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An array of modems used to accept incoming calls for dialing-up to the Internet
"Dial up modem noises"
Typical noises of dial-up modem (North America and United Kingdom) while a modem is establishing connection with a local ISP-server in order to get access to the public Internet.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Dial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish a connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) by dialing a telephone number on a conventional telephone line which could be connected using an RJ-11 connector.[1] Dial-up connections use modems to decode audio signals into data to send to a router or computer, and to encode signals from the latter two devices to send to another modem at the ISP.

Dial-up Internet reached its peak popularity during the dot-com bubble. This was in large part because broadband Internet did not become widely used until well into the 2000s. Since then, most dial-up access has been replaced by broadband.

History

[edit]

In 1979, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, graduates of Duke University, created an early predecessor to dial-up Internet access called the Usenet. The Usenet was a UNIX-based system that used a dial-up connection to transfer data through telephone modems.[2]

Dial-up Internet access has existed since the 1980s via public providers such as NSFNET-linked universities in the United States. In the United Kingdom, JANET linked academic users, including a connection to the ARPANET via University College London, while Brunel University and the University of Kent offered dial-up UUCP to non-academic users in the late 1980s.[3][4][5]

Commercial dial-up Internet access was first offered in 1989 in the US by the software development company Software Tool & Die, with their service called "The World". Sprint and AT&T in 1992 also began offering internet access, along with Pipex in the United Kingdom.[6][7] After the introduction of commercial broadband in the late 1990s,[8] dial-up became less popular. In the United States, the availability of dial-up Internet access dropped from 40% of Americans in the early 2000s to 3% in the early 2010s.[9] It is still used where other forms are not available or where the cost is too high, as in some rural or remote areas.[10][11][12][13]

Modems

[edit]
Main article: Dial-up modem
Banks of modems used by an ISP to provide dial-up Internet service

Because there was no technology to allow different carrier signals on a telephone line at the time, dial-up Internet access relied on using audio communication. A modem would take the digital data from a computer, modulate it into an audio signal and send it to a receiving modem. This receiving modem would demodulate the signal from modulating analogue noise and demodulating it back into digital data for the computer to process via a modem that would decode the data, and send it to the computer.[14]

The simplicity of this arrangement meant that people would be unable to use their phone line for verbal communication until the Internet call was finished.

The Internet speed using this technology can drop to 21.6 kbit/s or less. Poor condition of the telephone line, high noise level and other factors all affect dial-up speed. For this reason, it is popularly called the "21600 syndrome".[15][16]

Availability

[edit]

Dial-up connections to the Internet require no additional infrastructure other than the telephone network and the modems and servers needed to make and answer the calls. Because telephone access is widely available, dial-up is often the only choice available for rural or remote areas, where broadband installations are not prevalent due to low population density and high infrastructure cost.[11]

A 2008 Pew Research Center study stated that only 10% of US adults still used dial-up Internet access. The study found that the most common reason for retaining dial-up access was high broadband prices. Users cited lack of infrastructure as a reason less often than stating that they would never upgrade to broadband.[17] That number had fallen to 6% by 2010,[18] and to 3% by 2013.[19]

A survey conducted in 2018 estimated that 0.3% of Americans were using dial-up by 2017.[20]

The CRTC estimated that there were 336,000 Canadian dial-up users in 2010.[21]

Replacement by broadband

[edit]

Broadband Internet access via cable, digital subscriber line, wireless broadband, mobile broadband, satellite and FTTx has replaced dial-up access in many parts of the world. Broadband connections typically offer speeds of 700 kbit/s or higher for two-thirds more than the price of dial-up on average.[18] In addition, broadband connections are always on, thus avoiding the need to connect and disconnect at the start and end of each session. Broadband does not require the exclusive use of a phone line, and thus one can access the Internet and at the same time make and receive voice phone calls without having a second phone line.

However, many rural areas remain without high-speed Internet, despite the eagerness of potential customers. This can be attributed to population, location, or sometimes ISPs' lack of interest due to little chance of profitability and high costs to build the required infrastructure. Some dial-up ISPs have responded to the increased competition by lowering their rates and making dial-up an attractive option for those who merely want email access or basic Web browsing.[22][23]

Dial-up has seen a significant fall in usage, with the potential to cease to exist in future as more users switch to broadband.[24] In 2013, only about 3% of the U.S population used dial-up, compared to 30% in 2000.[25] One contributing factor is the bandwidth requirements of newer computer programs, like operating systems and antivirus software, which automatically download sizeable updates in the background when a connection to the Internet is first made. These background downloads can take several minutes or longer and, until all updates are completed, they can severely impact the amount of bandwidth available to other applications like Web browsers.

Since an "always on" broadband is the norm expected by most newer applications being developed,[citation needed] this automatic background downloading trend is expected to continue to eat away at dial-up's available bandwidth to the detriment of dial-up users' applications.[26] Many newer websites also now assume broadband speeds as the norm, and when connected to with slower dial-up speeds may drop (timeout) these slower connections to free up communication resources. On websites that are designed to be more dial-up friendly, use of a reverse proxy prevents dial-ups from being dropped as often but can introduce long wait periods for dial-up users caused by the buffering used by a reverse proxy to bridge the different data rates.

