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Eastern copperhead
Eastern copperhead
Eastern copperhead
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Eastern copperhead
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Viperidae
Genus: Agkistrodon
Species:
A. contortrix
Binomial name
Agkistrodon contortrix
(Linnaeus, 1766)
Synonyms[2]
List
  • Boa contortrix
    Linnaeus, 1766
  • Scytale contortrix
    — Sonnini & Latreille, 1801
  • Scytale Cupreus
    Rafinesque, 1818
  • Scytale cupreus
    — Say, 1819
  • Tisiphone cuprea
    — Fitzinger, 1826
  • [Cenchris] marmorata
    F. Boie, 1827
  • Acontias atrofuscus
    Troost, 1836
  • [Toxicophis atrofuscus]
    — Troost, 1836
  • T[rigonocephalus] cenchris Schlegel, 1837
  • Trigonocephalus Contortrix
    — Holbrook, 1838
  • Trigonocephalus atro-fuscus
    — Holbrook, 1842
  • Cenchris contortrix
    — Gray, 1842
  • Cenchris atrofuscus
    — Gray, 1849
  • Agkistrodon contortrix
    — Baird & Girard, 1853
  • T[rigonocephalus] histrionicus
    A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1853
  • Ancistrodon contortrix
    — Baird, 1854
  • Agkistrodon contorting
    Abbott, 1869 (ex errore)
  • Ancistrodon atrofuscus
    — Cope, 1875
  • Agkistrodon atrofuscus
    — Yarrow, 1882
  • [Ancistrodon contortrix] Var. atrofuscus
    — Garman, 1884
  • Ancistrodon contortrix
    — Boulenger, 1896
  • Agkistrodon contortirix
    Keim, 1914 (ex errore)
  • Agkistrodon mokasen cupreus
    — Gloyd & Conant, 1938
  • Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix
    — Klauber, 1967
  • Ancistrodon contortrix contortrix
    — Schmidt, 1953

The eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix),[3] also known simply as the copperhead, is a widespread species of venomous snake, a pit viper, endemic to eastern North America; it is a member of the subfamily Crotalinae in the family Viperidae.

The eastern copperhead has distinctive, dark brown, hourglass-shaped markings, overlaid on a light reddish brown or brown/gray background. The body type is heavy, rather than slender. Neonates are born with green or yellow tail tips, which progress to a darker brown or black within one year. Adults grow to a typical length (including tail) of 50–95 cm (20–37 in).

In most of North America, the eastern copperhead favors deciduous forest and mixed woodlands. It may occupy rock outcroppings and ledges, but is also found in low-lying, swampy regions. During the winter, it hibernates in dens or limestone crevices, often together with timber rattlesnakes and black rat snakes.[4] The eastern copperhead is known to feed on a wide variety of prey, including invertebrates (primarily arthropods) and vertebrates. Like most pit vipers, the eastern copperhead is generally an ambush predator; it takes up a promising position and waits for suitable prey to arrive.

As a common species within its range, it may be encountered by humans. Unlike other viperids, it often "freezes" instead of slithering away and fleeing, due to its habit of relying on excellent camouflage.[5] Bites occur due to people unknowingly stepping on or near them.[6] Copperhead bites account for half of the treated snake bites in the United States.[7]

Five subspecies have been recognized in the past,[8] but recent genetic analysis has yielded new species information.

Etymology

[edit]

Its generic name is derived from the Greek words ankistron "hook, fishhook" and odon, variant of odous "tooth".[9][10] The trivial name, or specific epithet, comes from the Latin contortus (twisted, intricate, complex), which is usually interpreted to reference the distorted pattern of darker bands across the snake's back, which are broad at the lateral base, but "pinched" into narrow hourglass shapes in the middle at the vertebral area.[11][12]

Description

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Agkistrodon contortrix, detail of head

Adults grow to a typical length (including tail) of 50–95 cm (20–37 in). Some may exceed 1 m (3 ft 3 in), although that is exceptional for this species.[13] Males do not typically exceed 74 to 76 cm (29 to 30 in) and weigh from 101.5 to 343 g (3+9⁄16 to 12+1⁄8 oz), with a mean of roughly 197.4 g (6+15⁄16 oz).[14] Females do not typically exceed 60 to 66 cm (23+1⁄2 to 26 in),[15][16] and have a mean body mass of 119.8 g (4+7⁄32 oz).[17] The maximum length reported for this species is 134.6 cm (53 in) for A. c. mokasen (Ditmars, 1931). Brimley (1944) mentions a specimen of A. c. mokasen from Chapel Hill, North Carolina, that was "four feet, six inches" (137.2 cm), but this may have been an approximation. The maximum length for A. c. contortrix is 132.1 cm (52 in) (Conant, 1958).[11]

The body is relatively stout and the head is broad and distinct from the neck. Because the snout slopes down and back, it appears less blunt than that of the cottonmouth, A. piscivorus. Consequently, the top of the head extends further forward than the mouth.[18]

The escalation includes 21–25 (usually 23) rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 138–157 ventral scales in both sexes, and 38–62 and 37–57 subcaudal scales in males and females, respectively. The subcaudals are usually single, but the percentage thereof decreases clinally from the northeast, where about 80% are undivided, to the southwest of the geographic range where as little as 50% may be undivided. On the head are usually 9 large symmetrical plates, 6–10 (usually 8) supralabial scales, and 8–13 (usually 10) sublabial scales.[11]

