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Hinge theorem
Hinge theorem
Hinge theorem
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In geometry, the hinge theorem (sometimes called the open mouth theorem) states that if two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the included angle of the first is larger than the included angle of the second, then the third side of the first triangle is longer than the third side of the second triangle.[1] This theorem is given as Proposition 24 in Book I of Euclid's Elements.

Proof from the law of cosines

[edit]

The theorem is an immediate corollary of the law of cosines.[2] For two triangles with sides and with angles and opposite the respective sides and , the law of cosines states:

The cosine function is monotonically decreasing for angles between and radians, so implies (and the converse as well).

Scope and generalizations

[edit]

The hinge theorem holds in Euclidean spaces and more generally in simply connected non-positively curved space forms.

It can be also extended from plane Euclidean geometry to higher dimension Euclidean spaces (e.g., to tetrahedra and more generally to simplices), as has been done for orthocentric tetrahedra (i.e., tetrahedra in which altitudes are concurrent)[2] and more generally for orthocentric simplices (i.e., simplices in which altitudes are concurrent).[3]

Converse

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The converse of the hinge theorem is also true: If the two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the third side of the first triangle is greater than the third side of the second triangle, then the included angle of the first triangle is larger than the included angle of the second triangle.

In some textbooks, the theorem and its converse are written as the SAS Inequality Theorem and the SSS Inequality Theorem respectively.

References

[edit]
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Hinge theorem

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The Hinge Theorem, also known as the SAS inequality theorem, is a fundamental principle in that compares the side lengths of two based on their corresponding included angles. It states that if two sides of one are congruent to two sides of another , respectively, and the measure of the included in the first is greater than the measure of the included in the second , then the length of the third side in the first is greater than the length of the third side in the second . This theorem originates from Euclid's Elements, composed around 300 BCE, where it appears as Proposition 24 in Book I. Euclid's proof relies on earlier propositions, such as the and properties of isosceles triangles, to establish the relationship without assuming congruence. The theorem holds in neutral geometry, which encompasses both Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries but excludes , as it does not depend on the parallel postulate. The converse of the Hinge Theorem, Euclid's Proposition 25, asserts that if the third sides are unequal under the same conditions of two pairs of congruent sides, then the included angle opposite the longer third side is greater. Together, these results form a biconditional statement linking angle measures and opposite side lengths in triangles with fixed adjacent sides. The Hinge Theorem plays a key role in proving other geometric inequalities, such as the in its strict form, and is essential for analyzing comparisons in axiomatic systems.

Statement

Formal Statement

The Hinge Theorem, also known as the SAS Inequality Theorem, states that if two sides of one are congruent to two sides of another , and the included of the first is larger than the included of the second, then the third side of the first is longer than the third side of the second. In precise notation, consider two non-degenerate triangles △ABC\triangle ABC and △DEF\triangle DEF in , where AB=DEAB = DE, AC=DFAC = DF, and ∠BAC>∠EDF\angle BAC > \angle EDF (with each measuring between 0∘0^\circ and 180∘180^\circ), then BC>EFBC > EF. This formulation assumes the standard conditions of for valid formation, ensuring the sides and angles satisfy the and non-degeneracy. The theorem reflects the intuitive relationship where a wider "hinge" between equal arms extends the opposite side further.

Geometric Illustration and Examples

The standard geometric illustration of the Hinge Theorem features two triangles, such as △ABC and △DEF, where two pairs of corresponding sides are equal—AB = DE and AC = DF—but the included angle ∠BAC is greater than ∠EDF. In this configuration, the side opposite the larger included angle, BC, measures longer than the corresponding side EF, emphasizing the theorem's inequality. Such diagrams, often labeled as Hinge_theorem.svg in educational resources, position the triangles side-by-side with the equal sides aligned to visually contrast the widening effect of the angle on the opposite side. The theorem's name evokes the intuitive analogy of a mechanical , like that on a swinging between two fixed posts. If the two arms (representing the equal sides) are fixed in length and pivoted at one end, opening the to a wider increases the between the free ends (the opposite side), much like how a swings farther from the frame when fully open. This "stretching" visualization underscores why a larger included results in a longer opposite side in the triangles. A concrete numerical example involves two isosceles triangles, each with adjacent sides of 5 units enclosing the vertex . For the first triangle with a 60° included , the opposite side measures exactly 5 units. For the second triangle with an 80° included , the opposite side is approximately 6.43 units, confirming that the greater produces the longer side as predicted by the . These lengths arise from the geometric relationship captured by the , illustrating its application in comparing sides.

