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Dombeya
Dombeya
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Dombeya
Pink-ball (Dombeya wallichii) inflorescence
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Subfamily: Dombeyoideae
Genus: Dombeya
Cav. (1786)
Species

Several, see text

Synonyms[1]
  • Acropetalum A.Juss. (1849), nom. superfl.
  • Assonia Cav. (1786)
  • Astrapaea Lindl. (1821)
  • Cavanilla J.F.Gmel. (1792)
  • Hilsenbergia Bojer (1842), nom. illeg.
  • Leeuwenhoeckia E.Mey. ex Endl. (1839), not validly publ.
  • Vahlia Dahl (1787), nom. illeg.
  • Walcuffa J.F.Gmel. (1792)
  • Walkuffa Bruce ex Steud.
  • Xeropetalum Delile (1826)

Dombeya is a flowering plant genus. Traditionally included in the family Sterculiaceae, it is included in the expanded Malvaceae in the APG and most subsequent systematics. These plants are known by a number of vernacular names which sometimes, misleadingly, allude to the superficial similarity of flowering Dombeya to pears or hydrangeas (which are unrelated). Therefore, the genus as a whole is often simply called dombeyas. The generic name commemorates Joseph Dombey (1742–1794), a French botanist and explorer in South America, involved in the notorious "Dombey affair", embroiling scientists and governments of France, Spain, and Britain for more than two years.

Distribution

[edit]

These plants grow chiefly throughout Africa and Madagascar. Madagascar has the majority of species, with approximately 175 native species. 19 are found on the African mainland, with one, Dombeya torrida, also extending into the southwestern Arabian Peninsula.[2] 24 species are native to the Mascarene Islands, of which 23 are endemic to the islands.[3] Dombeya acutangula is native to east Africa, Madagascar, and the Mascarenes, with a disjunct population in Laos in Southeast Asia.[4]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Formerly believed to hold only about 80 species, in the present delimitation, Dombeya is one of the most speciose Malvaceae genera, containing as many as 255 species. Most have been moved here from distinct genera, which are now considered junior synonyms.[5] Some of these might warrant recognition as subgenera, to show the evolutionary and phylogenetic patterns of the numerous dombeyas more clearly.[6] In addition to the synonyms listed here, Astiria is suspected to be a rather distinct derivative of Dombeya and would thus have to be included in the present genus.[6] This requires renaming of species, as A. rosea conflicts with D. rosea, a junior synonym of D. burgessiae. Furthermore, several species have been moved here from related genera that are still valid, namely Pentapetes.[5]

Dombeya of L'Héritier de Brutelle is a synonym of Tourrettia (Bignoniaceae). Dombeya of Lamarck is a synonym of Araucaria.

Selected species

[edit]

There are 197 accepted species of Dombeya.[1] Selected species include:

Dombeya elegans
Dombeya pilosa flowers
Dombeya burgessiae

Formerly placed here

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Dombeya

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Dombeya is a of flowering in the family (formerly classified in Sterculiaceae), comprising approximately 195 species of shrubs and small trees that are primarily native to , with additional diversity in continental tropical and , the (including and ), the , and the . The was named in honor of the French Dombey (1742–1794), who collected in . serves as the center of diversity, hosting over 170 endemic species that often contribute to the canopy of humid and montane forests. Species of Dombeya are typically multi-stemmed shrubs or trees reaching 3–20 meters in height, with simple, alternately arranged leaves and pendulous inflorescences of bisexual flowers featuring five petals and a staminal tube; the fruit is a loculicidal capsule. These typically inhabit humid forests, rainforests, and streamside areas from to elevations of up to 2,250 meters, though some species tolerate drier or montane conditions. Dombeya species exhibit paleotropical distribution patterns reflective of historical biogeographical connections between and the western islands, with evidence of multiple colonizations and radiations, particularly in . The genus is one of the most speciose in , though taxonomic revisions have segregated certain groups (e.g., into the genus Andringitra) based on molecular and morphological data, revealing in broader circumscriptions. Several , such as D. wallichii (known for its large, , ball-like flower clusters), are valued in for their ornamental qualities and are cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including parts of , , and the . In their native habitats, Dombeya play ecological roles in forest ecosystems, supporting through their flowering displays that attract pollinators, while facing threats from habitat loss in biodiversity hotspots like .

