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Photo from the 1930s by Wilhelm Willinger

Herbert Graf (10 April 1903 – 5 April 1973) was an Austrian-American opera producer. Born in Vienna in 1903, he was the son of Max Graf (1873–1958), and Olga Hönig. His father was an Austrian author, critic, musicologist and member of Sigmund Freud's circle of friends. Herbert Graf was the Little Hans discussed in Freud's 1909 study Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy.[1]

'Little Hans'

[edit]

This was one of just a few case studies which Freud published. In his introduction to the case, he had in the years before the case been encouraging his friends and associates, including Graf's parents, to collect observations on the sexual life of children in order to help him develop his theory of infantile sexuality.[2]: 4  Thus Max Graf had been sending notes about his child's development to Freud before Herbert's fear of horses emerged. As "Little Hans", he was the subject of Freud's early but extensive study of castration anxiety and the Oedipus complex. Freud saw Herbert only once and did not analyze the child, but rather supervised the child's father, who carried out the analysis and sent extensive notes to Freud. In the published version, Herbert's father's account is abridged and punctuated by Freud's comments.

When he was four years old, Herbert was witness to a frightening event when he was at the local park in the company of the family's maid. A cart horse pulling a heavy load collapsed. Herbert became fearful of going out into the street, with his fear focused on horses and heavily loaded vehicles, which he was afraid would fall over. This fear was interpreted as a neurosis (equinophobia). Herbert's father initially attributes the neurosis to "sexual over-excitement caused by his mother's caresses"[2]: 18  and fear caused by the large penises of horses. While not rejecting these explanations, Freud gradually encourages the father also to understand Herbert's disorder in terms of the anxiety caused by the arrival of his younger sister and an inadequately satisfied curiosity as to the origin of babies. Although a number of sexual and excretal fantasies and anxieties (such as Oedipal wishes and castration anxiety) are explored during the case history, Freud does not ultimately explain the case in terms of these factors, and on occasion reproaches Herbert's father for sticking too dogmatically to a rigidly Oedipal understanding of his son's anxiety.[2]: 34  Freud also regrets the parents' unwillingness to tell Herbert the truth about coition.[2]: 117 

Freud wrote a summary analysis of "Little Hans", in 1909, in a paper titled Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy. The information gathered from the father included reports of Herbert's dreams, his behavior, and his answers to the father's questions. Freud believed that what he learned from Herbert's situation backed up his ideas about infantile sexuality as outlined in his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1905. Herbert's fear was thought to be the result of several factors, including the birth of a little sister, his desire to replace his father as his mother's sexual mate, emotional conflicts over masturbation, and others. The anxiety was seen as stemming from the incomplete repression and other defense mechanisms being used to combat the impulses involved in his sexual development. Herbert's behavior and emotional state improved after he was provided with sexual information by his father, and the two became closer.

Herbert's analysis falls into two distinct stages, the first concerning the fear of horses themselves, and the second of the boxes and containers that they transported around Vienna. In the first phase, Herbert is afraid that a white horse will bite him or come into his room, or will collapse and fall over. Freud interprets this as a fear of the father, fear that the father will punish him for his desires over the mother and to act aggressively towards the father. Because Herbert's father was acting as analyst, Freud conjectures that this fear is impeding the progress of the treatment, something which he resolved by inviting Herbert to see him (Freud) personally and explaining this fear to him:

With this explanation I vanquished the most powerful resistance in Herbert to conscious recognition of his unconscious thoughts, since it was his own father who was taking the role of his physician. From this moment on we had conquered the summit of his condition, the material flowed abundantly, the young patient showed courage in communicating the details of his phobia and soon intervened independently in the course of the analysis.

[2]: 101, 102 

Following this, Herbert becomes pre-occupied with excrement, which Freud and Herbert's father help him to associate with the birth of babies. The carts and omnibuses are associated with the boxes which, according to the theory of reproduction that Herbert has been given, storks use to bring new babies. Herbert fears the arrival of more babies as this will further reduce the attention he receives from his mother, and expresses the wish that his baby sister should die. He also expresses the wish to have children of his own (with his mother) with his father elevated to the role of grandfather.