History

Origins in Ancient Geometry

The Hinge Theorem originates in classical Greek mathematics, articulated by Euclid in his seminal work Elements as Proposition I.24 of Book I. This proposition establishes a fundamental inequality in triangles: if two triangles have two sides equal to two sides respectively, but the angle between the equal sides in one is greater than the corresponding angle in the other, then the side opposite the greater angle is longer than the side opposite the smaller angle. Euclid's statement applies to general triangles, building on earlier considerations of isosceles triangles to demonstrate that a larger included angle implies a longer opposite side. Within the structure of Book I of the Elements, Proposition I.24 follows foundational results on triangle congruence, including Proposition I.4 on side-angle-side (SAS) equality and Proposition I.8 on base angles of isosceles triangles, while preceding Proposition I.25, which addresses the converse relation. It also relies on Proposition I.16, which shows that an exterior angle exceeds the opposite interior angle, and integrates 's axioms concerning equality along with common notions of magnitude and order, such as the principle that the whole exceeds any part. This positioning underscores its role in transitioning from equality-based constructions to inequality principles essential for plane geometry. As part of the ancient development of , Proposition I.24 contributes to the systematic foundation of inequalities, enabling proofs of relative sizes without trigonometric methods, which emerged later with figures like in the BCE. 's synthetic approach in this proposition involves geometric constructions and appeals to prior results, avoiding algebraic or analytic techniques unavailable in the classical era.

Modern Terminology

In contemporary mathematical literature, the Hinge Theorem is named for the metaphorical resemblance to a physical , where two equal-length arms (representing the congruent sides of the triangles) pivot at a common vertex (the included ), and widening the angle increases the between the free endpoints (the third sides). This descriptive term evokes the intuitive geometric action underlying the inequality. No individual is credited with inventing the name, as it arose descriptively from pedagogical needs. The theorem connects to Euclid's Proposition I.24 in the Elements, which establishes a related inequality but without the modern nomenclature. In some modern textbooks, it is alternatively termed the SAS Inequality Theorem to emphasize its reliance on two sides and the included angle, while the converse is occasionally referred to as the SSS Inequality Theorem.

Proofs

Synthetic Proof

The synthetic proof of the Hinge Theorem employs fundamental Euclidean principles, including the SAS congruence criterion, properties of angle measures, and the triangle inequality, all within the framework of plane geometry. This approach assumes the standard axioms of Euclidean geometry but does not rely on the parallel postulate directly. It demonstrates the inequality AC > DF for triangles ΔABC and ΔDEF where AB = DE, BC = EF, and ∠ABC > ∠DEF (relabeling the vertices for convenience in the construction, consistent with the formal statement of the theorem where two sides and the included angle satisfy the conditions). Begin by placing the triangles in the plane. In ΔABC, locate point P in the interior of ∠ABC such that ∠CBP = ∠DEF and = DE (noting DE = AB from the given). This construction is possible because ∠ABC > ∠DEF implies ∠CBP can be set equal to the smaller angle ∠DEF, leaving a positive remaining angle ∠ABP = ∠ABC - ∠CBP > 0. Now, consider ΔPBC and ΔDEF: side = DE, side BC = EF, and included ∠CBP = ∠DEF. By the SAS congruence postulate, ΔPBC ≅ ΔDEF. Consequently, corresponding sides and angles match, including PC = DF (with vertices corresponding as B to E, C to F, P to D). Next, from point B, draw the angle bisector of the remaining ∠ABP, intersecting side AC at point H. Thus, ∠ABH = ∠PBH = (1/2)∠ABP. Consider ΔABH and ΔPBH: side AB = BP (since BP = DE = AB), side BH is common, and included ∠ABH = ∠PBH. By SAS congruence again, ΔABH ≅ ΔPBH, so corresponding sides AH = PH. Since H lies on AC between A and C, the length AC = AH + HC = PH + HC. To establish the inequality, examine ΔPHC in the plane. The points P, H, and C form a where PH and HC are two sides, and PC is the third. By the theorem, PH + HC > PC. Substituting the known equalities, AC = PH + HC > PC = DF. The inequality is strict because P is not collinear with H and C (as P lies in the interior of ∠ABC), ensuring PH > 0 and the triangle is non-degenerate. This completes the proof, relying on the transitivity of inequalities (AC > PC and PC = DF imply AC > DF) and the additivity of segment lengths along a line. This method highlights the theorem's foundation in congruence for equal configurations and inequality for divergent angles, providing a purely geometric demonstration without coordinates or trigonometry.