The color pattern consists of a pale tan to pinkish-tan ground color that becomes darker towards the foreline, overlaid with a series of 10–18 (13.4) crossbands. Characteristically, both the ground color and crossband pattern are pale in A. c. contortrix. These crossbands are light tan to pinkish-tan to pale brown in the center, but darker towards the edges. They are about two scales wide or less at the midline of the back, but expand to a width of 6–10 scales on the sides of the body. They do not extend down to the ventral scales. Often, the crossbands are divided at the midline and alternate on either side of the body, with some individuals even having more half bands than complete ones. A series of dark brown spots is also present on the flanks, next to the belly, and are largest and darkest in the spaces between the crossbands.

The belly is the same color as the ground color, but may be a little whitish in part. At the base of the tail are one to three (usually two) brown crossbands followed by a gray area. In juveniles, the pattern on the tail is more distinct: 7–9 crossbands are visible, while the tip is yellow. On the head, the crown is usually unmarked, except for a pair of small dark spots, one near the midline of each parietal scale. A faint postocular stripe is also present; diffuse above and bordered below by a narrow brown edge.[18]

Several aberrant color patterns for A. c. contortrix, or populations that intergrade with it, have also been reported. In a specimen described by Livezey (1949) from Walker County, Texas, 11 of 17 crossbands were not joined middorsally, while on one side, three of the crossbands were fused together longitudinally to form a continuous, undulating band, surmounted above by a dark stripe that was 2.0–2.5 scales wide.

In another specimen, from Lowndes County, Alabama, the first three crossbands were complete, followed by a dark stripe that ran down either side of the body, with points of pigment reaching up to the midline in six places, but never getting there, after which the last four crossbands on the tail were also complete. A specimen found in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana had a similar striped pattern, with only the first and last two crossbands being normal.[18]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The eastern copperhead is found in North America; its range within the United States is in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. In Mexico, it occurs in Chihuahua and Coahuila. The type locality is "Carolina". Schmidt (1953) proposed the type locality be restricted to "Charleston, South Carolina".[2]

Unlike some other species of North American pit vipers, such as the timber rattlesnake and massasauga, the copperhead has mostly not re-established itself north of the terminal moraine after the last glacial period (the Wisconsin glaciation),[19] though it is found in southeastern New York and southern New England, north of the Wisconsin glaciation terminal moraine on Long Island.

Eastern copperheads are habitat generalists which are species able to survive in different habitats (fragmented and unfragmented).[20] Within its range, it occupies a variety of different habitats. In most of North America, it favors deciduous forest and mixed woodlands. It is often associated with rock outcroppings and ledges, but is also found in low-lying, swampy regions. During the winter, it hibernates in dens or limestone crevices, often together with timber rattlesnakes and black rat snakes.[4] In the states around the Gulf of Mexico, however, this species is also found in coniferous forest. In the Chihuahuan Desert of West Texas and northern Mexico, it occurs in riparian habitats, usually near permanent or semipermanent water and sometimes in dry arroyos (brooks).[11] Habitat fragmentation has been found to impair Eastern Copperhead access to feeding, brumation, and reproduction sites.[20]

Conservation status

[edit]

This species is classified as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (v3.1, 2001).[1] This means that relative to many other species, it is not at risk of extinction in the near future. The population trend was stable when assessed in 2007.[21] Their venom has potential medicinal value to humans.[22][how?]

Behavior

[edit]

In the Southern United States, copperheads are nocturnal during the hot summer, but are commonly active during the day during the spring and fall. Unlike other viperids, they often "freeze" instead of slithering away, and as a result, many bites occur due to people unknowingly stepping on or near them.[6] This tendency to freeze most likely evolved because of the extreme effectiveness of their camouflage. When lying on dead leaves or red clay, they can be almost impossible to notice. They frequently stay still even when approached closely, and generally strike only if physical contact is made. Generally nonaggressive, will only strike if threatened as a last resort.[23] Like most other New World vipers, copperheads exhibit defensive tail vibration behavior when closely approached. This species is capable of vibrating its tail in excess of 40 times per second— faster than almost any other non-rattlesnake snake species.[5]

Diet and feeding behavior

[edit]
Copperhead swallowing a cicada.
Eating a DeKay's brown snake

The eastern copperhead is a diet generalist and is known to feed on a wide variety of prey, including invertebrates (primarily arthropods) and vertebrates. A generalized ontogenetic shift in the diet occurs, with juveniles feeding on higher percentages of invertebrates and ectotherms, and adults feeding on a higher percentage vertebrate endotherms. Both juveniles and adults, though, feed on invertebrates and vertebrates opportunistically. The diet is also known to vary among geographic populations.[18]: 128–130 p. [11]: 254–255 p. [24]: 181–184 p. 

Eating a northern slimy salamander

Studies conducted at various locations within the range of the eastern copperhead (A. contortrix), including Tennessee,[25] Kentucky,[26] Kansas,[27] and Texas,[28] identified some consistently significant prey items included cicadas (Tibicen), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), lizards (Sceloporus and Scincella), voles (Microtus), and mice (Peromyscus). Accounts of finding large numbers of copperheads in bushes, vines, and trees seeking newly emerged cicadas, some as high as 40 feet above ground, have been reported from Texas by various herpetologists.[18]: 130 p. [29][30]: 347–348 p. 

