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Discalced
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A discalced (/dɪsˈkælst/ dis-KALST) religious order is one whose members go barefoot or wear sandals. These orders are often distinguished on this account from other branches of the same order. The custom of going unshod was introduced into the West by Saint Francis of Assisi for men and by Saint Clare of Assisi for women.
The word is derived from the Latin discalceātus, from dis ("apart", "away") and calceātus ("shod"), from calceāre ("to provide with shoes"), from calceus ("shoe"), from calx ("heel").[1]
Discalceation
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Discalceation means "removal of footwear". The nuns in the Carmelite reform convents erected by Teresa of Ávila abstained from wearing shoes, and were therefore indicated as discalced. She and St. John of the Cross were the founders of the Discalced Carmelites.
The origins of discalceation lie in Exodus 3:5,[2] where God tells Moses: "Take off your sandals, for the place where you are standing is holy ground".
A separate custom in Biblical times of taking off only one shoe as part of a socially witnessed contract is referred to in Ruth 4:7[3] and Deuteronomy 25:9:[4]
History
[edit]After the various modifications of the Rule of Saint Francis, the Observants (who existed as an independent branch of the Franciscan Order before 1897) adhered to the custom of going unshod. The Minim friars and Capuchins followed in this practice. The Discalced Franciscans of Spain (known as Alcantarines, who formed a distinct branch of the Franciscan Order before 1897) went without footwear of any kind.[5] The followers of St. Clare of Assisi at first went barefoot, but later came to wear sandals and shoes.
The Colettine and Capuchin nuns returned to the use of sandals. Sandals were also adopted by the Camaldolese monks of the Congregation of Monte Corona (1522), the Maronite Catholic monks, the Poor Hermits of St. Jerome of the Congregation of Blessed Peter of Pisa, the Augustinians of Thomas of Jesus (1532), the Barefooted Servites (1593), the Discalced Carmelites (1568), the Feuillants (Cistercians, 1575), the Trinitarians (1594), the Discalced Mercedarians (1604), and the Passionists (1720).
References
[edit]- ^ Discalced
- ^ "Exodus 3:5".
- ^ "Ruth 4:7: Now in former times in Israel, concerning the redemption or exchange of property, to make any matter legally binding a man would remove his sandal and give it to the other party, and this was a confirmation in Israel".
- ^ "Deuteronomy 25:9: His brother's widow shall go up to him in the presence of the elders, remove his sandal, spit in his face, and declare, 'This is what is done to the man who will not maintain his brother's line'".
- ^ Bihl, Michael (1909). "Vol 6". The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved June 17, 2017.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Discalced". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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Discalced
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Etymology and Definition
Linguistic Origins
The term "discalced" derives from the Latin discalceatus, meaning "unshod" or "barefoot," formed by the prefix dis- (indicating removal or negation) and calceatus, the past participle of calceō ("to shoe"), itself stemming from calceus ("shoe" or "sandal").[5][6] This classical Latin construction emphasized the absence of footwear, a concept rooted in ancient Roman and early Christian imagery of humility and poverty. In ecclesiastical Latin, which evolved from classical forms during the early Middle Ages to accommodate Christian liturgy and theology, discalceatus underwent spelling variations reflecting phonetic and scribal adaptations, such as disealciatus, disculciatus, discaleatus, and disculcius. These shifts are evident in medieval legal and hagiographic texts, including the 13th-century treatise Fleta, which describes a penitent figure as discalceatus ("barefoot") in a ritual of public humiliation. By the late Middle Ages, the term appeared in narratives of imperial piety, such as accounts of Emperor Heraclius approaching the True Cross discalceatus in medieval hagiography recounting 7th-century events that circulated widely in medieval Europe. The term gained prominence in 16th-century religious reforms, with its first documented applications to monastic distinctions in texts describing the barefoot practices of orders like the Discalced Carmelites, established amid the Catholic Reformation. In contrast, "calced" (from calceatus, "shod") denoted the opposing tradition of wearing shoes or sandals, creating a binary framework to differentiate reformed, austere branches from their more established counterparts in monastic nomenclature. This linguistic pairing underscored evolving debates on asceticism within ecclesiastical Latin usage.Religious Meaning