Analytic Proof Using Law of Cosines

The analytic proof of the Hinge Theorem employs the to derive the side length inequality through algebraic manipulation, assuming familiarity with the law of cosines formula and the monotonicity properties of the cosine function. The law of cosines states that in any triangle with sides aa, bb, cc opposite angles AA, BB, CC respectively, c2=a2+b2−2abcos⁡Cc^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab \cos C. Additionally, the cosine function is strictly decreasing on the interval (0,π)(0, \pi), the range of interior angles in a triangle. Consider triangles △ABC\triangle ABC and △DEF\triangle DEF such that AB=DEAB = DE, AC=DFAC = DF, and ∠BAC>∠EDF\angle BAC > \angle EDF, with both angles in (0,π)(0, \pi). Apply the law of cosines to side BCBC opposite ∠BAC\angle BAC in △ABC\triangle ABC: BC2=AB2+AC2−2⋅AB⋅AC⋅cos⁡(∠BAC)BC^2 = AB^2 + AC^2 - 2 \cdot AB \cdot AC \cdot \cos(\angle BAC) Similarly, apply it to side EFEF opposite ∠EDF\angle EDF in △DEF\triangle DEF: EF2=DE2+DF2−2⋅DE⋅DF⋅cos⁡(∠EDF)EF^2 = DE^2 + DF^2 - 2 \cdot DE \cdot DF \cdot \cos(\angle EDF) Since AB=DEAB = DE and AC=DFAC = DF, the equations simplify to: BC2=DE2+DF2−2⋅DE⋅DF⋅cos⁡(∠BAC)BC^2 = DE^2 + DF^2 - 2 \cdot DE \cdot DF \cdot \cos(\angle BAC) EF2=DE2+DF2−2⋅DE⋅DF⋅cos⁡(∠EDF)EF^2 = DE^2 + DF^2 - 2 \cdot DE \cdot DF \cdot \cos(\angle EDF) Subtract the second from the first: BC2−EF2=−2⋅DE⋅DF⋅(cos⁡(∠BAC)−cos⁡(∠EDF))BC^2 - EF^2 = -2 \cdot DE \cdot DF \cdot \bigl( \cos(\angle BAC) - \cos(\angle EDF) \bigr) Given ∠BAC>∠EDF\angle BAC > \angle EDF and the strictly decreasing nature of cosine on (0,π)(0, \pi), cos⁡(∠BAC)<cos⁡(∠EDF)\cos(\angle BAC) < \cos(\angle EDF), so cos⁡(∠BAC)−cos⁡(∠EDF)<0\cos(\angle BAC) - \cos(\angle EDF) < 0. Thus, BC2−EF2>0BC^2 - EF^2 > 0, implying BC2>EF2BC^2 > EF^2. As side lengths are positive, BC>EFBC > EF.

Converse

Statement of the Converse

The converse of the Hinge Theorem, also known as the SSS inequality theorem, states that if two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the third side of the first triangle is longer than the third side of the second triangle, then the angle included by the first pair of congruent sides in the first triangle is greater than the angle included by the corresponding pair in the second triangle. In precise terms, for triangles ΔABC\Delta ABC and ΔDEF\Delta DEF, if AB=DEAB = DE, AC=DFAC = DF, and BC>EFBC > EF, then ∠BAC>∠EDF\angle BAC > \angle EDF. This converse assumes the standard conditions for triangle validity, including positive side lengths and the holding for both figures. Together with the direct Hinge Theorem, the converse establishes a biconditional relationship: under the equality of the two pairs of sides, the included of one triangle is greater than that of the other the third side opposite those angles is greater.

Proof of the Converse

To prove the converse of the Hinge Theorem, consider two triangles △ABC\triangle ABC and △DEF\triangle DEF such that AB=DEAB = DE, AC=DFAC = DF, and BC>EFBC > EF. The goal is to show that ∠BAC>∠EDF\angle BAC > \angle EDF. Proceed by contradiction, assuming temporarily that ∠BAC≤∠EDF\angle BAC \leq \angle EDF. This assumption leads to two cases. First, suppose ∠BAC=∠EDF\angle BAC = \angle EDF. Then △ABC≅△DEF\triangle ABC \cong \triangle DEF by the SAS congruence criterion, which implies BC=EFBC = EF. This contradicts the given condition that BC>EFBC > EF. Second, suppose ∠BAC<∠EDF\angle BAC < \angle EDF. By the direct Hinge Theorem (proved synthetically or via the law of cosines), it follows that BC<EFBC < EF. This again contradicts the given BC>EFBC > EF. Since both cases under the assumption ∠BAC≤∠EDF\angle BAC \leq \angle EDF yield contradictions, the assumption must be false. Therefore, ∠BAC>∠EDF\angle BAC > \angle EDF. This proof relies on the established direct Hinge Theorem and the SAS congruence postulate.