Description

Morphology

Dombeya species exhibit a woody , manifesting as trees or shrubs that typically attain heights of 3 to 20 meters, with young growth parts densely covered in stellate hairs that contribute to their characteristic indumentum. These display considerable variation in stature, influenced by environmental factors, but maintain a consistent arborescent or fruticose form across the . The leaves of Dombeya are alternate and simple, frequently palmately lobed or entire, with dimensions ranging from 5 to 25 cm in length and widths up to 31 cm in broader examples. They often feature toothed or serrulate margins, a cordate to rounded base, and prominent venation patterns, including palmate primary veins that enhance structural integrity and aesthetic uniformity within the . Pubescence on surfaces varies from dense on the abaxial side to glabrescent, typically comprising stellate trichomes that are tufted and of varying length. Stems in Dombeya are robust and woody, supporting the plant's upright growth, with bark ranging from smooth and gray in younger individuals to rough and brown in mature specimens. Young twigs are notably pubescent, often with a green to reddish hue and stellate hairs that diminish with age, while the inner bark is fibrous and tenacious, providing mechanical strength. A distinctive anatomical feature observed in some species is the presence of canals in the , which are lysigenous structures aiding in and protection, and also found in related genera within the . These canals, observed in multiple species such as D. acutangula and D. ferruginea, underscore the genus's adaptation to tropical environments. Growth forms within Dombeya show notable diversity, ranging from compact shrubs of 1 to 4 meters in island-endemic taxa to expansive trees exceeding 20 meters in continental , reflecting adaptive plasticity without altering core morphological traits.

Reproduction

Dombeya typically bear inflorescences in the form of terminal or axillary panicles or cymes, measuring 5-30 cm in length and comprising numerous small flowers with diameters of 1-2 cm. These structures often feature peduncles ranging from 15-41 cm long, with bracts that vary in size and persistence across , supporting dense clusters of blooms that enhance visibility to pollinators. The inflorescences display diversity, including pendulous dense cymes in some sections and corymbose or umbellate forms in others, reflecting adaptations to different growth habits within the . The flowers of Dombeya are predominantly bisexual, exhibiting a pentamerous structure with five sepals forming a calyx and five petals that are white, pink, or red, often measuring 8.5-36 mm in length. The androecium consists of numerous stamens—typically 15 fertile ones basally fused into a tube surrounding the —alternating with five staminodes that aid in secondary . The superior is syncarpous with 2-5 locules corresponding to the carpels, topped by a style that may be deeply divided in certain species. These flowers are adapted for through nectariferous tissue on the calyx or petals and attractive scents, promoting visitation by generalist pollinators without specialized mechanisms. While most species are hermaphroditic, some exhibit cryptic with nonfunctional anthers in female flowers, though functional predominates across the . Fruit development in Dombeya results in woody, dehiscent capsules that are globose to depressed-globose, 2-10 mm long, and loculicidal, splitting along the locules to release . Each capsule typically contains 2-6 per locule, which are unwinged in most species but may feature marginal or apical wings in others, facilitating dispersal. Seed dispersal occurs primarily via wind for winged forms, enabling short-distance spread, while unwinged rely on gravity or occasional animal assistance, though no strong zoochory is evident. The are resilient, with barriers overcome under suitable moist conditions, supporting in native habitats. Flowering phenology in Dombeya is often seasonal, typically during the dry or cooler periods in native ranges, such as July-October in or late summer to autumn in . This timing synchronizes reproduction with favorable environmental cues like increased rainfall, promoting synchronized blooming across populations and enhancing success. Fruiting follows shortly after, typically maturing within months, to capitalize on post-flowering moisture for seed viability.