Herbert's treatment is taken to be complete when he expresses two new fantasies: one which shows that he has overcome his castration anxiety, and one which consciously acknowledges his desire to be married to his mother. These fantasies coincide with the disappearance of his phobia.

Freud follows the case history with a 40-page assessment of the case in which he links it to his theory of sexuality. He claims that he has learned nothing from this case that he already had not deduced from his analysis of adults, but he is nonetheless "tempted to claim a typical and exemplary importance" for the case in view of the direct and immediate proof of his theories that it appears to provide.[2]: 4, 118 

In 1922, Freud wrote a short postscript to the case study, in which he reported that "Little Hans" had appeared in his office as a "strapping youth of nineteen", who "was perfectly well and suffered from no troubles or inhibitions". Minor revisions and additions to the case material were made in 1923–1924.[3]

The conclusions drawn by Freud were strongly criticized by Joseph Wolpe and Stanley Rachman in the essay "A Little Child Shall Lead Them" published first as "Psychoanalytic Evidence: A Critique Based on Freud's Case of Little Hans." in Critical Essays on Psychoanalysis, edited by Stanley Rachman, Macmillan (1963) which maintains that most of the material provided by Herbert was planted in his mind by Freud and Herbert's father.[4]

Career in opera

[edit]

In 1930, in Frankfurt, Herbert Graf directed the world premiere of Arnold Schoenberg's Von heute auf morgen. In 1936, after holding operatic posts in Münster, Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), Frankfurt (where he was director of the Opera School at the Hoch Conservatory, 1930–1933; when the Nazis came to power he was released from his duties) and Salzburg, the 33-year-old Graf emigrated to the United States, where he became a successful and popular opera producer at New York's Metropolitan Opera (1936–1960, debuting with Samson and Delilah). He staged new famous productions in the French (The Tales of Hoffmann 1937), Italian (Otello 1937, La forza del destino 1943), then German (Der Ring des Nibelungen 1947, Der Rosenkavalier 1949), repertoires. Graf had a strong sense of tradition and encouraged young operatic talent. In the late 1950s, he returned to Europe, where he produced opera at London's Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, (1958–1959). After another year in New York, Graf settled in Switzerland, working at the Zürich Opera (1960–1963), and Geneva's Grand Théâtre (1965–1973).

Graf staged several operas for the Salzburg Festival: Otello (1951, with Wilhelm Furtwängler conducting, 1952 with Mario Rossi conducting; both times with Ramón Vinay as Otello), The Marriage of Figaro (1952, with Rudolf Moralt conducting, with Erich Kunz, George London, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Irmgard Seefried, Hilde Gueden; 1953 revival conducted by Furtwängler and Paul Schöffler replacing London), a legendary Don Giovanni conducted by Furtwängler and designed by Clemens Holzmeister (1953, with Cesare Siepi, Elisabeth Grümmer, Anton Dermota, Schwarzkopf, Otto Edelmann, Walter Berry, Raffaele Arié, Erna Berger; revival 1954, with Dezsö Ernster replacing Arié; 1956 with Dimitri Mitropoulos conducting), Gottlob Frick replacing Ernster, Léopold Simoneau replacing Dermota, Lisa Della Casa replacing Schwarzkopf, Fernando Corena replacing Edelmann, Rita Streich replacing Berger) an equally legendary The Magic Flute conducted by Georg Solti and designed by Oskar Kokoschka (1955, cast included Gottlob Frick, Dermota, Schöffler, Kunz, Grümmer, Erika Köth, Peter Klein; revival in 1956 with Berry replacing Kunz); Elektra (1957, conducted by Mitropoulos, with Inge Borkh, Della Casa, Jean Madeira, Max Lorenz, Kurt Böhme), Simon Boccanegra (1961, with Gianandrea Gavazzeni conducting, with Tito Gobbi, Leyla Gencer, Giorgio Tozzi, Rolando Panerai), and finally La rappresentazione di anima e di corpo by Emilio de' Cavalieri (the production premiered in 1968 and was shown each year until 1973).