Despite the rapid decline, dial-up Internet still exists in some rural areas, and many areas of developing and underdeveloped nations, although wireless and satellite broadband are providing faster connections in many rural areas where fibre or copper may be uneconomical.[citation needed]

In 2010, it was estimated that there were 800,000 dial-up users in the UK. BT turned off its dial-up service in 2013.[27]

In 2012, it was estimated that 7% of Internet connections in New Zealand were dial-up. One NZ (formerly Vodafone) turned off its dial-up service in 2021.[28][29]

AOL discontinued its dial-up internet service on 30 September 2025 after thirty-four years of operation, following an announcement a month earlier.[30][31] It is estimated that over 163,000 to 175,000 people still used dial up in 2025 before shutting down in the U.S.

Performance

[edit]
An example handshake of a dial-up modem

Modern dial-up modems typically have a maximum theoretical transfer speed of 56 kbit/s (using the V.90 or V.92 protocol), although in most cases, 40–50 kbit/s is the norm. Factors such as phone line noise as well as the quality of the modem itself play a large part in determining connection speeds.[citation needed]

Some connections may be as low as 21.6 kbit/s in extremely noisy environments, such as in a hotel room where the phone line is shared with many extensions, or in a rural area, many kilometres from the phone exchange. Other factors such as long loops, loading coils, pair gain, electric fences (usually in rural locations), and digital loop carriers can also slow connections to 21.6 kbit/s or lower. Because of this, it was nicknamed "21600 Syndrome".

The values given are maximum values, and actual values may be slower under certain conditions (for example, noisy phone lines).[32]

Connection Bitrate
110 baud (Bell 101) 0.11 kbit/s (110 bits per second)
300 baud (Bell 103 or V.21) 0.3 kbit/s
1200 baud (Bell 212A or V.22) 1.2 kbit/s
2400 baud (V.22bis) 2.4 kbit/s
2400 baud (V.26bis) 2.4 kbit/s
4800 baud (V.27ter) 4.8 kbit/s
9600 baud (V.32) 9.6 kbit/s
14.4 kbit/s (V.32bis) 14.4 kbit/s
28.8 kbit/s (V.34) 28.8 kbit/s
33.6 kbit/s (V.34) 33.6 kbit/s
56k kbit/s (V.90) 56.0 to 33.6 kbit/s
56k kbit/s (V.92) 56.0 to 48.0 kbit/s
ISDN 64.0 to 128.0 kbit/s
Hardware compression (V.92/V.44) 56.0 to 320.0 kbit/s (variable)
Server-side web compression    200.0 to 1000.0 kbit/s (variable)
  • V.90 – 3Com USR - 56k
  • V.90 – RockWeller - 56k
  • ZyXEL Omni 56K
  • V.90 – Momenta 56DSP
  • V.34 – Sindrome 21600
  • V.80 – Helicopter
  • V.34 – RockWeller - 33.6k
  • V.92 – ElCom HSP PCI Fax modem - 56k

[The dial-up sounds are] a choreographed sequence that allowed these digital devices to piggyback on an analog telephone network. A phone line carries only the small range of frequencies in which most human conversation takes place: about three hundred to three thousand hertz. The modem works within these [telephone network] limits in creating sound waves to carry data across phone lines. What you're hearing is the way 20th century technology tunneled through a 19th century network; what you're hearing is how a network designed to send the noises made by your muscles as they pushed around air came to transmit anything [that can be] coded in zeroes and ones.

— Alexis Madrigal, paraphrasing Glenn Fleishman[33]

Analog telephone lines are digitally switched and transported inside a Digital Signal 0 once reaching the telephone company's equipment. Digital Signal 0 is 64 kbit/s and reserves 8 kbit/s for signaling information; therefore a 56 kbit/s connection is the highest that will ever be possible with analog phone lines.

Dial-up connections usually have latency as high as 150 ms or even more, higher than many forms of broadband, such as cable or DSL, but typically less than satellite connections. Longer latency can make video conferencing and online gaming difficult, if not impossible. An increasing amount of Internet content such as streaming media will not work at dial-up speeds.

Video games released from the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s that utilized Internet access such as EverQuest, Red Faction, Warcraft 3, Final Fantasy XI, Phantasy Star Online, Guild Wars, Unreal Tournament, Halo: Combat Evolved, Audition, Quake 3: Arena, Starsiege: Tribes and Ragnarok Online, etc., accommodated for 56k dial-up with limited data transfer between the game servers and user's personal computer. The first consoles to provide Internet connectivity, the Dreamcast and PlayStation 2, supported dial-up as well as broadband. The GameCube could use dial-up and broadband connections, but this was used in very few games and required a separate adapter. The original Xbox exclusively required a broadband connection. Many computer and video games released since 2006 do not even include the option to use dial-up. However, there are exceptions to this, such as Vendetta Online, which can still run on a dial-up modem.

Using compression to exceed 56k

[edit]

The V.42, V.42bis and V.44 standards allow modems to accept compressed data at a rate faster than the line rate. These algorithms use data compression to achieve higher throughput.

For instance, a 53.3 kbit/s connection with V.44 can transmit up to 53.3 × 6 = 320 kbit/s if the offered data stream can be compressed that much. However, the compression ratio varies considerably. ZIP archives, JPEG images, MP3, video, etc. are already compressed.[34] A modem might be sending compressed files at approximately 50 kbit/s, uncompressed files at 160 kbit/s, and pure text at 320 kbit/s, or any rate in this range.[35]

Compression by the ISP

[edit]
Main article: Web accelerator

As telephone-based Internet lost popularity by the mid-2000s, some Internet service providers such as TurboUSA, Netscape, CdotFree, and NetZero started using data compression to increase the perceived speed. As an example, EarthLink advertises "surf the Web up to 7x faster" using a compression program on images, text/html, and SWF flash animations prior to transmission across the phone line.[36]

The pre-compression operates much more efficiently than the on-the-fly compression of V.44 modems. Typically, website text is compacted to 5%, thus increasing effective throughput to approximately 1000 kbit/s, and JPEG/GIF/PNG images are lossy-compressed to 15–20%, increasing effective throughput up to 300 kbit/s.