Other items documented in the diet include various invertebrates, e.g. millipedes (Diplopoda), spiders (Arachnida), beetles (Coleoptera), dragonflies (Odonata), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), and mantids (Mantidae), as well as numerous species of vertebrates, including salamanders, frogs, lizards, snakes, small turtles, small birds, young opossums, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, bats, shrews, moles, rats, and mice.[11]: 254–255 p. [24]: 181–184 p. 

Like most pit vipers, the eastern copperhead is generally an ambush predator; it takes up a promising position and waits for suitable prey to arrive. One exception to ambush foraging occurs when copperheads feed on insects such as caterpillars and freshly molted cicadas. When hunting insects, copperheads actively pursue their prey.[31] They possess facial pit organs which is a complex infrared-imaging system that allows accurate and precise strikes on potential prey.[32] Juveniles use a brightly colored tail to attract frogs and perhaps lizards, a behavior termed caudal luring (see video: [1]). Sight, odor, and heat detection are used in locating prey, although after the prey has been envenomated, odor and taste become the primary means of tracking. Smaller prey items and birds are often seized and held in the mouth until dead, while larger prey items are typically bitten, released, and then tracked until dead. Copperheads occasionally feed on carrion. Gravid females typically fast, although some individuals occasionally take small volumes of food.[11]: 254–255 p. [24]: 181–184 p.  An individual may eat up to twice its body mass in a year. One study found an individual that ate eight times during an annual activity period, totaling 1.25 times its body mass.[33]

Predators of the eastern copperhead are not well known, but may include owls, hawks, opossums, bullfrogs, and other snakes. They will use anti-predatory behaviors to discourage predators. These include: move away or flee, musking, tail vibrating, mouth gaping, or curling up into a camouflage pile.[22][34]

Reproduction

[edit]

Eastern copperheads breed in late summer, but not every year; sometimes, females produce young for several years running, then do not breed at all for a time. Mating is sometimes preceded by male combat.[35] In male combat, losing experience had a greater effect than SVL in winning access to females.[36] Females give birth to live young, each of which is about 20 cm (8 in) in total length. The typical litter size is four to seven, but as few as one, or as many as 20 may be seen. Females are capable of storing sperm for up to a year.[37] Their size apart, the young are similar to the adults, but lighter in color, and with a yellowish-green-marked tip to the tail, which is used to lure lizards and frogs.

A. contortrix males have longer tongue tie lengths than females during the breeding season, which may aid in chemoreception of males searching for females.[38]

Facultative parthenogenesis

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Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. A. contortrix can reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, that is, they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode.[39] The type of parthenogenesis that likely occurs is automixis with terminal fusion, a process in which two terminal products from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process leads to genome-wide homozygosity, expression of deleterious recessive alleles, and often to developmental failure (inbreeding depression). Both captive-born and wild-born A. contortrix snakes appear to be capable of this form of parthenogenesis.[39]

Venom

[edit]

Although venomous, eastern copperheads are generally not aggressive and bites are rarely fatal.[40] Copperhead venom has an estimated lethal dose around 100 mg, and tests on mice show its potency is among the lowest of all pit vipers, and slightly weaker than that of its close relative, the cottonmouth.[41] Copperheads often employ a "warning bite" when stepped on or agitated and inject a relatively small amount of venom, if any at all. "Dry bites" involving no venom are particularly common with the copperhead, though all pit vipers are capable of a dry bite.[42] The fangs of dead pit vipers are capable of delivering venom in amounts that necessitate the use of antivenom.[43]

Bite symptoms include extreme pain, tingling, throbbing, swelling, and severe nausea. Damage can occur to muscle and bone tissue, especially when the bite occurs in the outer extremities such as the hands and feet, areas in which a large muscle mass is not available to absorb the venom. A bite from any venomous snake should be taken very seriously and immediate medical attention sought, as an allergic reaction and secondary infection are always possible.[44]

The venom of the southern copperhead has been found to hold the protein contortrostatin that halts the growth of cancer cells in mice and also stops the migration of the tumors to other sites.[45] However, this is an animal model, and further testing is required to verify safety and efficacy in humans.[46]

The antivenom CroFab is used to treat copperhead envenomations that demonstrate localized or systemic reactions to the venom. As many copperhead bites can be dry (no envenomation), CroFab is not given in the absence of a reaction (such as swelling) due to the risk of complications of an allergic reaction to the treatment.[47] The antivenom can cause an immune reaction called serum sickness. Pain management, tetanus immunization, laboratory evaluation, and medical supervision in the case of complications are additional courses of action.[48] In 2002, an Illinois poison control center report on the availability of antivenom stated it used 1 Acp to 5 Acp depending on the symptoms and circumstances. Antivenom use however may not be necessary in the majority of cases, A study that analyzed 88 copperhead bite victims reported that all the victims survived and none required antivenom.[40]

Subspecies

[edit]

This species was long considered to contain five subspecies listed below, but gene analysis suggests that A. c. laticinctus represents its own distinct species, while A. c. mokasen and A. c. phaeogaster are regional variants of A. c. contortrix, and A. c. pictigaster is a regional variant of A. c. laticinctus.[49]

Five subspecies have been recognized in the past,[8] but recent genetic analysis shows that A c. contorix and two of the subspecies are monotypic, while Agkistrodon laticinctus (formerly Agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus) and the fifth subspecies are a single distinct species.