Taxonomy

Classification history

The genus Dombeya was established by Spanish botanist Antonio José de Cavanilles in 1786, honoring French botanist and plant collector Joseph Dombey (1742–1794), who gathered specimens during expeditions in under the patronage of . Cavanilles described the genus in his Monadelphiae Classis Dissertationes Decades, initially placing it within the then-recognized family Sterculiaceae based on morphological features such as the monadelphous stamens and valvate calyx . In 1787, he expanded on this by describing 11 species, distinguishing Dombeya from related genera through characteristics like its persistent petals and stellate pubescence. Early taxonomic treatments treated Dombeya as a distinct within Sterculiaceae, separate from synonyms such as Assonia Cavanilles (1786) and Astrapaea Lindley (1821), which were later reduced to synonymy based on overlapping floral and fruit traits. Other proposed synonyms, including Acropetalum A.Juss. (1849), were deemed superfluous as they did not add novel diagnostic features beyond Cavanilles' original circumscription. Pre-20th-century contributions, such as those by 19th-century botanists like Baillon and Planchon, integrated Dombeya into broader mallow-like groups under Sterculiaceae, emphasizing its tropical woody habit and structure, though without molecular corroboration. A major revision occurred in the late with the transfer of Dombeya and related genera from Sterculiaceae to the expanded sensu lato, driven by molecular phylogenetic analyses of ndhF plastid gene sequences that revealed Sterculiaceae, Bombacaceae, and as nested within . Alverson et al. (1999) specifically highlighted Dombeya as part of the newly recognized subfamily Dombeyoideae. This reclassification was formalized in the (APG) systems, with APG II (2003) endorsing the broadened and APG IV (2016) confirming Dombeyoideae's position within it through expanded multi-gene datasets. Debates on subgeneric divisions, such as the monophyly of sections like Decastemon, persisted into the early , informed by these phylogenetic frameworks but rooted in 19th-century morphological observations.

Current status and subdivisions

Dombeya is classified within the family sensu lato, specifically in the Dombeyoideae, with close phylogenetic relations to genera such as Ruizia and Helmiopsis, particularly evident in Mascarene lineages. As of 2025, the comprises 196 accepted species according to , reflecting ongoing taxonomic refinements in regions like . The is subdivided into subgenera including Dombeya and Xeropetalum, with further sectional divisions based on morphological traits such as floral structure and fruit characteristics, as detailed in the 2012 taxonomic revision by Skema focusing on sections like Decastemon. Molecular phylogenetic analyses, including those by Le Péchon et al. (2015), provide evidence for the of Dombeya sensu stricto, particularly among African and Malagasy species, while highlighting ongoing debates regarding hybrid origins for certain Mascarene taxa within the . Recent revisions have resolved over 50 synonyms, with significant updates in the 2020s from Madagascan floras, including a 2024 nomenclatural re-establishment of section Dombeya and the description of new such as D. scorpioides in 2025, enhancing the clarity of infrageneric boundaries.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The genus Dombeya is primarily distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of and the western , with its core range encompassing , where it exhibits the highest species diversity. Approximately 180 species are endemic to , making it a major center of for the genus within the family. This concentration underscores 's role as a for Dombeya, where the majority of species occur in various forest types across the island. The host a small number of Dombeya species, including D. rosacea. On the African mainland, Dombeya is represented by 19 species, predominantly in eastern tropical moist forests of countries such as and . These species are typically found in lowland and montane forests, contributing to the in these ecosystems. Further afield in the islands, the Mascarene archipelago (including , , and ) hosts about 14 species, of which most are endemic to these volcanic islands, reflecting adaptive radiations in isolated habitats. Additionally, one species, D. torrida, extends beyond Africa into the southern , occurring in and southwestern , marking a notable disjunction in the genus's range. Outlying distributions include D. acutangula, which has a native range spanning eastern Africa and the western islands but features a disjunct introduced population in , , highlighting potential long-distance dispersal events. Despite the genus's name deriving from Joseph Dombey, a French associated with South American explorations, Dombeya has no native presence in the , with all confirmed wild occurrences confined to the tropics. Biogeographic patterns suggest Gondwanan origins for Dombeyoideae, the subfamily containing Dombeya, with vicariance events during the breakup of explaining the split between African mainland and island lineages, followed by diversification.