In Christian monasticism, "discalced" designates religious orders or individual members who renounce the use of footwear, either going entirely barefoot or wearing only simple sandals, as an external expression of the vow of poverty.[7] This practice symbolizes complete detachment from worldly comforts and possessions, fostering humility and a deeper reliance on divine providence, while imitating the poverty of Christ and the apostles who traveled without material provisions.[8] The term derives from the Latin discalceatus, meaning "unshod," underscoring its literal and spiritual connotations of simplicity.[7] The theological foundation of discalced life is rooted in the evangelical counsels outlined in the Code of Canon Law, particularly the counsel of poverty, which calls members of religious institutes to embrace a life of evangelical poverty in both spirit and fact, limiting personal use of goods to align more closely with Christ's example of self-emptying (kenosis).[9] Canon 600 specifies that this poverty involves renouncing worldly attachments to promote spiritual freedom and service to the Church.[10] Scripturally, this ascetic discipline draws inspiration from Old Testament prophets who went barefoot as a sign of divine mission and humility, such as Isaiah, who walked naked and barefoot for three years as a portent of judgment and God's sovereignty (Isaiah 20:2-4).[11] In monastic interpretation, this act prefigures the renunciation required for prophetic witness and union with God, extending to [New Testament](/page/New Testament) calls for apostolic poverty, like Jesus' instruction to his disciples: "Do not take along any gold, silver, or copper for your money belts; no bag for the journey, or a second tunic, or sandals, or even a walking stick" (Matthew 10:9-10).[12] Discalced orders thus embody a stricter form of asceticism compared to "calced" (shod) branches of the same traditions, where footwear is permitted as a practical allowance, reflecting a mitigated observance of poverty.[7] This distinction highlights the discalced commitment to heightened austerity, emphasizing not mere external poverty but an interior disposition of humility that mirrors Christ's kenotic love and invites total surrender to God's will.[13]Historical Context
Ancient and Medieval Roots
The practice of going barefoot as a form of ascetic discipline has roots in the early Christian era, where it symbolized humility, detachment from material comforts, and imitation of biblical figures who encountered the divine unshod, such as Moses before the burning bush.[14] The term discalced itself derives from the Latin discalceātus, meaning "unshod" or "barefoot," a concept that entered Western religious vocabulary through traditions emphasizing poverty and austerity.[15] In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Desert Fathers of Egypt pioneered such practices as part of their radical renunciation of worldly life. Anthony the Great (c. 251–356 CE), often regarded as the father of Christian monasticism, exemplified this through his eremitic existence in the desert, where he abstained from washing his feet or immersing them in water except in dire necessity, viewing such acts as unnecessary indulgences that distracted from spiritual focus. This shoeless discipline, inferred from his broader rejection of bodily care—including never anointing his body or changing clothes unless worn out—underscored a commitment to poverty and vigilance against temptation, as detailed in Athanasius of Alexandria's biography. Anthony's example inspired generations of hermits, establishing barefoot asceticism as a foundational element of early monastic spirituality, where exposure to the harsh desert terrain served as a constant reminder of mortality and reliance on God.[16] Medieval monasticism built upon these early foundations, integrating shoelessness into broader ideals of evangelical poverty and communal discipline. The Cluniac reforms, initiated at the Abbey of Cluny in 910 CE and spreading across Europe by the 11th century, revitalized Benedictine observance by emphasizing liturgical rigor, silence, and austerity, which indirectly fostered a culture of simplicity that included minimalistic attire to avoid ostentation.[17] Although not exclusively discalced, these reforms countered the laxity of earlier centuries by reinforcing manual labor and detachment, paving the way for more explicit barefoot traditions in later movements. Concurrently, the rise of 13th-century mendicant orders amplified this emphasis; St. Francis of Assisi (1181–1226), founder of the Franciscan order, mandated in his Rule of 1223 that friars go barefoot to embody Christ's poverty, allowing sandals only for those unable to endure the hardship after trial, as a visible witness to humility and itinerant preaching. This Franciscan ideal of voluntary destitution, where bare feet signified solidarity with the poor and rejection of possessions, profoundly influenced medieval religious life and distinguished mendicants from enclosed monastic communities.