Previous taxonomy[8][18] Current taxonomy[49] Geographic range[49]
Southern copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix

(Linnaeus, 1766)

Eastern copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix

(Linnaeus, 1766)

The United States: east Texas, east Oklahoma, extreme eastern Kansas, and extreme southeastern Nebraska, eastward to the Atlantic coast; north to extreme southeast Iowa, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, Pennsylvania, southeast New York, Massachusetts, and parts of Connecticut; absent from southern Georgia and the Florida Peninsula.
Broad-banded copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus

Gloyd & Conant, 1934

Broad-banded copperhead

Agkistrodon laticinctus

Gloyd & Conant, 1934

In the United States from eastern Kansas, southwest through central Oklahoma, central and Trans-Pecos, Texas and neighboring areas of northern Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico.
Northern copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen

Palisot de Beauvois, 1799

Eastern copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix

The United States, in southern Illinois, extreme northeastern Mississippi, northern Alabama, northern Georgia northeast to Massachusetts, the Appalachian Mountain region and associated plateaus
Osage copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix phaeogaster

Gloyd, 1969

Eastern copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix

The United States, in eastern Kansas, extreme southeastern Nebraska and a large part of Missouri
Trans-Pecos copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix pictigaster

Gloyd & Conant, 1943

Broad-banded copperhead

Agkistrodon laticinctus

The Trans-Pecos region of western Texas and adjacent areas of northern Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico.
[edit]
  • Head of copperhead photographed in Rheinberger Terra-Zoo, Germany.
    Head of copperhead photographed in Rheinberger Terra-Zoo, Germany.
  • Eastern copperhead, A. contortrix, at the southern limit of its range, in Liberty Co., Florida, camouflaged in dead leaves.
    Eastern copperhead, A. contortrix, at the southern limit of its range, in Liberty Co., Florida, camouflaged in dead leaves.
  • Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) from Liberty Co., Texas (30 March 2007).
    Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) from Liberty Co., Texas (30 March 2007).
  • A copperhead from Jefferson Co., Missouri with yellow tail typical of juveniles (2 Sept. 2018).
    A copperhead from Jefferson Co., Missouri with yellow tail typical of juveniles (2 Sept. 2018).
  • Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) from Georgetown Co., South Carolina (23 August 2013).
    Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) from Georgetown Co., South Carolina (23 August 2013).
  • Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) Jefferson Co., Missouri (5 April 2015: 67 °F) were previously classified as "Osage copperhead" (Agkistrodon contortrix phaeogaster).
    Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) Jefferson Co., Missouri (5 April 2015: 67 °F) were previously classified as "Osage copperhead" (Agkistrodon contortrix phaeogaster).
  • Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) Westchester County, New York (May 2002). Northern populations, typically darker, were previously classified as A. c. mokasen.
    Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) Westchester County, New York (May 2002). Northern populations, typically darker, were previously classified as A. c. mokasen.
  • View of the ventral, or belly, pattern of a copperhead.
    View of the ventral, or belly, pattern of a copperhead.

References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Eastern copperhead

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is a medium-sized venomous native to the , recognized for its stout body, heat-sensing facial pits, and distinctive pattern of reddish-brown hourglass-shaped bands on a light brown, tan, or pinkish background that provide excellent in leaf litter. Adults typically measure 24–36 inches in length, though they can reach up to 53 inches, with a coppery-red head, vertical elliptical pupils, and weakly keeled dorsal scales. Young copperheads often have a bright tail tip used to lure prey. The species is viviparous, giving birth to live young rather than laying eggs. This species inhabits a wide variety of terrestrial environments across its range, including and mixed forests, rocky wooded hillsides, brushy areas near streams, swamps, old fields, and even suburban edges with ground cover, preferring moist, shaded sites with abundant leaf litter for . Its distribution spans from southern (including ) southward to the and west to eastern and parts of , with populations generally more abundant in the southeastern states and sparser in the northern and western extremes. Eastern copperheads are primarily nocturnal during warm months but may be active during cooler periods or at , exhibiting predation behavior where they remain motionless and strike at passing small mammals like mice and voles, as well as frogs, , insects, birds, and occasionally other snakes. They are not aggressive toward humans, relying on to avoid detection, and bites occur mainly when the snake is accidentally stepped on or handled, with their hemotoxic causing localized pain, swelling, and tissue damage but rarely fatalities—estimated at less than 0.01% with prompt medical care. occurs in spring or fall, with females giving birth to litters of 3–11 young every one to two years after a period of about six months, contributing to population stability in suitable habitats. Ecologically, copperheads play a key role in controlling populations, and while common in many areas, they face threats from habitat loss and are protected in several states to prevent unnecessary .

Taxonomy

Etymology

The common name "copperhead" derives from the snake's distinctive coppery-brown head coloration, a feature noted in early American English descriptions from 1775 onward. The scientific name Agkistrodon contortrix was established through taxonomic revisions, with the genus Agkistrodon originating from the Greek words ankistron (ἄγκιστρον), meaning "hook" or "fishhook," and odōn (ὀδών), meaning "tooth," referring to the species' hinged fangs. The specific epithet contortrix comes from the Latin contortus, meaning "twisted" or "intricate," alluding to the snake's sinuous body shape or the twisted appearance of its dorsal pattern. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 under the name Boa contortrix, based on a specimen from Carolina, and was later reclassified into the genus Crotalus before its current placement in Agkistrodon.