Environmental preferences

Dombeya species are predominantly adapted to tropical and subtropical climates, where they require high humidity and substantial annual rainfall, typically ranging from 1000 to 3000 mm, to support their growth in humid environments. These plants occur across a broad altitudinal gradient from to approximately 2500 m, allowing them to inhabit diverse elevations within their native ranges. The preferred habitats for Dombeya include moist forests, riverine along watercourses, and montane forests, where consistent moisture and shelter from extreme prevail; however, a subset of extends into edges of drier woodlands, demonstrating some flexibility in less humid settings. In montane areas, particularly in the , favor windward rainforests with elevated precipitation, while others tolerate leeward slopes with comparatively reduced moisture. Soil preferences for Dombeya center on well-drained, fertile loams that are frequently acidic, promoting healthy development and uptake; species in the exhibit tolerance to volcanic-derived soils, which are often -rich but require good drainage to prevent waterlogging. These plants generally perform best in soils with a pH range of 6.0 to 7.0, though some adapt to slightly alkaline conditions. Adaptations within the vary, with a limited number of displaying through deciduousness, as seen in D. rotundifolia, which sheds leaves during dry periods to conserve water. Overall, Dombeya show high sensitivity to , restricting their distribution and cultivation to frost-free zones where temperatures remain above freezing. Microhabitat preferences differ by and location, with many functioning as understory shrubs in dense canopies for protection and moisture retention, while others develop into prominent canopy trees in more open margins to maximize light exposure.

Ecology

Pollination and dispersal

Dombeya species exhibit a range of pollination strategies, predominantly involving insect vectors such as bees and butterflies, which are attracted to the nectar-rich, clustered flowers. For instance, Dombeya rotundifolia draws bees as primary pollinators, facilitating pollen transfer during its flowering period. In some cases, secondary pollen presentation occurs on petals or staminodes, enhancing contact efficiency with visiting insects, as observed in Dombeya cacuminum where pollen accumulates on petal tips after anther dehiscence. Certain species, particularly in Madagascar, show adaptations suggestive of bird pollination, including floral traits like colored nectar guides that may appeal to avian visitors, potentially in combination with bats for nocturnal activity. Breeding systems in the genus are largely , promoting through cross-pollination, though cryptic is common in some taxa where functions are spatially separated within hermaphroditic flowers. experiments on like Dombeya delislei and Dombeya acutangula reveal in many cases, with self- tubes failing to fertilize ovules despite style penetration, while outcrossed pollen yields viable seeds. Low rates of hybridization between are documented, likely due to temporal or spatial isolation in flowering. Flowering often occurs synchronously in mass events following the rainy season, synchronizing visits and boosting across populations, as seen in southern African blooming prolifically after winter rains. Seed dispersal mechanisms vary but are primarily anemochorous in most Dombeya species, aided by winged seeds that enable transport from dehiscent capsules. Taxa with non-winged seeds, such as those in section Hilsenbergia, lack obvious animal rewards, suggesting limited zoochory, though dispersal remains poorly understood in natural settings. In , frugivorous lemurs, such as the red-ruffed lemur (Varecia rubra), contribute to endozoochory for several Dombeya by dispersing intact seeds via scat, promoting regeneration in forest habitats. Seed is typically triggered by moisture availability post-dispersal, with physical in dry-adapted delaying sprouting until favorable wet conditions, as demonstrated in germination trials of Dombeya acutangula where success rates increased under hydrated regimes.

Interactions and threats

Dombeya species form mutualistic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, in nutrient-poor soils typical of their native habitats. Studies on D. torrida demonstrate that AMF inoculation significantly improves seedling growth parameters, including height, girth, and biomass, while also providing protection against root pathogens like Armillaria species. These symbioses are crucial for establishment in degraded or low-fertility environments across Africa and Madagascar. Several Dombeya species exhibit susceptibility to fungal pathogens, including leaf rusts and powdery mildew, which cause leaf spots, premature defoliation, and reduced vigor. herbivores, including , scales, and beetles, damage foliage and stems of Dombeya species, leading to weakened growth and secondary infections like . In island ecosystems, competition from invasive alien exacerbates these pressures by altering availability and conditions in fragmented habitats. Many Dombeya are assessed by the IUCN as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered, primarily due to from human activities. 63% of Madagascar's endemic tree , including numerous Dombeya endemics, are threatened with (as of the 2021 assessment, cited in 2025). Major threats include driven by agricultural expansion and logging, which destroy humid forest habitats, alongside disrupting moisture regimes essential for these moisture-dependent . Invasive further degrade native habitats on islands like by outcompeting Dombeya for resources. Conservation efforts focus on ex-situ preservation in botanic gardens across and the region, where threatened Dombeya species are propagated and stored in seed banks. Reforestation initiatives in incorporate native species in xerophilous forest restoration at sites like Grande Chaloupe to combat habitat loss and support ecosystem recovery.

