes, notably in the expansive Gwarthaf, which alone contained eight subdivisions to administer fertile inland areas. Ystrad Tywi, along the River Tywi valley, was organized into three cantrefs, with Mawr standing out as the largest in , divided into seven commotes to manage its extensive agricultural lands and strategic river access. These divisions, documented in medieval Welsh records, varied in size but typically included a maerdref () for the ruler's estate and courts presided over by a maer (steward). In , the commotes were:
CantrefCommotes
PenweddigGeneu'r Glyn, Perfedd, Creuddyn
Uwch AeronMefenydd, Anhuniog, Pennardd
Is AeronCaerwedros, Mabwnion, Iscoed, Gwinionydd
Dyfed's commotes included:
  • Cemais: Uwch Nyfer, Is Nyfer
  • Emlyn: Uwch Cuch, Is Cuch
  • Cantref Gwarthaf: Efelffre, Peuliniog, Talacharn, Amgoed, Ystlwyf, Penrhyn, Derllys, Elfed
Ystrad Tywi's structure emphasized the Cantref Mawr's scale, with commotes as follows:
CantrefCommotes
MawrMabelfyw, Mabudryd, Widigada, Catheiniog, Maenor Deilo, Mallaen, Caeo
BychanHirfryn, Perfedd, Is Cennen
EginogCydweli, Carnwyllion, Gwyr
These commotes endured as administrative units into the post-conquest period, often realigned under marcher lordships, but retained their role in Welsh law until the Acts of Union in the 16th century. Variations in records arise from territorial shifts, such as Seisyllwg's integration of Ystrad Tywi into Deheubarth by the 10th century.

South Wales Regions (including Morgannwg, Brycheiniog, Buellt, Elfael, Maelienydd)

The regions, encompassing Morgannwg (modern and surrounding areas), (), and the cantrefs of Buellt, Elfael, and Maelienydd, formed key administrative units in medieval under the cantref-commote system. These areas lay east of and south of , often contested between Welsh kingdoms and later Norman incursions. Morgannwg, uniting and Gwent, featured cantrefs like between the Taff and Thaw rivers, with commotes including Ystrad Yw and Ewias, which were subjects of territorial disputes between Morgan Hen of Morgannwg and of in the early . , a petty kingdom centered on the valley and , included cantrefs such as Selyf and commotes like Llywel, , Bronllys, and Tir Iarll. Buellt, a distinct cantref west of the Wye and independent from major kingdoms, was partitioned into four commotes: Treflys, Pebuellt (or Penbuellt), , and Is Irfon, with major sites concentrated around these divisions by the medieval period. Elfael, bordering to the south and Buellt to the west, comprised two primary commotes: Elfael Is Mynydd (lower mountain) and Elfael Uwch Mynydd (upper mountain), separated by hills near Aberedw; these were conquered by starting in the late . Maelienydd, in east-central from the Teme to Radnor Forest, was divided into four commotes: Dinieithon (near modern Knighton), Ceri, Rhiwallt, and Buddugre, serving as a marcher lordship prone to Anglo-Welsh conflicts.
RegionCantrefCommotes
BuelltBuelltTreflys, Pebuellt, , Is Irfon
ElfaelElfaelIs Mynydd, Uwch Mynydd
MaelienyddMaelienyddDinieithon, Ceri, Rhiwallt, Buddugre
BrycheiniogVarious (e.g., Selyf)Llywel, , Bronllys, Tir Iarll
These commotes facilitated local , judicial courts (cymwd courts), and obligations, with boundaries often defined by rivers and uplands, reflecting the rugged terrain's influence on settlement and defense. By the , Norman lords like Bernard of Neufmarché in and the Tosny family in Elfael imposed feudal overlays, yet Welsh commote structures persisted in some areas until the Edwardian conquest of 1282-1283.

References

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