[18] A pivotal development occurred with the Council of Trent (1545–1563), whose decrees on regulars and religious orders reaffirmed the binding nature of monastic vows, including poverty, mandating that members adhere strictly to their professed rules without dispensation that could undermine ascetic rigor. By upholding the integrity of poverty vows and prohibiting practices that facilitated property ownership—except for orders like the Franciscans who preserved stricter observance—the Council indirectly bolstered traditions of poverty and austerity, framing them as essential to authentic religious life amid Counter-Reformation efforts to purify the Church. These medieval precedents thus laid the groundwork for formalized discalced observances, emphasizing spiritual poverty over material security.[19]Reform Movements
The Reform Movements of the 16th century emerged as a key aspect of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, aiming to revitalize religious orders through stricter adherence to their founding principles, including the discalced practice symbolizing poverty, detachment, and humility. These efforts sought to counter Protestant critiques by demonstrating renewed spiritual discipline and evangelical fervor within the Church. Reformed branches, or "discalced" (shoeless) communities, were formalized within established orders to restore contemplative life and apostolic poverty amid widespread laxity.[20] In Spain, the Carmelite reform exemplified this movement, initiated by St. Teresa of Ávila, who, with permission from the Papal Nuncio, founded the Convent of St. Joseph in Ávila in 1562 as the first house of Discalced Carmelites. This foundation enforced the primitive Rule of St. Albert without mitigations, mandating barefoot observance or simple sandals, prolonged silence, enclosure, and manual labor to foster deeper prayer and detachment from worldly comforts. St. John of the Cross, joining Teresa's vision, extended the reform to men by establishing the first Discalced Carmelite friary at Duruelo in 1568, emphasizing ascetic rigor and mystical theology as antidotes to spiritual decline.[21][22][23] The reforms also influenced Franciscan traditions, where figures like St. Peter of Alcantara (d. 1562) promoted the Strict Observance among the Observant Franciscans, known as discalced for their barefoot commitment to primitive poverty and penance. As Teresa's spiritual director, Alcantara urged her to pursue the Carmelite renewal, bridging Franciscan austerity with Carmelite contemplation and amplifying the broader Counter-Reformation push for authentic religious life across orders. These initiatives received papal support through approvals that solidified their independence, contributing to the Church's internal renewal.[24][25]Key Discalced Orders
Discalced Carmelites
The Discalced Carmelites emerged from a reform movement led by St. Teresa of Ávila in 1562, when she founded the Convent of Saint Joseph in Ávila, Spain, to revive the primitive Carmelite rule and separate from the more lenient Calced branch of the order.[22] This initiative, part of the broader Counter-Reformation efforts to renew religious life, emphasized a return to austerity and contemplation amid 16th-century ecclesiastical reforms.[26] The order gained formal independence as a distinct province in 1593, when Pope Clement VIII issued a bull separating the Discalced from the Ancient Observance Carmelites, allowing autonomous governance.[27] At the heart of Discalced Carmelite life are core rules promoting detachment and interiority, including strict enclosure that confines nuns to their monasteries with communities limited to fifteen members, fostering uninterrupted solitude.[27] The habit embodies the discalced ideal of poverty, traditionally worn without shoes—though sandals were later permitted in practical cases—to symbolize humility and renunciation of worldly comforts.[28] Above all, contemplative prayer forms the order's spiritual foundation, encouraging prolonged mental prayer and meditation to achieve union with God through silence and asceticism.[29] The Discalced Carmelites have made enduring contributions through the mystical theology of St. John of the Cross, who collaborated with Teresa from 1568 onward and authored Dark Night of the Soul, a poetic and prose treatise outlining the soul's purgative journey toward divine intimacy.[30] This work, alongside others like Ascent of Mount Carmel, has profoundly influenced Christian spirituality.[31] By the 17th century, the order expanded internationally, dispatching friars and nuns to establish missions in the Americas, including early convents in South America that supported evangelization and local foundations.[32]Discalced Franciscans