Species

Diversity and endemism

The genus Dombeya encompasses 196 accepted species, with elevated rates characterizing its diversification in the humid of , , and surrounding islands. This richness reflects the genus's to tropical environments, where ecological opportunities have driven rapid evolutionary divergence. Endemism patterns in Dombeya are strikingly uneven, underscoring the influence of isolation on . Approximately 92% of (around 180 out of 196) are endemic to , with a few additional in the nearby Islands, making the genus a key component of the island's , comprising about 2% of its total diversity. In the , approaches totality, with around 20 largely restricted to these oceanic archipelagos and exhibiting classic insular dynamics. By contrast, remains low on the African mainland, where the remaining tend to be more cosmopolitan within tropical and subtropical regions. Madagascar's eastern rainforests represent the primary evolutionary hotspot for Dombeya, hosting the majority of its diversity through adaptive radiations that followed ancestral colonization from mainland . These radiations have produced clades specialized to humid, forested habitats, with ongoing evident in several unresolved taxa, many of which await formal description. Recent discoveries include new such as D. scorpioides described in 2025. Insular is particularly pronounced in certain lineages, such as the Mascarene radiation, where multiple colonizations from have led to convergent traits like in isolated populations. Phylogenetically, Dombeya traces to an ancient lineage within Dombeyoideae, with the subfamily's crown node dated to approximately 53 million years ago during the Eocene, originating from a broad Paleotropical range. Subsequent diversification accelerated post-Miocene (after 23 million years ago), coinciding with climatic shifts and island formation that facilitated recent divergences and hotspot development in eastern .

Notable species

Dombeya wallichii, commonly known as the pink ball tree or tropical , is a or small native to eastern , where it inhabits rainforests, sublittoral forests, and streamside areas up to 28 meters elevation. It produces clusters of fragrant pink flowers in winter, making it a popular ornamental in tropical and subtropical gardens worldwide, including introduced populations in ; the species also has medicinal applications for treating various ailments. Its restricted wild distribution in a small area of raises concerns for its persistence amid habitat pressures. Dombeya burgessiae, or rosemound, is a versatile shrub or small tree distributed across seasonally dry tropical from to , favoring forest margins, open woodlands, streamsides, rocky outcrops, and semi-evergreen bushland up to 2400 meters altitude. It bears profuse clusters of pink to deep red flowers in late winter to spring, which attract birds such as sunbirds and insects including and , enhancing its role in local networks. This species contributes to flora diversity and is noted for its ecological adaptability in regrowth areas. Dombeya elegans, endemic to the wet tropical forests of in the , grows as an or small reaching 6 to 12 meters, featuring large three-lobed leaves and dense clusters of bright pink, honey-scented flowers from to . Its ornamental appeal stems from these spring blooms, but like many Mascarene endemics, it faces threats from habitat loss and fragmentation, with cryptic complicating reproductive success and conservation efforts. Dombeya acutangula, a small or up to 8 meters tall, has a broad distribution from southward through southern tropical to the Western islands including , , and , with a disjunct population in , ; it thrives in seasonally dry forests and woodlands from 300 to 500 meters . Adaptable to cultivation for ornamental purposes and bark fiber extraction, it demonstrates resilience in fragmented s but is critically reduced in , where habitat loss has left only about 50 wild individuals. Dombeya torrida represents a phytogeographic outlier as a deciduous shrub or tree up to 25 meters, native to Afromontane forests, scrub, bushland, and grasslands in Central and East Africa extending to the Arabian Peninsula including Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia, at elevations of 1600 to 3400 meters. It exhibits adaptations to drier, higher-altitude environments, producing abundant nectar-rich white to pale pink flowers that serve as a primary food source for bees and support honey production. The species' wood is utilized locally for construction and tools, underscoring its socioeconomic value. Among Madagascar's approximately 190 endemic Dombeya species, several face heightened conservation risks due to , including D. wallichii confined to limited coastal areas and others like D. rienanensis from the province, classified as pending further surveys of their humid forest habitats. In Dombeya sect. Decastemon, a 2012 taxonomic revision indicates that 29 Malagasy species are threatened, with seven critically endangered, emphasizing the genus's vulnerability in this . As of 2025, ongoing habitat loss exacerbates these threats.