Classification

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is a venomous snake classified in the family Viperidae, which encompasses true vipers and pit vipers distributed worldwide except in Australia and Antarctica, and specifically within the subfamily Crotalinae, known as the pit vipers for their heat-sensing facial pits. This subfamily is characterized by loreal pits that aid in prey detection and is predominantly New World in distribution, with A. contortrix representing a key North American member. Within the genus Agkistrodon, which comprises about eight species of semiaquatic to terrestrial pit vipers primarily in the and eastern , the Eastern copperhead shares close evolutionary ties with species such as the cottonmouth (), a semiaquatic species widespread in the , and the cantil (), found in Central and northern . Phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers place A. contortrix in a with these relatives, reflecting shared adaptations like hemotoxic and ambush strategies. Molecular phylogenetic studies, incorporating fossil calibrations, estimate that the lineage leading to A. contortrix diverged from other Agkistrodon species approximately 5–7 million years ago in the Late Miocene, based on the earliest fossil records of the genus from North American sediments dated to around 5 million years ago. Historical taxonomic revisions have refined the classification of A. contortrix, notably through a 2015 genetic study that elevated the broad-banded copperhead () to full species status from its prior subspecies designation under A. contortrix, using methods to account for and delimit lineages despite hybridization in contact zones. This reclassification, supported by multi-locus data, underscores the role of Pleistocene climate fluctuations in driving diversification within the .

Subspecies

The taxonomy of the Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) has undergone significant revision in recent years, with current classifications generally not recognizing distinct subspecies within the species due to insufficient genetic differentiation among populations. However, historical delineations persist in some references, identifying two primary forms: the nominate southern copperhead (A. c. contortrix) and the northern copperhead (A. c. mokasen), while treating the Osage copperhead (A. c. phaeogaster) as a regional variant or synonym of the southern form. A notable taxonomic change occurred in 2015, when genetic analyses using multi-locus nuclear data elevated the broad-banded copperhead (A. c. laticinctus) from to full status as Agkistrodon laticinctus, highlighting deep phylogenetic divergence and limited gene flow with A. contortrix. This reclassification was supported by coalescent-based species delimitation methods that accounted for potential gene flow, confirming the broad-banded form's distinct evolutionary lineage across its range in central and southwestern , , and . The southern copperhead (A. c. contortrix) occupies much of the eastern and , extending from southern and New York southward through and westward to eastern and . In contrast, the northern copperhead (A. c. mokasen) is restricted to the northern and central portions of the range, from and westward to and southward to northern , Georgia, and . The Osage variant (A. c. phaeogaster) occurs in the more westerly central regions, including , , , and eastern Oklahoma, often overlapping with the southern form. Distinctions among these forms are primarily morphological and subtle, involving variations in scale counts—such as slightly higher average ventral scales (around 145–152) in northern populations compared to southern ones (138–148)—and differences in dorsal band widths, where northern individuals exhibit broader, more saddle-like patterns relative to the narrower bands in southern specimens. These traits show clinal variation and considerable overlap, supporting the modern view of limited subspecific validity.

Description

Morphology

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is a medium-sized characterized by a robust, heavy-bodied build. Adults typically attain an average length of 61–91 cm (24–36 in), with males generally reaching greater overall lengths than females due to . The maximum recorded total length for the species is 134 cm (53 in), though such extremes are rare and most individuals are smaller. The body features a stocky form covered in weakly keeled dorsal scales arranged in 21–25 rows at midbody, providing a textured surface typical of pit vipers. The tail constitutes 12–18% of the total length and is proportionally longer in males, contributing to the observed dimorphism. The head is distinctly triangular and broader than the neck, housing vertical slit-like pupils and a pair of heat-sensing loreal pits located between the eye and , which enable detection of prey. As a solenoglyphous viper, the Eastern copperhead possesses hinged, hollow fangs at the front of the upper that fold against the when not in use and extend during ; these fangs measure up to approximately 1.3 cm in length in adults. The ventral scales number 138–157, with 37–62 subcaudals in males and 37–57 in females, and the anal plate is undivided.

Coloration and pattern

The Eastern copperhead exhibits a distinctive coloration consisting of a light tan, pinkish-tan, or grayish-brown background overlaid with 10-22 hourglass-shaped dorsal bands of darker tan to chestnut brown, which are narrow along the spine and widen toward the sides. These bands often have pale edges and may include small dark spots between them, creating a pattern that effectively mimics the contours of fallen leaves in environments. The head is typically coppery-reddish or tan, unmarked on top, with a thin dark postocular stripe extending from the eye toward the mouth, while the tail ends in a darker tip that becomes more pronounced in adults. In juveniles, the coloration and pattern are more vivid, with the same hourglass bands appearing bolder against the lighter background, and a bright sulfur-yellow tail tip that serves as a caudal lure to attract prey such as amphibians and by mimicking a . This yellow tip fades as the snake matures, transitioning to the darker adult coloration. Regional variations include narrower dorsal bands in southern populations, potentially corresponding to historical subspecies designations, though genetic studies as of 2014 indicate limited distinctiveness and support recognition of only two in the complex (A. contortrix and A. laticinctus). The overall pattern provides superior against visual predators, such as birds and mammals, by blending seamlessly with leaf litter and rocky substrates in forests, reducing detection during .