The Discalced Franciscans, also known as the Alcantarines, emerged from a 16th-century reform within the Franciscan Order led by Peter of Alcantara, a Spanish friar born in 1499 who entered the Observant Franciscans at age 16. This reform sought to revive the primitive austerity of St. Francis by emphasizing apostolic poverty and barefoot mendicancy, distinguishing it from more relaxed branches of the order. In 1555, Peter received papal approval from Pope Julius III to establish convents under stricter observance, marking the formal split and creation of the Alcantarine branch as a distinct custody within the Friars Minor.[33][34] The Alcantarine branch was integrated into the Order of Friars Minor in 1897.[4] Central to the Discalced Franciscans' identity were practices of extreme simplicity and penance, including going perpetually barefoot or wearing only minimal sandals while traveling, as a symbol of detachment from worldly comforts and solidarity with the poor. These friars combined this barefoot discipline with rigorous fasting—often limited to bread and water on certain days—and manual labor in their self-sustaining communities, avoiding reliance on alms beyond basic needs to embody evangelical poverty. Such observances reinforced their commitment to itinerant preaching and active ministry among the marginalized, fostering a lifestyle of humility and evangelization.[33][24] The order expanded rapidly across Europe, establishing custodies in regions like Valencia (St. John Baptist) and Galicia (St. Simon) by 1562, and later reaching Portugal and Italy. Missionaries from the Alcantarines also extended to colonial territories, including Brazil by the 18th century, where they founded friaries and supported evangelization efforts. A notable figure influenced by this tradition was St. Paschal Baylon, a lay brother who joined the Alcantarines in 1564 and exemplified their eucharistic devotion and humility; he was canonized in 1690 by Pope Alexander VIII, highlighting the order's spiritual impact.[33][35][36]Other Traditions
Beyond the prominent Discalced Carmelites and Franciscans, lesser-known branches within Catholicism adopted discalced practices as part of reform efforts emphasizing poverty and austerity. The Discalced Augustinians, a brief reform movement originating in late 16th-century Italy, exemplified this trend. Founded in 1592 in Naples under Fr. Andrew Diaz, the order mandated a rough wool habit and bare feet to symbolize detachment from worldly comforts, drawing from Augustinian ideals of contemplative life and strict observance.[37] By the early 17th century, the movement expanded rapidly, establishing 46 convents across Italy and Central Europe by 1640, with papal support from Urban VIII in 1624 dividing them into provinces focused on silence, recollection, and missionary work.[37] Though short-lived as a unified branch, it influenced local Augustinian houses until achieving autonomy in 1931, maintaining a small presence with approximately 221 members (144 priests) as of 2018.[38] Similarly, the Barefoot Trinitarians emerged as a rigorous reform within the Order of the Most Holy Trinity, prioritizing the redemption of captives through heightened asceticism. Initiated in 1597 in Spain by St. John Baptist of the Immaculate Conception (1561–1613), the group emphasized barefoot observance alongside charity, humility, and prayer, as outlined in their 1599 papal approval brief Ad militantes Ecclesiae by Clement VIII.[39] This discalced congregation founded 18 male convents and one for cloistered nuns, focusing on aiding the poor and prisoners while reviving the founder's rule with greater severity.[39] Unlike the more widespread Carmelite reforms, the Barefoot Trinitarians remained a distinct, smaller entity dedicated to Trinitarian devotion and social outreach.Practices and Symbolism
Barefoot Discipline