Human uses

Cultivation

Dombeya species are propagated primarily through seeds, cuttings, and layering. Cuttings root readily in moist, well-drained media, offering a high success rate for clonal reproduction; cuttings are recommended. Layering provides an effective alternative for plants with low branching, encouraging root development in humid environments. These plants thrive in full sun to partial shade, mirroring their native subtropical preferences for dappled light. Optimal temperatures range from 15-30°C, with frost sensitivity below -1°C leading to drop, though recovery occurs in spring; they are suited to USDA zones 10-11. High supports lush growth and blooming, while should be well-drained, fertile, and slightly acidic to neutral, such as a mix of , , and like or to prevent waterlogging. Moderate develops once established, but consistent is essential during active growth. While widely cultivated, species like D. wallichii may become invasive in certain regions, such as . Popular ornamental cultivars include hybrids like Dombeya × cayeuxii, featuring pendulous pink flower clusters and compact form ideal for subtropical gardens, and D. wallichii 'Seminole', a selection with abundant winter blooms and reduced height for smaller landscapes. These varieties enhance horticultural appeal through prolific flowering and nectar-rich displays that attract pollinators. Cultivation challenges involve managing minor pests such as and soft scale insects, which can cause but rarely impact long-term vigor; integrated controls like horticultural oils are recommended. after flowering maintains shape, removes weak wood to prevent breakage, and promotes a single-leader structure for stability, with routine shaping extending to 25-50 years. Globally, Dombeya is widely cultivated in frost-free regions, including for its native ornamental value, subtropical where species like D. cacuminum provide winter interest, and as a specimen or patio . Introduced to in the early , it remains popular in botanical collections and sheltered gardens.

Economic and medicinal applications

Several species of Dombeya provide valuable timber and fiber resources in their native African and Malagasy habitats. The wood of D. torrida is utilized for crafting tool handles, poles, and furniture, while also serving as a source of and in regions like and . In Madagascar, bark fibers from species such as D. burgessiae and D. quinqueseta are extracted to produce ropes, strings, baskets, and cloth, supporting local crafting and binding needs. These applications highlight the genus's role in subsistence economies, though overharvesting poses risks to wild populations. Medicinal uses of Dombeya are well-documented in traditional ethnobotany, particularly involving bark decoctions. For instance, D. rotundifolia bark infusions are employed to treat , , intestinal ulcers, and stomach wounds, often administered orally or as enemas in South African and Kenyan practices. Similarly, the bark of D. torrida addresses , , and abdominal pains, with topical applications for wounds. Pharmacological studies confirm anti-inflammatory effects, with extracts from D. wallichii and D. rotundifolia inhibiting COX-1 by 55–97%, attributed to compounds like and phenolics. Beyond timber and , Dombeya species contribute to support and . Leaves of D. torrida serve as during dry seasons in Ethiopian and Kenyan systems, providing nutrition when herbaceous is scarce. In semi-arid areas, trees like D. cosanii are integrated into mixed crop- systems for shade and , enhancing and nutrient cycling without dominating . Ongoing research underscores the pharmaceutical potential of Dombeya phytochemicals, including such as and in D. wallichii, which exhibit , , and neuroprotective activities suitable for . Studies on D. rotundifolia reveal cardiac glycosides and terpenoids with antihypertensive and properties, prompting calls for sustainable harvesting protocols to balance ethnobotanical demand with conservation. Commercial trade remains limited, primarily local and non-industrial, with cultural uses in Malagasy rituals occasionally incorporating species like D. greveana for spiritual purposes in southwestern communities.

References

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