The drawback of this approach is a loss in quality, where the graphics acquire compression artifacts taking on a blurry or colorless appearance. However, the transfer speed is dramatically improved. If desired, the user may choose to view uncompressed images instead, but at a much slower load rate. Since streaming music and video are already compressed at the source, they are typically passed by the ISP unaltered.

Usage in other devices

[edit]
A TiVo Series2 video recorder's back panel. The telephone socket, located near the cooling fan exhaust, is a way for the machine to download its required electronic program guide data.

Other devices, such as satellite receivers and digital video recorders (such as TiVo), have also used a dial-up connection using a household phone socket. This connection allowed to download data at request and to report usage (e.g. ordering pay-per-view) to the service provider. This feature did not require an Internet service provider account – instead, the device's internal modem dialed the server of the service provider directly. These devices may experience difficulties when operating on a VoIP line because the compression could alter the modem signal. Later, these devices moved to using an Ethernet connection to the user's Internet router, which became a more convenient approach due to the growth in popularity of broadband.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Dial-up Internet access

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Dial-up access is a form of connectivity that uses a to establish a connection over standard analog lines by dialing a phone number provided by an (ISP). This technology, which converts into analog signals for transmission and vice versa, was the predominant method for home and personal use from the early through the early , offering maximum speeds of up to 56 kilobits per second (kbps). The origins of dial-up trace back to the broader development of the in the late 20th century, with commercial ISPs like America Online (AOL) launching services in the early 1990s that made dial-up accessible to the general public. During its peak, dial-up enabled millions to access , web browsing, and early online services, but its use of the (PSTN) meant connections tied up phone lines and produced distinctive handshake tones from modems negotiating the link. By the late 1990s, advancements in technologies like DSL and cable began supplanting dial-up due to its slow speeds and inconvenience, though it persisted in rural and underserved areas where infrastructure was limited. Technically, a dial-up connection involves a user's computer instructing the modem to dial the ISP's number, establishing a circuit-switched link over the PSTN; once connected, data is modulated onto audio frequencies within the telephone bandwidth of 300–3400 Hz, limiting throughput. Standards such as V.90 and V.92, developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), optimized these connections for asymmetric speeds—faster downloads than uploads—to better suit web usage. Despite its obsolescence in most developed regions, dial-up's legacy endures in shaping early Internet culture, including the rise of web portals and instant messaging, and as of November 2025, it remains available from other providers in niche applications or remote locations, where it accounts for less than 1% of U.S. internet connections, primarily in rural areas, following AOL's discontinuation of its service on September 30, 2025.

Overview and Functionality

Connection Process

To establish a dial-up Internet connection, the user initiates the process through software, such as an operating system's built-in or a dedicated application, which sends commands to the to place a call to the (ISP). The then takes control of the analog , detecting the continuous (typically around 350-440 Hz in ) provided by the to confirm line availability before proceeding. It dials the ISP's phone number using dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling, producing short, distinct beeps for each digit (frequencies ranging from 697 Hz to 1633 Hz) to instruct the to route the call. If the ISP line is unavailable, a (interrupted tone) alerts the user; otherwise, the call rings silently at the ISP end until answered. Upon the ISP modem answering with a short answer tone (often a 2100 Hz signal), the handshaking phase begins, where the client and server modems exchange modulated audio signals to negotiate connection parameters, including baud rate, error correction, and compression capabilities. This negotiation produces the characteristic screeching, whistling, and chirping sounds as the modems test line quality, probe for the fastest compatible speed (such as up to 56 kbit/s under V.90 standards), and synchronize their modulation schemes. Additional tones, including rapid snaps or clicks, may disable echo suppression devices on the telephone network to prevent signal interference. If excessive noise disrupts this phase, the modems may retrain by restarting the handshake or falling back to a lower speed to ensure stability. With handshaking complete, the s establish a carrier tone and begin data transmission over the analog , where the client modulates digital bits into varying audio frequencies (e.g., via or ) that travel as sound waves, and the ISP demodulates them back to digital form. The physical link then supports the establishment of a higher-layer protocol session, typically (PPP), which handles (via protocols like PAP or CHAP), IP address assignment, and encapsulation of packets; the older [Serial Line Internet Protocol](/page/Serial Line Internet Protocol) (SLIP) served a similar role but lacked PPP's robustness and features. Once the PPP session is active, the connection is ready for use, with the dedicated to data traffic until manually or automatically disconnected. Error handling is to the process, particularly on noisy analog lines prone to interference from electrical sources or distance. During negotiation, detected prompts parameter adjustments or retransmission of test signals; post-connection, standards like V.42 employ link access procedure for modems (LAP-M) to detect via cyclic redundancy checks and request retransmission of corrupted frames, ensuring reliable data delivery without user intervention. This mechanism minimizes , though it can introduce slight delays on poor lines.