The barefoot discipline in discalced traditions historically entailed prohibitions on leather shoes or enclosed footwear, with members wearing only simple sandals—often made of rope or hemp—or, in some cases, going fully unshod to embody austerity.[1][40] These rules, outlined in foundational constitutions, emphasized sandals as the primary footwear, reflecting the simplicity of the impoverished while generally forbidding luxuries like stockings except for modesty.[41] In medieval European climates, where cold and damp conditions prevailed, such practices raised hygiene concerns; members were encouraged to maintain foot cleanliness as part of broader Christian customs like pedilavium to prevent issues from exposure.[42] Daily integration of the barefoot discipline historically permeated routines as an act of penance. Manual labor in fields or gardens was performed in sandals, aligning with the order's emphasis on self-sufficiency and detachment from comfort, often involving tilling soil or tending crops to foster endurance.[43] Liturgical participation involved sandals in the choir, reinforcing the discipline during hours of prayer and Mass, where the simplicity served as a reminder of penitential commitment within the day's horarium.[44] Variations in the barefoot discipline appeared in 16th-century constitutions and later adaptations, allowing permissions for travel or illness to prevent undue hardship; for instance, superiors could dispense with strict rules during long journeys or medical needs, substituting basic protective coverings temporarily while maintaining simplicity.[45] These exceptions balanced rigor with practicality. In contemporary practice, while the symbolism persists, there is no formal requirement for specific footwear, with many communities adopting comfortable sandals.[46]Theological Implications
The discalced practice, entailing the removal of footwear, serves as a profound theological symbol of humility in Christian tradition, echoing the biblical command to Moses at the burning bush: "Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place where you stand is holy ground" (Exodus 3:5). This act signifies reverence before the divine presence, stripping away barriers of worldly status and comfort to approach God in vulnerability and submission. In the context of religious orders, going barefoot or in simple sandals embodies a deliberate posture of spiritual lowliness, aligning the believer with Christ's kenosis, or self-emptying, as described in Philippians 2:7, where Jesus assumes the form of a servant. Theological interpretations emphasize that this humility fosters an intimate encounter with the sacred, reminding practitioners of their dependence on God's grace rather than material protections.[47][48] Beyond immediate reverence, the barefoot vow evokes the eschatological dimension of Christian life as an ongoing pilgrimage toward the heavenly kingdom. It represents the soul's journey through earthly trials, unencumbered by possessions, mirroring the Israelites' exodus and anticipating the eternal rest where no further wandering is needed. In this symbolism, discalced religious embody the "poor in spirit" of the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3), who inherit the kingdom by detaching from temporal securities and fixing their gaze on divine fulfillment. This pilgrimage motif underscores poverty not as mere deprivation but as a dynamic orientation toward ultimate union with God, where the "barefoot" state prefigures the purity and freedom of the redeemed in the new creation.[8][49] Doctrinally, discalced observance integrates with the evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity, and obedience, as reaffirmed in the Second Vatican Council's Decree on the Adaptation and Renewal of Religious Life (Perfectae caritatis, 1965). The document articulates poverty as a sharing in Christ's voluntary impoverishment, requiring religious to live "poor in fact and in spirit," renouncing superfluous goods while cultivating detachment to serve the Church and the needy. This alignment positions the barefoot discipline as an external expression of the counsel of poverty, enhancing the vowed life by promoting simplicity and solidarity with the marginalized, in harmony with the Council's vision of religious as witnesses to the kingdom's values. Chastity and obedience further complement this, forming a holistic consecration that mirrors the Trinity's self-giving love.[50] In 20th-century Catholic theology, the emphasis on literal poverty in religious life, including discalced traditions, contributed to debates over balancing external austerities with interior spirituality, particularly following Vatican II's call for renewal. Traditionalists advocated for tangible practices to maintain Gospel radicalism, while others emphasized spiritual poverty and adaptation to modern needs. These discussions, reflected in documents like Vita consecrata (1996), synthesize material and interior dimensions of poverty.[50][51]Contemporary Usage
Modern Observance