Graf staged Maria Callas in Les vêpres siciliennes (at the Florence May Festival and La Scala, 1951), Mefistofele (at the Verona Arena, in which Callas alternated with Magda Olivero, 1954), and Poliuto (at La Scala, 1960, also with Franco Corelli and Ettore Bastianini).

For the Arena di Verona Festival, Graf directed several productions of Aida (1954, revival in 1955; 1958; and 1966).

Publications

[edit]

Among the books written by Herbert Graf were The Opera and Its Future in America (New York, W. W. Norton, 1941), Opera for the People (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1951), and Producing Opera for America (Zurich and New York, Atlantis Books, 1961).

Videography

[edit]
  • Mozart: Don Giovanni (Grümmer, della Casa, Berger, Dermota, Siepi, Edelmann; Furtwängler, 1954) [live] Deutsche Grammophon
  • Verdi: Falstaff (Carteri, Moffo, Barbieri, Alva, Taddei, Colombo; Serafin, 1956) VAI
  • Verdi: Aïda (Gencer, Cossotto, Bergonzi, Colzani, Giaiotti; Capuana, 1966) [live] Bel Canto Society
  • Strauss: Elektra (Nilsson, Rysanek, M.Dunn, Nagy, McIntyre; Levine, 1980) [live] Paramount

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Herbert Graf

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Herbert Graf (10 April 1903 – 5 April 1973) was an Austrian-American opera director and producer renowned for his long tenure as stage director at the Metropolitan Opera in New York from 1936 to 1960. As a five-year-old child, he was the subject of Sigmund Freud's 1909 case study Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy, in which Freud analyzed Graf's horse phobia through correspondence with his father, interpreting it as rooted in unconscious sexual conflicts and the Oedipus complex. Born in Vienna to music critic Max Graf and his wife Olga, Herbert Graf earned a doctorate in musicology from the University of Vienna in 1925 with a dissertation on Richard Wagner, after studying singing, piano, and stage design. He began his career assisting at the Vienna State Opera and held positions in Münster, Breslau, Frankfurt, and Basel before emigrating to the United States in 1934 amid rising Nazism, given his family's Jewish heritage. In addition to his Met role, where he staged Parsifal over 25 times and contributed to innovative productions, Graf directed at Salzburg Festival, Glyndebourne, Paris Opera, Covent Garden, and later served as director of Geneva's Grand Théâtre from 1965 until his death. Despite the psychoanalytic framing of his childhood phobia—which scholars have critiqued for lacking direct therapeutic intervention and relying on parental reports—Graf developed a distinguished professional life in opera, free from the persistent neuroses Freud's theory might predict.

Early Life

Family and Background

Herbert Graf was born on April 10, 1903, in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, to Max Graf, a music critic, musicologist, and author, and Olga Hönig, a professional violinist. Max Graf, born in 1873, had studied law and philosophy before establishing himself as a writer on music and aesthetics, contributing to Viennese cultural journals and authoring books such as Die innere Werkstatt des Musikers (1910). Olga Hönig, born in 1877, came from a musical family; her father Ignaz Hönig was a merchant, and she herself performed publicly before marriage. The Grafs were immersed in Vienna's avant-garde intellectual scene, with Max Graf becoming one of Sigmund Freud's earliest adherents after attending his lectures in the 1900s; he joined the Wednesday Psychological Society (precursor to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society) and applied psychoanalytic ideas to music criticism. Olga had been Freud's patient for an unspecified period before Herbert's birth, experiencing symptoms possibly linked to marital tensions, though details remain limited to archival references. The couple, who married around 1900, had a younger daughter, Hanna (later Sujeff-Graf), born circa 1905. Family dynamics reflected the era's progressive yet strained bourgeois milieu, with Max's psychoanalytic involvement influencing home discussions on psychology and child development; the household emphasized cultural exposure, including music and theater, shaping Herbert's early interests. Max and Olga separated later in life, with Olga remarrying after Max's death in 1958, but they remained in Vienna until the family's emigration in the 1930s amid rising antisemitism, given their Jewish heritage.