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is native to the , with a distribution extending from southern , including , southward through the and regions to northern Florida's Panhandle, and westward to eastern , southern , eastern , and extreme southeastern . In Florida, populations are restricted to the western Panhandle along the and its tributaries, marking the southeastern limit of its range. The species is absent from extreme northern states, such as , , , and much of the , primarily due to its physiological intolerance to prolonged cold temperatures, which hinder successful and survival during winter. Historically, post-Pleistocene glacial retreat facilitated northward expansion from southern refugia, allowing populations to colonize forest-dominated landscapes across the core of its current range. modeling predicts potential northward range expansions due to warming, as suggested by a 2016 study. Within this expansive range, the snake primarily inhabits forested environments, though it adapts to varied types.

Habitat preferences

The eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) primarily inhabits rocky, wooded hillsides and or mixed forests, where it seeks cover under leaf litter, logs, and for and . These snakes also favor swamp edges and floodplains in the southern portions of their range, utilizing brush piles and downed vegetation in moist, lowland environments. In managed pine-hardwood forests, they select microhabitats with deeper leaf litter and greater woody debris cover, avoiding more open or heavily disturbed areas that lack such concealment. While eastern copperheads generally avoid open grasslands due to their reliance on cryptic foraging, they show tolerance for suburban edges, abandoned fields, and anthropogenic sites like old farm buildings or spoil berms, where prey and cover remain available. In urban-adjacent forests, they adapt to low-level human disturbances, using edge habitats near developments for hunting and shelter. Their elevational range spans from near to over 1,500 meters, encompassing varied terrains from coastal lowlands to Appalachian hills. Seasonally, eastern copperheads migrate to rocky outcrops, crevices, or south-facing ledges for communal in winter, often sharing dens with other snake species before dispersing to forested or areas in spring. Gravid females may remain closer to these warmer rocky sites for . They depend on moist soils in creek-adjacent brush or mesic woodlands to facilitate hunting amphibians and other prey that thrive in such conditions.

Conservation

Status

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is classified as Least Concern on the of Threatened Species, an assessment originally conducted in 2007 that remains unchanged based on stability evaluations in reviews up to 2025. This status reflects the species' wide distribution across eastern and its relative abundance in suitable habitats, with no evidence of substantial population reductions. The adult is considered large, estimated at 100,000 to over 1,000,000 individuals, with a long-term decline of 10-30% but no evidence of substantial population reductions threatening its status, supported by consistent occurrence records and estimates from various regions. Herpetological surveys, including long-term monitoring in states like and , report stable population densities, typically ranging from 6 to 13 individuals per in optimal forest areas. Legal protections vary by jurisdiction; the species is fully protected in northern peripheral areas such as , where it is listed as endangered due to restricted populations, as well as Threatened in and . It faces no regulations in most southern and central states within its core range.

Threats and conservation efforts

The Eastern copperhead faces several primary threats across its range, primarily driven by human activities. and loss due to and development have led to declines in local populations by isolating suitable habitats and reducing connectivity for dispersal. Road mortality is a significant concern, as copperheads frequently cross roads during seasonal movements to foraging areas or hibernation sites, resulting in high rates of vehicle-induced fatalities, particularly in spring and late summer. Additionally, illegal collection for the pet trade and direct human persecution, often stemming from fear or misidentification of non-venomous , contribute to population reductions, especially in peripheral areas like . The is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, but these localized threats underscore the need for targeted management. An emerging issue is the potential impact of on hibernation sites and prey availability. Warmer winters and altered patterns may disrupt traditional hibernation cues and site suitability, potentially leading to mismatched emergence times and increased energy expenditure for the snakes. Changes in local climate could also affect the abundance and distribution of prey species, such as small mammals and amphibians, thereby influencing success and overall , emphasizing the importance of maintaining landscape connectivity. Conservation efforts for the Eastern copperhead focus on mitigating these threats through protection and public engagement. Protected areas, including national forests and state conservation lands, safeguard key s such as rocky woodlands and wetlands, with initiatives to expand public holdings and easements in prime sites to prevent further fragmentation. programs aim to reduce by promoting awareness of the snake's ecological role and safe coexistence, including response teams that handle human-snake encounters without harm. restoration projects restore degraded areas and create corridors to enhance connectivity, as recommended by viability models that prioritize stepping-stone s and barrier for long-term persistence.