Required Hardware and Software

Dial-up Internet access requires specific hardware components to establish a connection over the (PSTN). The primary hardware essentials include an analog , which serves as the medium for transmitting modulated signals between the user's and the (ISP). A dial-up is also necessary to convert digital data from the computer into analog audio signals compatible with the and vice versa; these modems can be internal models installed in a computer's expansion slot or external units connected via a or USB adapter. The computer itself must feature a compatible interface, such as a for older external modems or a USB for modern adapters, to interface with the modem. In cases where the is shared with a voice , an additional RJ-11 jack on the allows connection of a device, enabling both voice calls and data access on the same line. However, using the phone during an active session will interrupt the connection due to the line's occupation by the modem's signal. Software components are equally critical for initiating and maintaining the connection. Dialer software, such as built-in operating system tools like HyperTerminal or Windows Dial-Up Networking, is used to configure and execute the dialing process by entering the ISP's phone number, username, and password. The (PPP) serves as the standard protocol for encapsulating IP packets over the serial connection, while the TCP/IP stack must be installed and bound to the dial-up adapter to enable communication. ISPs often provide customized dialer clients that integrate these elements for seamless setup. Compatibility considerations include the use of RJ-11 connectors to link the to the and any attached , ensuring standard analog compatibility with the PSTN. Many modems incorporate a built-in speaker for during the connection , though a computer's and speakers can provide alternative monitoring of negotiation tones if the modem lacks this feature. Setup configurations typically involve dedicating the to the during use to avoid interruptions, with basic network settings handled automatically via PPP, including dynamic IP assignment through the ISP's DHCP server. Users must ensure the software is configured with ISP-specific parameters, such as details, to successfully negotiate the connection.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Technologies

The origins of dial-up Internet access trace back to the integration of telephone networks with early computing systems in the mid-20th century. In the 1960s, acoustic couplers emerged as a foundational technology, allowing teletypewriters and early computers to transmit data over standard phone lines by converting digital signals into audible tones that a telephone handset could relay. These devices, such as the model developed by SRI International in 1966, bypassed the need for direct wiring to the phone system, enabling rudimentary data exchange at speeds around 10 characters per second. In the late 1960s, the launch of ARPANET in 1969 introduced packet-switching over leased lines, laying groundwork for broader network access that later extended to dial-up methods. By the 1970s, advancements built on these foundations, including the Bell 103 modem, introduced by AT&T in 1962, supported full-duplex transmission at 300 bits per second using frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation, where distinct audio frequencies represented binary 0s and 1s. This modem facilitated connections in early computer networks, including precursors to systems like ARPANET, marking a shift from specialized leased lines—dedicated, always-on circuits used by institutions—to more accessible consumer-oriented dial-up over the public switched telephone network. Regulatory decisions played a pivotal role in enabling this transition. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission's 1968 Carterfone ruling overturned AT&T's restrictions on non-proprietary devices, allowing customers to connect third-party equipment, such as s, directly to the without carrier approval, provided it did not harm the system. This decision dismantled monopolistic barriers, fostering in modem design and paving the way for broader data transmission over voice lines. FSK modulation, already a staple in the Bell 103, became the technical backbone of these early modems, offering reliable low-speed communication suited to the analog phone infrastructure's limitations. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, these foundations supported the launch of initial online services and community networks. , originally founded in 1969 as a computer service, debuted its consumer-facing MicroNET platform on September 24, 1979, offering dial-up access to news, email, and databases via 300 bit/s modems sold through . Similarly, The Source, established in 1978 by and launched in 1979 as an "information utility," provided comparable services for general users, emphasizing electronic mail and real-time chats over phone lines. These platforms represented the first commercial dial-up services for non-experts. In parallel, bulletin board systems (BBS) proliferated in the 1980s, starting with Ward Christensen's in 1978 at 300 bit/s and scaling to 1200 bit/s modems by the early 1980s, allowing hobbyists to share files and messages locally via acoustic or direct-connect modems.

Widespread Adoption and Peak

The widespread adoption of dial-up Internet access accelerated dramatically in the , coinciding with the public release of the in 1993, which transformed the from a text-based academic tool into an accessible platform for information sharing and commerce. This era saw explosive growth in Internet service providers (ISPs), with early entrants like Prodigy launching national services in 1990 and expanding rapidly through user-friendly interfaces and aggressive marketing. By the late 1990s, 's membership had surged to over 20 million subscribers worldwide by 1999, fueled by its proprietary content and easy dial-up connectivity that appealed to non-technical households. At its peak around 2000, dial-up dominated household , with approximately 52% of U.S. adults online primarily via this method, as penetration remained below 3%. Globally, users reached about 304 million by March 2000, the vast majority relying on dial-up connections due to limited infrastructure alternatives. Economic factors played a key role in this expansion; the introduction of flat-rate unlimited pricing by in December 1996 at $19.95 per month eliminated per-hour fees that had previously deterred heavy usage, while the proliferation of affordable PC clones reduced computer costs to under $1,000 for entry-level models, making home setups viable for middle-class families. Culturally, dial-up became synonymous with the Internet's arrival in everyday life, epitomized by AOL's iconic "You've got mail" voice alert that signaled new emails and permeated popular media, including the 1998 film of the same name. Shared telephone lines imposed practical constraints, often limiting connections to evenings or specific hours to avoid tying up voice calls, which fostered habits like brief online sessions and heightened anticipation for connectivity. These limitations also shaped early web design, prioritizing text-heavy pages with minimal graphics to accommodate slow load times, ensuring accessibility on 28.8 kbit/s or 56 kbit/s modems that were standard by the decade's end.