Childhood and the 'Little Hans' Case

Herbert Graf was born on , 1903, in , , to Max Graf, a music critic and early adherent of Freud's theories, and Olga Hönig, a violinist who had undergone analysis with Freud prior to her 1898 marriage. The family resided in an intellectually stimulating but unstable environment, with Olga exhibiting chronic nervousness and later engaging in abusive behavior toward her children, including Graf's younger sister Hanna, who faced mistreatment and ultimately died by suicide. Max Graf's close association with Freud influenced the household's approach to child-rearing and psychological matters, as he regularly discussed his son's behaviors with the analyst. In January 1908, at approximately four years and old, Graf developed an acute phobia of , manifesting as terror that they would bite him or collapse while pulling carts, which confined him indoors and disrupted daily activities. This fear intensified after Graf witnessed a horse fall in the street, an event Max Graf documented alongside preceding anxieties, such as concerns over his mother's (leading to sister Hanna's birth in August 1907) and vague threats of genital punishment from parental scoldings. Max maintained a detailed diary of interactions, interpreting them through Freudian lenses and relaying them to Freud, who supervised remotely without direct immersion in the family dynamic. Freud met Graf once, on March 30, 1908, for a brief session emphasizing reassurance over his father's imagined aggression. The phobia subsided by May 1908, correlating with Graf's verbalization of fantasies involving birth and family roles, though empirical causation remains speculative given the anecdotal reporting by a theoretically biased father. Freud's 1909 , Analysis of in a Five-Year-Old , framed the case as empirical support for infantile rooted in the and , positing as phallic symbols of the punitive and the phobia as repressed wish-fulfillment. This interpretation privileged symbolic displacement over traumas, such as maternal volatility or the witnessed equine , despite Max's noting Graf's explicit fears tied to real events. Later reassessments, informed by family interviews, highlight pre-Oedipal factors like Olga's pathology—including her history of familial suicides and coercive parenting—as likely primary drivers, challenging Freud's emphasis on paternal symbolism and underscoring the case's limitations as uncontrolled, observer-influenced observation rather than replicable data. In adulthood, Graf recalled little of the phobia itself but affirmed his mother's persistent nervousness in a 1958 interview, attributing the case's documentation to his father's initiative rather than his own pathology. He expressed bemusement at its enduring fame, remarking, "my father is responsible for me, but I am not responsible for my father's case histories," reflecting resilience amid early adversity that did not impede his later professional success.

Professional Career

Early European Engagements

Graf's career commenced in 1925 following his studies in , with his debut as stage director at the Municipal Theatre in for the 1925–1926 season. He subsequently held a position in Breslau (present-day Wrocław) for three years, gaining experience in regional German opera houses during the mid-to-late 1920s. From 1929 onward, he worked in Frankfurt am Main until early 1933, where he directed the world premiere of Arnold Schoenberg's Von heute auf morgen—the composer's only comic opera and the first twelve-tone work in the genre—on February 1, 1930, under conductor William Steinberg. The Nazi regime's ascent in 1933 prompted Graf, whose was of Jewish origin, to leave amid rising in cultural institutions. He returned to , securing guest engagements at the , including stagings of Wagner's Tannhäuser in autumn 1935 and January 1936, the latter conducted by . These productions highlighted his approach to integrating psychological depth with visual realism, influenced by his early exposure to Freudian ideas through his , critic Max . Graf extended his influence to the , directing Carl Maria Weber's and Wagner's , with the latter featuring Arturo Toscanini's in and 1937. His work during this period emphasized coordination and innovative scene transitions, earning acclaim for revitalizing standard repertory amid political , though opportunities dwindled as faced similar pressures leading to his eventual .