Behavior

Activity patterns

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) exhibits variable activity patterns influenced by temperature and season, shifting from primarily diurnal behavior in cooler months to nocturnal or crepuscular activity during hot summers to avoid excessive heat./CopperheadFactSheet.pdf) In the hottest periods, such as June through August, individuals become predominantly nocturnal, while crepuscular activity—peaking at dawn and dusk—is common year-round, particularly in moderate conditions. This flexibility allows the snake to optimize and reduce exposure to predators and environmental stress. Seasonally, Eastern copperheads are active from approximately to across much of their range, entering in mid- to late October and emerging between early to mid-. They overwinter in communal dens, often shared with other snake species, located on rocky slopes, talus fields, or south- and west-facing outcrops that provide stable microclimates. Upon emergence, individuals frequently engage in basking on exposed rocks or logs to elevate their body temperature and prepare for the active season. These post-hibernation basking sessions are crucial for metabolic recovery and initiating foraging and mating activities. Movement patterns reflect these rhythms, with daily displacements typically ranging from 0 to 450 meters, though most are short (0-5 meters), indicating a preference for site fidelity within preferred habitats like upland forests. A 2025 study by Stratton and Richter found that prior capture history—such as repeated handling in recreational areas—significantly influences site fidelity and overall movement in Eastern copperheads, with previously captured individuals showing increased return rates and higher site fidelity at high-disturbance sites, potentially indicating to human presence. These patterns align with timing, as crepuscular and nocturnal activity often coincides with peak prey availability in leaf litter and vegetation.

Defensive behaviors

The Eastern copperhead's primary defensive strategy relies on , where its hourglass-shaped banding pattern blends seamlessly with leaf litter and forest floor debris, allowing it to remain undetected by predators. When potential threats approach, the snake typically freezes in place, showing no visible movement until direct physical contact occurs, which was observed in approximately 80% of individuals during staged trials. This immobility enhances its effectiveness, minimizing the need for more active responses. If detection seems imminent, copperheads may vibrate their tail rapidly against the substrate, producing a buzzing sound that mimics the rattle of a to deter approaching threats. This is particularly prominent in juveniles, serving as an auditory warning signal before escalating to physical action. In response to closer threats, the snake may flatten its body to appear larger and more intimidating, or gape its mouth to expose its fangs, signaling readiness to strike. Actual strikes are rare, occurring in only about 3-4% of encounters during behavioral studies, often as feints rather than full bites. For evasion, copperheads frequently retreat rapidly into nearby cover, such as under rocks or logs, with movement away from the stimulus observed in up to 40% of trials and full flight in 50%. These tactics underscore the species' preference for avoidance over confrontation, contributing to its generally docile reputation despite its venomous nature.

Ecology

Diet and foraging

The eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is a carnivorous snake with a diet that varies ontogenetically, reflecting changes in body size and hunting capabilities. Adults primarily consume small mammals such as mice ( spp.), voles ( spp.), and (Sorex spp.), which constitute the bulk of their prey, though they occasionally feed on amphibians like frogs and salamanders, , small birds, and large . Juveniles, with smaller gape sizes, target a broader range of ectothermic prey including (particularly caterpillars), frogs, salamanders, and , alongside emerging small mammals and occasional birds; over 30 distinct prey items have been documented across populations. This shift from ectotherms in young individuals to endotherms in adults is evident in dietary analyses from northeastern , where neonates and juveniles rarely consume due to physical constraints. Eastern copperheads employ an ambush predation strategy, coiling patiently in camouflaged positions amid leaf litter or rocky cover to await passing prey, often striking and injecting to immobilize it before consumption. They rely on specialized heat-sensing pits located between the eye and to detect the infrared radiation from prey, even in low-light conditions, guiding precise strikes from distances up to several body lengths. Juveniles enhance this tactic through , rapidly vibrating their bright yellow tail tips—which mimic wriggling insects or worms—to attract amphibians and arthropods within striking range. Dietary composition exhibits seasonal variation, with increased reliance on amphibians such as frogs and salamanders during wetter periods when these prey are more active and abundant on the . This aligns with the snake's primarily nocturnal or crepuscular activity patterns, allowing opportunistic hunts during periods of heightened prey availability.

Predators and interactions

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is preyed upon by a variety of birds, mammals, and reptiles throughout its range. Avian predators include hawks, , and other that detect and capture copperheads during activities. Larger snakes, such as eastern kingsnakes (Lampropeltis getula) and black racers (Coluber constrictor), actively hunt and consume copperheads, often overpowering them through constriction. Mammalian predators encompass raccoons (Procyon lotor) and other medium-sized carnivores that opportunistically feed on copperheads, particularly juveniles. In response to these threats, copperheads primarily rely on and immobility to evade detection, though they may also employ defensive displays if discovered. Beyond direct predation, the Eastern copperhead engages in interspecific interactions with co-occurring snakes that share similar prey resources, potentially resulting in for food in shared habitats. As a mid-level predator, the Eastern copperhead contributes significantly to dynamics by regulating populations of small mammals, particularly that serve as primary prey and can impact and transmission if unchecked. This top-down control helps maintain balance in and communities where copperheads are abundant. Eastern copperheads exhibit notable communal behaviors during , often sharing dens or rocky crevices with other snake species, including timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) and black rat snakes. These overwintering aggregations provide thermal benefits and protection from harsh winter conditions, fostering indirect ecological interactions among species in northern portions of the range.