Modem Technology

Modem Types and Evolution

Dial-up modems can be classified into early acoustic couplers and later direct-connect designs. Acoustic couplers, developed in the 1960s, transmitted data by converting digital signals into audio tones that were coupled to a handset placed in rubber cups, allowing indirect connection without electrical contact to the phone line. This design, invented by Robert Weitbrecht for teletypewriter (TTY) use, enabled data transmission over standard analog networks while complying with early regulations prohibiting direct electrical connections. By the 1970s, direct-connect modems emerged following the 1975 U.S. (FCC) ruling that permitted electrical attachment to phone lines, using RJ-11 plugs for secure, low-interference connections that replaced the cumbersome handset method. Modems also differ in form factor as internal or external units. Internal modems integrate directly into a computer's via expansion slots like PCI, reducing desk space and cable clutter while drawing power from the system. External modems, housed in standalone boxes connected via serial ports (later USB), offer portability across devices and easier through visible status lights, though they require additional power supplies and cabling. The evolution of dial-up modem hardware began with the Bell 103 in 1962, AT&T's first commercial full-duplex model operating at 300 bit/s using over voiceband lines. Speeds progressed through standards like the Bell 201 (1967, 2,000 bit/s synchronous) and Hayes-compatible units in the , culminating in the V.90 standard of 1998, which achieved asymmetric 56 kbit/s downstream rates by leveraging digital upstream signals from central offices. Throughout this timeline, modems incorporated multifunction capabilities, such as and voice support in the , allowing devices like the Sportster series to handle data, facsimile transmission under Group 3, and features in a single unit. Key hardware features enhanced reliability and efficiency. Error correction via the V.42 protocol, standardized by in 1988, used link access procedure for modems (LAPM) to detect and retransmit corrupted frames, reducing bit error rates on noisy lines. Data compression followed with V.42bis in 1990, employing adaptive dictionary-based methods like Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) to achieve up to 4:1 ratios on text-heavy data. Flow control mechanisms included software-based XON/XOFF signaling, which embeds control characters in the data stream to pause/resume transmission, and hardware-based RTS/CTS handshaking over pins for precise buffer management in high-speed connections. In the , winmodems—also known as software-assisted or controllerless modems—gained popularity for cost reduction by offloading modulation/demodulation tasks from dedicated DSP chips to the host CPU via drivers, primarily for Windows systems. This design, exemplified by early models from Rockwell and Lucent, minimized hardware complexity but increased CPU load and limited cross-platform compatibility, marking a shift toward integrated, low-cost solutions before broadband dominance.

Speed Standards and Protocols

The speed standards for dial-up Internet access were established primarily through the V-series recommendations, which progressively increased data signaling rates over the (PSTN) while maintaining compatibility with analog voice lines. These standards defined the modulation schemes and maximum bit rates achievable under ideal conditions, forming the technical foundation for interoperability.
StandardRelease YearMaximum Bit RateKey Features
V.211964300 bit/sFull-duplex operation using (FSK) for low-speed data transmission on switched networks.
V.2219801200 bit/sDuplex with (PSK) modulation at 600 , enabling higher efficiency over two-wire lines.
V.3219849600 bit/sFamily of duplex modems using (QAM) and trellis-coded modulation for correction on general switched networks.
V.34199428.8 kbit/sAdvanced QAM-based modulation supporting adaptive equalization and constellation sizes up to 1664 points for bidirectional rates on PSTN and leased lines.
V.90199856 kbit/s (downstream)Digital-analog hybrid using (PCM) for downstream and V.34-style QAM for upstream, unifying proprietary 56 kbit/s technologies.
V.92200056 kbit/s (downstream), 48 kbit/s (upstream)Enhancements to V.90 including V.PCM upstream for faster uploads, quick connect for reduced handshaking time, and improved modem-on-hold functionality.
These standards applied mainly to direct-connect modems, governing the handshaking process during connection establishment. Dial-up protocols operated across multiple layers to ensure reliable data transmission. At the physical layer, early standards like V.21 and V.22 employed binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) or differential PSK to modulate digital bits onto carrier waves, while higher-speed standards from V.32 onward utilized QAM, which combined amplitude and phase variations to encode multiple bits per symbol, achieving greater spectral efficiency over the limited 300-3400 Hz voiceband. At the data link layer, the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) served as the primary encapsulation mechanism, framing IP packets for transport over serial links and providing network control protocols for configuration. Authentication within PPP relied on protocols such as the Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), which transmitted credentials in plaintext, or the more secure Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP), which used a three-way handshake with hashed challenges to verify peers without exposing passwords. The V.90 and V.92 standards introduced inherent upstream-downstream asymmetry to optimize for typical usage patterns, where downloads exceeded uploads. Downstream rates reached 56 kbit/s by leveraging digital PCM signals from the central office, but upstream was capped at 33.6 kbit/s (or 48 kbit/s in V.92) due to attenuation and quantization noise from the analog-to-digital conversion at the user's , which degraded the signal before it reached the digital network. Certification and interoperability among modems from different vendors were ensured through adherence to these standards, supplemented by the Hayes command set—a industry standard introduced in for controlling modems via ASCII-based AT commands. This set, including directives like ATD for dialing and ATH for hanging up, allowed terminal software to initialize, configure, and monitor modems consistently, promoting cross-vendor compatibility without proprietary extensions.