Emigration and Metropolitan Opera Tenure

In 1934, as Nazi persecution intensified against in following the regime's consolidation of power, Herbert emigrated to the , where his background as the of the Max placed him at . He secured his first American engagement as stage director for the Opera's 1934–35 , marking his debut in the U.S. opera scene. briefly returned to in spring 1935 for a production but resettled permanently in the U.S. amid ongoing threats, eventually becoming a naturalized American citizen. In July 1936, the Metropolitan Opera engaged Graf as one of its stage directors for the 1936–37 season, with his debut production being Samson et Dalila on December 26, 1936. He advanced to general director of productions in 1939, a role he held until 1960, overseeing staging for hundreds of performances and introducing innovative European regie techniques to American audiences. During this tenure, Graf directed landmark Met premieres, including Alban Berg's Wozzeck in 1959, Gluck's Alceste and Orfeo ed Euridice, Richard Strauss's Arabella, and revivals such as Il Trovatore. His approach emphasized psychological depth and fluid scene transitions, adapting prewar Viennese and Salzburg Festival methods to the Met's repertory while navigating wartime resource constraints and the transition from old to new house stages. Graf's 24-year stint solidified the Met's reputation for dramatic coherence, though he occasionally faced criticism for prioritizing visual spectacle over textual fidelity in grand operas.

Later Administrative Roles

Following his departure from the Metropolitan Opera in 1960, Graf assumed the role of general manager of the , where he served from 1960 to 1962. In this capacity, known as , he reorganized the company, expanded its repertory, and assembled a of young singers, including , though he resigned amid conflicts with officials. He also initiated plans for an international to develop singers, stage directors, and technical staff over extended periods. In 1965, Graf became general manager of Geneva's Grand Théâtre, a position he held until his death in 1973. During this tenure, he continued to direct productions while overseeing operations, including the founding of a school for young singers within the theater in 1967. His health deteriorated after a fall while staging Manon in August 1972, leading to his passing from cancer on April 5, 1973. Earlier, from 1949 to 1960, Graf had concurrently served as head of the opera department at Philadelphia's Curtis Institute of Music, where he taught and shaped the program's amid his Metropolitan commitments.

Writings and Contributions

Publications on Opera

Herbert Graf authored three books addressing opera production, , and adaptation in the United States, drawing on his extensive experience as a director at the Metropolitan Opera. His first work, The Opera and Its Future in America (W. W. Norton, 1941), critiqued the elitist tendencies of American opera institutions and advocated for broader public engagement through innovative staging, community involvement, and integration with national cultural life, spanning 305 pages with discussions on historical precedents and postwar opportunities. In Opera for the People (University of Minnesota Press, 1951), Graf proposed reforms to democratize opera, arguing that it should evolve beyond European imports into a dynamic force responsive to American tastes, including simplified productions, educational outreach, and reduced reliance on star performers, while providing anecdotes from his career to illustrate barriers to vitality. Graf's final book, Producing Opera for America (Atlantis Books, 1961), offered practical guidance on staging techniques adapted for U.S. audiences, emphasizing cost-effective methods, psychological realism in direction, and the influence of psychoanalysis on character portrayal, based on his productions of works by composers such as Mozart and Wagner.

Television and Production Work

In the 1940s, Herbert Graf served as director of , where he produced several early television adaptations of operas designed for studio rather than live broadcasts. These included abridged of , , , and , emphasizing close-up intimacy suited to the television format. Graf expressed reservations about televising full from opera houses, arguing that cameras could not adequately capture the , and instead favored tailored studio productions to enhance viewer . For CBS's Opera Television Theatre series in 1950, Graf staged Giuseppe Verdi's La traviata, which aired live on March 13, 1950, and was praised for its effective adaptation to the medium, with critics crediting Graf's direction for much of the production's success in drawing a broad audience. This effort highlighted his approach to simplifying operatic elements—such as reducing scenery and focusing on dramatic close-ups—to fit television's technical and aesthetic constraints while preserving musical integrity. Graf extended his television work to anthology programs, staging a production of Die Fledermaus for the series Omnibus, broadcast on February 1, 1953, under the musical direction of . Adapted specifically for video with condensed staging, the performance featured principal singers from the Met and showcased Graf's expertise in blending operetta's with television's immediacy. He also directed operatic content for NBC's Producers' Showcase in 1954, contributing to the era's experimentation with televised .