Reproduction

Mating and breeding

Eastern copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix) mate primarily in spring shortly after emerging from and secondarily in late summer or early fall, aligning with their seasonal activity patterns. During these periods, males compete for access to receptive females through ritualized , in which they raise their anterior bodies off the ground, intertwine, and twist against each other in a non-lethal struggle to establish dominance; the victor typically gains priority rights. This agonistic behavior, observed in both wild and captive populations, is influenced by body size and prior fighting experience, with larger males often prevailing. Females store from these matings over winter, with and fertilization occurring in spring, leading to a viviparous reproductive mode. lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which females give birth to live young in late summer, typically from to . Litters average 5-8 neonates but can range from 2 to 10, or occasionally up to 20 in larger females, with offspring measuring about 20 cm in length at birth and possessing a bright yellow tail for . Breeding is generally biennial due to the high energetic costs of as capital breeders, though annual cycles may occur in resource-rich environments. Individuals reach at around 4 years of age. No is provided post-partum; neonates are fully independent upon birth, dispersing shortly after their first , which may occur within a few days while briefly near the mother.

Facultative parthenogenesis

Facultative , the ability of females to produce without fertilization by males, has been documented in the Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix), a viviparous where is the primary mode. This asexual reproductive strategy was first observed in wild populations in 2012, marking the initial confirmation of such events in free-ranging vertebrates. Researchers identified a parthenogenetic in one out of 22 pregnant female copperheads from wild-collected populations in , where males were present, challenging prior assumptions that this process occurs only in isolation. Verification relied on microsatellite DNA genotyping, which revealed that offspring were homozygous for all maternal alleles, confirming their parthenogenetic origin without paternal contribution (probability of observed homozygosity by chance: p = 7.989 × 10⁻¹⁶). The mechanism involves terminal fusion automixis, in which the egg's second fuses with the reduced ovum to restore diploidy, resulting in male progeny that are essentially half-clones of the and exhibit genome-wide homozygosity. An independent captive study in further supported this capability, where a copperhead isolated for nine years produced a stillborn neonate and infertile ova, with genetic analysis excluding . This reproductive mode appears at low frequency in Eastern copperheads, occurring primarily in isolated females but also sporadically in wild settings. While it enables in male-scarce environments, the resulting homozygosity can express deleterious recessive alleles, potentially limiting long-term viability; however, it may facilitate initial population establishment and persistence in small, fragmented habitats, thereby supporting conservation efforts for this .

Venom and human interactions

Venom properties

The venom of the Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is predominantly hemotoxic, consisting mainly of enzymatic proteins that target vascular and tissue integrity. Key components include snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), which comprise about 30% of the and primarily belong to the P-I class; these enzymes induce local tissue damage via mechanisms such as hemorrhage, , and myonecrosis by degrading and basement membranes. Additionally, phospholipases A2 (PLA2, ~38% of the ) and serine proteinases (~16%) contribute to and disruption of , leading to through fibrinolytic and effects without notable procoagulant activity. The average dry venom yield per extraction ranges from 40 to 75 mg, reflecting the snake's capacity for defensive or predatory . Toxicity is moderate, with an intraperitoneal LD50 in mice of approximately 10.5 mg/kg, underscoring its evolutionary tuning for subduing small prey rather than delivering overwhelmingly lethal doses. This potency supports immobilization through progressive tissue disruption over instantaneous neurotoxic . From an evolutionary perspective, the venom's composition has adapted to enhance prey immobilization in an foraging context, where rapid killing is less critical than sustained debilitation of small mammals, amphibians, and arthropods. Geographic variation in SVMP and PLA2 profiles correlates with local prey defenses, enabling reciprocal adaptations that improve efficacy; copperheads use vomeronasal chemoreception to distinguish and preferentially target envenomated prey, optimizing energy use in hunting. A notable disintegrin in the , contortrostatin—a homodimeric protein derived from prothrombin —binds αvβ3 and α5β1 to inhibit endothelial and , thereby suppressing tumor progression in xenografts in mice. Ongoing research as of 2025 explores its formulation for targeted anticancer therapies, leveraging its anti-metastatic properties without broad .

Bites and medical significance

The Eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) accounts for approximately 40-50% of all venomous snakebites in the United States, with an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 cases reported annually to poison control centers. These bites are overwhelmingly non-fatal, with a approaching zero, as the venom's potency is relatively low compared to other pit vipers, and timely medical intervention is effective. Most incidents occur in the snake's endemic range across the eastern and central U.S., often involving accidental encounters during outdoor activities like or , and affect extremities such as hands or feet. Bites typically produce localized symptoms that manifest within minutes to hours, including immediate pain, swelling, , and ecchymosis at the site, with blistering or bullae formation in about 10-20% of cases. is uncommon but can occur in untreated or severe envenomations, leading to tissue damage that may require . Systemic effects are rare and mild, potentially involving , , or minor such as prolonged , but severe hemorrhage or organ failure is exceptional. The , a hemotoxic mixture primarily causing tissue destruction and mild hemostatic disruption, contributes to these effects without significant . Management prioritizes rapid transport to a medical facility, where the bitten limb should be immobilized below heart level to minimize spread, per 2024 guidelines from toxicology experts emphasizing conservative immobilization over outdated pressure bandaging techniques, which are contraindicated for envenomations. Supportive care includes pain control with opioids or NSAIDs, wound monitoring, and elevation to reduce swelling; antivenom such as (CroFab) is reserved for moderate-to-severe cases with progressive symptoms, reducing long-term morbidity like . Prevention focuses on awareness in copperhead habitats, such as wearing protective footwear and avoiding dense underbrush, while misidentification with non-venomous mimics like the Eastern ratsnake or wormsnake can lead to unnecessary panic or harm to harmless species.

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