Performance Characteristics

Connection Speeds and Limits

Dial-up Internet access connections are fundamentally constrained by the characteristics of the (PSTN), which was designed for voice communications rather than high-speed data transfer. The theoretical maximum download speed for dial-up modems is 56 kbit/s, as defined by the standard, which enhances the earlier V.90 protocol to achieve this rate under optimal conditions. This limit arises primarily from regulatory restrictions imposed by the U.S. (FCC) under Part 68 of its rules, which cap the transmit power from at -12 dBm to minimize interference between adjacent telephone lines in cable bundles. In practice, these power constraints prevent reliable speeds exceeding approximately 53 kbit/s on the downstream path, as higher levels would degrade signals on neighboring lines. Upload speeds face additional limitations due to the asymmetric nature of the PSTN architecture. Under V.92, the maximum upload rate reaches 48 kbit/s, an improvement over V.90's 33.6 kbit/s, but this is often lower in real-world scenarios because the upload signal must traverse the full length of the local loop from the user's premises to the central office, where and noise accumulate over distances up to several miles. Signal degradation intensifies with loop length, as analog modulation struggles against increasing interference, resulting in fallback to lower rates like 33.6 kbit/s or below to maintain connection stability. It is important to distinguish between bit rates and byte rates when evaluating dial-up performance. A 56 kbit/s connection theoretically equates to about 7 kilobytes per second (kB/s), since 1 byte equals 8 bits (56,000 bits/s ÷ 8 = 7,000 bytes/s). However, protocol overhead from error correction, handshaking, and headers typically reduces effective throughput to around 5-6 kB/s. These speed limits are also bounded by fundamental principles applicable to the noisy analog channels of lines. The Shannon-Hartley theorem establishes the as the maximum reliable data rate, given by C=Blog⁡2(1+SN)C = B \log_2 (1 + \frac{S}{N}), where BB is bandwidth, SS is signal power, and NN is noise power; for PSTN's typical 3-4 kHz voice-grade bandwidth and inherent noise, this caps achievable rates well below digital alternatives. Complementing this, the dictates that the sampling frequency must be at least twice the signal bandwidth to avoid — lines operate with an 8 kHz sampling rate for their 4 kHz bandwidth, limiting the symbol rate and thus the overall to around 56 kbit/s even with multi-level modulation.

Factors Affecting Performance

Several environmental and infrastructural factors can degrade the performance of dial-up Internet connections, often resulting in reduced speeds below the nominal 56 kbit/s or frequent disconnections. Line quality plays a critical role, with electrical interference from nearby power lines, transformers, or household appliances introducing noise that corrupts data transmission over twisted-pair telephone wires. This noise manifests as static or crackling, increasing error rates and prompting the modem to lower its transmission speed or retrain the connection. Additionally, the distance from the user's premises to the central office (CO) causes signal attenuation, typically around 1-3 dB per kilometer in the voice frequency band used by modems, which weakens the signal and limits achievable throughput on longer loops. Shared telephone lines, particularly in multi-extension households, exacerbate issues; for instance, picking up a voice phone on the same line injects impulse noise or bridges the circuit, causing immediate call drops as the modem detects carrier loss. Connection stability is further compromised by intermittent disruptions, such as impulse noise from electrical surges or external sources, which forces the modem to renegotiate (retrain) the link speed to maintain error-free transmission, often halving the rate temporarily. Internet service providers (ISPs) in the 1990s also imposed session duration limits, commonly around 2-3 hours, to manage network congestion and ensure fair access among users during peak times, automatically terminating idle or prolonged connections. User-side setup issues contribute significantly to variability. Poor electrical grounding in the can create line imbalances, making the connection more susceptible to induced from AC power lines and leading to unstable performance. Long or unshielded phone extension cords, often exceeding 10-15 meters, act as antennas for , reducing signal-to-noise ratio and increasing . Concurrent voice calls on shared extensions data flow, as the off-hook condition disrupts the modem's carrier signal without proper filters. Protocol overhead inherently reduces effective throughput in dial-up setups. The (PPP), standard for encapsulating IP traffic, adds headers amounting to approximately 10% bandwidth loss due to framing and overhead on low-speed links. Although lines support full-duplex operation, dial-up modems emulate half-duplex behavior in certain legacy modes or under noisy conditions to avoid echo and , further limiting simultaneous upstream and downstream efficiency.

Compression Methods

Dial-up modems employed built-in data compression to enhance effective throughput beyond the raw transmission rate, primarily through standards like V.42bis and MNP5, which were integrated with error correction protocols such as V.42 and MNP4, respectively. V.42bis, an recommendation, utilizes a dictionary-based derived from Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) compression to encode strings of characters, achieving up to a 4:1 for highly compressible text data, with typical ratios of 2:1 to 3:1 on English text and . MNP5, a proprietary protocol developed by Microcom, applies to compress data streams, offering an average of about 2:1 across various data types, though it is generally less efficient than V.42bis for textual content. Internet service providers (ISPs) further accelerated dial-up connections via server-side techniques, such as proxy servers that pre-compressed web content before transmission. In the 1990s, ISP implemented a proxy-based system that applied compression to text, images, and other objects, effectively boosting perceived speeds for users on 56 kbit/s connections. Additionally, users could employ SSH tunnels with built-in compression to further reduce data volume during sessions, particularly beneficial for text-heavy transfers over slow links. These combined methods allowed effective throughput to exceed the 56 kbit/s hardware limit for compressible content like pages; for instance, V.42bis or V.44 compression paired with ISP could yield perceived speeds of over 100 kbit/s on textual web data, as the algorithms reduced sizes by factors of 2 to 4. However, compression proved ineffective or counterproductive for already-compressed media such as images or audio files, where ratios approached 1:1, offering no throughput gains and sometimes introducing minor overhead. Moreover, the computational demands of real-time compression and decompression increased CPU load on older hardware, potentially bottlenecking performance during intensive sessions.