In the 21st century, the Discalced Carmelite Order maintains a global presence with approximately 4,000 friars, 10,000 cloistered nuns, and around 25,000 secular members across more than 80 countries, reflecting steady growth in regions like Asia, Africa, and Latin America—such as new solemn professions in Timor-Leste in June 2025—despite ongoing challenges in Western vocations as of 2025.[52][53][54] While the Alcantarines were historically prominent in Latin America, their strict observances were integrated into the broader Franciscan Order in 1897 and continue to influence austere Franciscan practices emphasizing poverty and missionary work, particularly in Mexico and Brazil amid local Catholic traditions. These demographics underscore the orders' adaptability, with the majority of new members coming from non-European contexts. Following the Second Vatican Council, Discalced communities adapted their barefoot discipline to contemporary needs, permitting simple sandals in urban or apostolic settings while preserving strict barefoot observance in contemplative monasteries to symbolize detachment from worldly comforts.[28] This flexibility, outlined in updated constitutions from the 1990s, balanced the order's penitential roots with practical evangelization, allowing friars and nuns engaged in pastoral roles to navigate modern environments without compromising their charism.[55] Contemporary challenges include declining vocations in established communities, with 87% of U.S. religious orders reporting no perpetual professions in 2023, exacerbated by secular influences like individualism and delayed family formation that deter contemplative commitments.[56] Many Carmelite convents face closures due to aging members and insufficient recruits, such as the San José Convent in Cordoba, Spain, in 2024, prompting consolidations and renewed outreach efforts.[57][58] However, revivals are emerging through integrations with eco-spirituality, where Discalced practices of simplicity and contemplation align with integral ecology, fostering environmental stewardship in line with papal calls like Laudato Si', particularly among Franciscan-inspired groups in Latin America.[59]Cultural Impact
The discalced tradition, symbolizing poverty and detachment from worldly comforts, has profoundly shaped artistic representations of Carmelite saints, particularly in the Baroque era. Gian Lorenzo Bernini's iconic sculpture The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647–1652), housed in Rome's Cornaro Chapel, portrays the Discalced Carmelite mystic Saint Teresa of Ávila in a moment of divine rapture, her bare feet emphasizing the order's commitment to humility and spiritual elevation above material concerns.[60] This work exemplifies how Baroque artists used the barefoot motif to convey intense religious emotion and Counter-Reformation ideals of ascetic devotion. In modern media, the 1986 French film Thérèse, directed by Alain Cavalier, depicts the life of Saint Thérèse of Lisieux, another Discalced Carmelite, highlighting her entry into convent life and the austere practices of the order, including symbolic elements of discalced poverty, to explore themes of simple faith and interior spirituality.[61] In literature, the discalced heritage has influenced explorations of mysticism, with Edith Stein (Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross), a Jewish philosopher who became a Discalced Carmelite nun in 1933, blending phenomenological insight with Carmelite contemplative traditions in works like The Science of the Cross (1941). Stein's writings on empathy, prayer, and union with God drew from the mystical theology of Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, establishing her as a bridge between secular philosophy and Christian mysticism, and her canonization in 1998 by Pope John Paul II underscored her enduring literary impact on spiritual thought.[62] Similarly, the Franciscan emphasis on poverty has informed eco-theological writings, as seen in Leonardo Boff's Cry of the Earth, Cry of the Poor (1995), which integrates Saint Francis of Assisi's radical simplicity—echoed in discalced branches like the Alcantarines—with calls for environmental justice, portraying poverty as a stance of solidarity with the marginalized and creation itself.[63] Beyond art and letters, discalced ideals of poverty and humility have echoed in 20th-century societal movements, inspiring acts of nonviolent protest that symbolize renunciation of power and wealth. The Franciscan tradition of evangelical poverty influenced peace advocates like Dorothy Day of the Catholic Worker Movement (founded 1933), whose demonstrations against war and economic injustice often evoked Saint Francis's example of humble solidarity with the poor, fostering a legacy of grassroots activism rooted in spiritual detachment. This theological symbolism of barefootedness as a call to peace and simplicity briefly underscores how such practices extend discalced influence into broader cultural calls for justice.References
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Canons_and_Decrees_of_the_Council_of_Trent/Session_XXV/Regulars_and_Nuns