Legacy and Reassessments

Achievements in Opera Production

Herbert Graf began his opera production career in during the 1920s, staging avant-garde works at the , including Max Brand's Maschinist (1929), Weill's Rise and Fall of the of Mahagonny (1930), and Arnold Schoenberg's auf (1930). These early efforts demonstrated his willingness to engage with modernist compositions, contributing to the era's experimental theatrical amid rising political tensions that later prompted his . At the Salzburg Festival, Graf directed several landmark productions in the 1930s, including Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail (premiere August 12, 1935, conducted by Bruno Walter), Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (premiere August 8, 1936, with Arturo Toscanini), and Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (premiere July 30, 1937, with Toscanini). He returned in the 1950s to stage Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni, as well as Die Zauberflöte, Richard Strauss's Elektra, and Verdi's Otello and Simon Boccanegra, emphasizing dramatic integration over static presentation. His Salzburg work, often praised for scholarly fidelity to original sources, earned him recognition, including the Orfeo trophy for a 1955 Aida at the Verona Arena. Upon joining the Metropolitan Opera in 1936 as a stage director—later serving as general director of productions from 1939 to 1949—Graf oversaw hundreds of performances across a broad repertory, reviving Giuseppe Verdi's Il Trovatore (initially 1940, with multiple revivals including the 1959 season opener) and directing Giacomo Puccini's La Bohème and Richard Wagner's Die Meistersinger. A highlight was the Met premiere of Alban Berg's Wozzeck on March 5, 1959, which he staged to unify musical and dramatic elements effectively, marking a milestone in introducing atonal opera to American audiences despite the work's challenging Expressionist style. Other notable Met stagings included Verdi's Rigoletto (1951–52, sets by Eugene Berman), Mozart's Don Giovanni (1957–58, sets by Berman), Gluck's Alceste and Orfeo, Strauss's Arabella, and his final Met production, Elektra (1966–67). Graf's approach emphasized actorly realism and practical innovations, such as outdoor adaptations like Carl Maria von Weber's Oberon staged on a lake island in Florence's Boboli Gardens, which highlighted his versatility in non-traditional venues. In administrative roles post-Met, he reorganized the Zurich Opera (1960–1963) to expand its repertory and incorporate recordings and television, and as director of Geneva's Grand Théâtre (1965–1973), he produced Jules Massenet's Manon while advocating for opera's accessibility through refined staging techniques honed over nearly five decades.

Critiques of the Freudian Case Study

Critics of Freud's 1909 case study of "Little Hans" (Herbert Graf) have highlighted methodological limitations, including Freud's minimal direct involvement—he met the five-year-old boy only once, on , 1908—and heavy reliance on reports from Hans's father, Max Graf, a committed Freudian adherent whose interpretations may have been influenced by theoretical preconceptions. This indirect approach raised concerns about , as the father's prompting of Hans's statements could have shaped recollections to fit Freudian schemas of infantile sexuality and the , rather than capturing spontaneous causal factors. Herbert Graf himself, reflecting decades later in interviews conducted by Kurt Eissler in the 1950s and 1960s, rejected the psychoanalytic framing, attributing his phobia primarily to a real-world trauma: witnessing an overburdened collapse and thrash in a street around 1908, an event he described as genuinely terrifying without deeper meaning tied to paternal or . Graf expressed puzzlement at Freud's emphasis on sexual undercurrents, noting scant personal memory of the purported Oedipal dynamics and viewing the analysis as an overinterpretation disconnected from the phobia's straightforward trigger. Philosopher of science Jerome C. Wakefield, in his 2022 analysis, argues that Freud's Oedipal interpretation fails as a scientific hypothesis, constituting an iatrogenic artifact where parental prompting and theoretical imposition retrofitted innocent behaviors (e.g., Hans's giraffe fantasy) into evidence of repressed desires, without independent verification or falsifiability. Wakefield contends Freud misread chronological data—such as the phobia's onset post-horse incident—and overlooked mundane explanations, rendering the case confirmatory bias rather than empirical validation of universal psychosexual stages. Alternative causal accounts emphasize behavioral conditioning, where collapse served as an unconditioned stimulus eliciting , generalized to equines via associative learning, akin to classical formation models later formalized in empirical . Additional factors, including stressors like maternal depression and threats of abandonment reported in archival materials, suggest attachment disruptions or pre-Oedipal relational strains as intensifiers, rather than innate drives manifesting symbolically in the . These critiques underscore how Freud's prioritized interpretive depth over proximate, antecedents, contributing to ongoing in empirically oriented fields about the case's foundational in .

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