Current Availability

Remaining Providers

As of late 2025, following the discontinuation of dial-up service on after 34 years of operation, the landscape of dial-up internet access has shifted significantly, with only a handful of providers maintaining active offerings primarily in the United States. 's exit marked the end of one of the last major nationwide dial-up networks, leaving users to turn to remaining alternatives for basic connectivity, though dial-up now serves less than 1% of the U.S. population. Key holdouts include and Juno, both of which continue to provide dial-up access through extensive networks of local phone numbers for direct dialing. offers reliable connections suitable for essential online activities, while Juno emphasizes accelerated options to improve web browsing efficiency. Additionally, maintains Dial-Up Internet Access, supporting users in areas without alternatives via modem-based connections and included security software. These providers cater mainly to rural or underserved U.S. regions where limitations persist, often through partnerships with local telephone companies. Service tiers among these providers typically include basic plans focused on text-based access and , alongside premium options featuring web acceleration technologies that optimize transfer for slower connections. Users dial specific ISP access numbers to establish sessions, a process unchanged from earlier eras but now serving a niche audience. Globally, dial-up availability is even more limited. In and developing regions, such as rural , legacy dial-up has largely phased out in favor of mobile and expansions, though isolated niche services may persist through state-owned telcos for minimal connectivity needs.

Regional Access and Costs

In the United States, dial-up Internet access persists mainly in rural regions lacking infrastructure, where it serves as a fallback option for basic connectivity. As of 2024, approximately 22.3 percent of rural Americans do not have access to fixed terrestrial at speeds of 25/3 Mbps, leaving a gap that dial-up providers target through existing (POTS) lines. Unlimited dial-up plans typically cost between $9.95 and $24.95 per month, with offering similar plans at $11.95 monthly after a free tier limited to 10 hours. Internationally, dial-up availability shows stark regional disparities, with higher persistence in rural developing areas compared to urbanized or advanced economies. In parts of and , where overall internet penetration remains modest—such as around 40 percent for mobile internet among adults in as of 2021—dial-up endures in isolated rural zones reliant on analog phone networks, though exact usage figures are scarce due to the dominance of mobile alternatives. In , rural internet access has surged via mobile, reaching about 55 percent of active users in 2024, but dial-up constitutes a negligible share amid the shift to and . has largely phased out dial-up, including in Eastern regions like . Pricing models for dial-up vary globally, often reflecting local infrastructure and economic conditions. Bundled options integrate dial-up with traditional phone service for added affordability, while free limited tiers—such as email-only access for 10 hours monthly—are offered by U.S. providers like to attract low-usage customers. Where available in developing markets, metered phone line structures may apply, though specific rates are scarce. Access faces growing barriers worldwide due to the erosion of supporting POTS infrastructure and regulatory pivots toward digital alternatives. Major carriers like plan to retire copper-based POTS lines between 2025 and 2029, with the FCC accelerating approvals for such transitions to reduce maintenance costs on aging networks. These shifts, including shortened notice periods to three months for shutdowns, limit analog line support essential for dial-up, compounded by the global migration to VoIP that prioritizes IP-based services over legacy . In rural U.S. and international areas, this decline exacerbates connectivity gaps for users dependent on dial-up for remote or legacy applications.

Decline and Replacement

Transition to Broadband

The transition from dial-up to began in the late 1990s with the commercial rollout of (DSL) technology in 1999, which utilized existing phone lines to deliver higher-speed without interrupting voice services. Cable modems, introduced commercially around 1996, also gained traction by leveraging infrastructure for data transmission. By 2003, these technologies had begun overtaking dial-up, with DSL and cable accounting for about 22% of U.S. home connections compared to 39% for dial-up, and offering speeds starting at 256 kbit/s—far surpassing dial-up's typical 56 kbit/s maximum. This shift was enabled by regulatory changes, such as the 1996 Telecommunications Act, which encouraged competition in deployment. Key drivers of broadband adoption included the rise of , particularly video streaming after 2005, which demanded consistent high speeds that dial-up could not support. The always-on nature of provided greater convenience, eliminating the need to dial in for each session and avoiding interruptions to phone lines, allowing users to multitask and access content more fluidly. In contrast, dial-up's session-based connections limited real-time activities like file downloads or online gaming. U.S. dial-up users peaked at around 45 million households in 2001 before plummeting to fewer than 1 million by 2025, reflecting a broader global decline accelerated by the rollout of mobile networks in the early 2000s, which offered portable alternatives starting at 384 kbit/s. Globally, dial-up's share of in developing regions declined significantly from the early 2000s, as enabled mobile data for , , and basic without fixed-line dependency. Infrastructure changes further hastened the decline, as telecommunications companies (telcos) prioritized investments in DSL and fiber-optic networks over maintaining dial-up support, with major U.S. providers like and Verizon expanding fiber to over 30 million locations by the 2020s. This focus reduced operational costs and aligned with demand for higher capacities, culminating in AOL's discontinuation of its dial-up service on September 30, 2025, effectively ending widespread commercial availability from the largest legacy provider.

Legacy Applications and Niche Uses

Despite the widespread adoption of , dial-up Internet access persists as a backup connectivity option in rural regions of the and where broadband outages occur due to infrastructure limitations or natural disasters. In such scenarios, dial-up provides a low-cost fallback using existing lines, enabling basic and web access when primary services fail. For instance, providers like and Dial-up continue to support dial-up plans targeted at these users, with an estimated 127,000 households in the US as of 2024—a figure that declined further following AOL's discontinuation in September 2025 but remains relevant for emergency resilience. Dial-up's low bandwidth suits niche applications requiring minimal data transfer, such as text-based services and remote monitoring in sectors like . Users can reliably send emails, access simple websites, or upload small datasets for crop or environmental tracking without the need for high-speed connections. This makes it viable for low-resource operations where advanced IoT infrastructure is absent, though it limits real-time video or large file handling. Among hobbyists and retro computing enthusiasts, dial-up facilitates the revival of Bulletin Board Systems (BBS), fostering communities centered on vintage hardware and software. These systems allow users to connect via modems for , messaging, and door games, recreating 1980s-1990s online experiences at events like Vintage Computer Festivals. Active dial-up BBS persist through dedicated lines, with enthusiasts employing original modems on systems like the Commodore 64 or PCs to engage in these networks. In the developing world, particularly rural parts of and lacking mobile or coverage, dial-up serves as a bridge technology for basic . It enables connectivity in underdeveloped regions where telephone exists but modern alternatives do not, supporting essential tasks like and communication despite global shifts to technologies.

Usage in Other Devices

Embedded Systems

Dial-up modems have been integrated into embedded systems within industrial Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition () setups to enable remote monitoring and control in isolated environments, such as , prior to the widespread adoption of IoT technologies. These systems often incorporated built-in 56k s to transmit operational data over standard telephone lines, allowing engineers to adjust processes like pump controls or pressure readings without on-site presence. For instance, the Data-Linc DLM4000 industrial dial-up was deployed in oil and gas exploration to connect PLC processors over leased lines for reliable data exchange in remote production sites. Early industrial remote access relied on such dial-up connections to link control centers with field equipment, facilitating basic in sectors like where was unavailable. In point-of-sale (POS) and vending applications, dial-up modems provided essential connectivity for transaction authorization in regions lacking reliable . Verifone's VX 520 terminal, for example, features built-in dial-up support alongside Ethernet options, enabling merchants to process payments via public switched telephone networks (PSTN) in rural or underdeveloped areas. This ensures secure, low-bandwidth transmission for verifying transactions with payment processors, making it suitable for standalone kiosks or vending machines where power and line access are limited. Legacy medical devices from the 1990s utilized dial-up modems for in patient monitoring, particularly with implantable cardiac devices like pacemakers. Transtelephonic monitoring systems employed modem technology to transmit electrocardiogram (ECG) over phone lines from patients' homes to healthcare providers, allowing remote assessment of device function without frequent visits. These embedded links supported basic upload during scheduled checks, adapting the standard dial-up connection process to initiate from low-resource bedside units. Power constraints in battery-operated field equipment necessitated specialized low-power dial-up modems, which minimized use while maintaining compatibility with alternatives like for fallback connectivity. Devices such as the StarComm series enter a low-power standby mode, activating only upon detecting an incoming ring signal to conserve battery life in solar- or battery-powered industrial setups, such as remote sensors or portable monitors. This approach tolerated dial-up's performance limits for infrequent, low-data transmissions, ensuring reliability in off-grid applications.

IoT and Legacy Equipment

In the early 2000s, automated meter reading (AMR) systems for utilities frequently employed dial-up modems to transmit monthly consumption data from smart meters over analog telephone lines, enabling remote reads without on-site visits. These systems, precursors to advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), connected meters to central offices via standard phone networks, supporting basic for and outage detection. Similarly, remote weather stations in off-grid locations historically relied on dial-up modems for data transmission, allowing automated collection of metrics like wind speed, temperature, and precipitation to be uploaded periodically over available telephone infrastructure. Legacy consumer devices continue to integrate dial-up modems for essential functions where analog phone lines remain accessible. Fax machines, for instance, use built-in modems to convert digital documents into analog signals for transmission over traditional telephone lines, a method still employed in sectors requiring legal or archival document exchange despite digital alternatives. Home alarm systems, such as older ADT installations, utilize dial-up communicators to automatically dial monitoring centers or emergency services like police upon trigger, sending coded signals over (POTS) lines for rapid alerts. These setups provide reliable, low-bandwidth reporting without internet dependency, though they are increasingly supplemented by IP modules. Security concerns with dial-up in these devices stem primarily from the analog nature of phone lines, which are susceptible to physical through simple interception devices that capture unencrypted audio signals. Unlike encrypted IP-based systems, analog transmissions lack inherent protection against wiretaps or nearby listening tools, exposing sensitive data like meter readings or codes to unauthorized access. Migrating such legacy IoT equipment to IP-based protocols presents challenges, including compatibility issues with outdated hardware, the need to rewire for Ethernet or cellular connectivity, and ensuring uninterrupted service during transitions, particularly in remote or regulated environments like utilities. As of , dial-up persists in a niche segment of global IoT deployments, particularly in cost-sensitive, low-data applications where analog infrastructure endures, such as rural monitoring or legacy consumer setups, due to the affordability of basic modems compared to cellular alternatives. However, widespread phase-out is underway as telephone networks shift to digital, including PSTN switch-offs in regions like the (targeted for 2027 but with migrations accelerating in 2025), prompting upgrades to reduce vulnerabilities and align with modern connectivity standards in affected legacy systems.

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