Generalizations and Applications

Scope and Extensions

The Hinge theorem applies to all triangles in the , stating that if two triangles have two pairs of congruent sides, then the included in the triangle with the longer third side is larger than the corresponding in the other triangle, or equivalently, the triangle with the larger included has the longer third side. This result follows from the in and holds universally for plane triangles without additional restrictions. The theorem is established within neutral geometry, the axiomatic framework common to both Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries, and thus extends directly to hyperbolic plane geometry with the same conclusion: for two triangles with congruent pairs of sides, a larger included angle corresponds to a longer opposite side. In hyperbolic geometry, this is supported by the hyperbolic law of cosines, which preserves the monotonic relationship between the included angle and the opposite side length. In spherical geometry, a version of the Hinge theorem holds for spherical triangles formed by great circle arcs, where if two spherical triangles have two pairs of congruent sides, the one with the larger included angle has the longer third side, provided all sides are less than π\pi and the triangles do not straddle antipodal points. The theorem's validity relies on the two pairs of sides being congruent, analogous to the side-angle-side (SAS) congruence condition; it does not directly apply or yield meaningful inequalities when the corresponding sides differ in length, as the comparison would require additional assumptions or different inequalities like the triangle inequality. More broadly, the Hinge theorem generalizes to non-positively curved metric spaces, such as simply connected hyperbolic spaces, where comparison principles for geodesic triangles ensure the angle-side inequality holds. In higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces, it extends to simplices: for two simplices with two corresponding faces congruent and sharing a common "hinge" facet, the simplex with the larger dihedral angle between those faces has a longer edge opposite the hinge. The Hinge Theorem is related to the theorem, as stated in (Proposition I.20), which establishes that the sum of any two sides of a exceeds the length of the third side. By considering degenerate cases where the included approaches 180 degrees, the Hinge Theorem implies the strict inequality aspect of this principle, ensuring that triangles cannot collapse into line segments without violating side comparisons. The converse of the Hinge Theorem, known as the SSS Inequality Theorem, links directly to side-side-side comparisons: if two sides of one are congruent to two sides of another and the of the first is longer, then the included angle opposite that is larger. This converse complements the original by reversing the implication from sides to angles. The Hinge Theorem aids in proving the Pythagorean inequality for non-right triangles, where the relationship between the square of the longest side and the sum of the squares of the other two sides determines if the triangle is acute (less than) or obtuse (greater than). In practical applications, the Hinge Theorem appears in for tasks, where angle-side relations help compare between points to verify alignments and stabilities in structures like beams under varying loads. For instance, engineers use it to assess how angular deviations affect span lengths in bridge or building frameworks. Modern relevance is evident in , where the theorem analyzes in robotic arms to derive reach inequalities; for example, a larger results in a greater extension from the base, aiding in path planning and grasp optimization.

References

  1. https://www.hufsd.edu/assets/pdfs/academics/geometry_text/chapter07.pdf
  2. https://homepages.gac.edu/~hvidsten/geom-text/web-chapters/neutral.pdf
  3. https://sites.ohio.edu/barsamia/2023-24.2.3110/files/AxiomsDefinitionsTheorems.pdf
  4. https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Geometry/SegmentsAnglesTriangles/SATHinge.html
  5. https://www.storyofmathematics.com/hinge-theorem/
  6. https://static.bigideasmath.com/protected/content/pe/hs/sections/geo_pe_06_06.pdf
  7. http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/elements/bookI/propI24.html
  8. https://www.maths.tcd.ie/~dwilkins/Courses/MA232A/Euclid_ETexts/EuclidBookI_Heath1908/EuclidBookIProp24_Heath1908.php
  9. http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/elements/bookI/bookI.html
  10. https://farside.ph.utexas.edu/Books/Euclid/Elements.pdf
  11. https://static.bigideasmath.com/protected/content/ipe/aga22/aga22_geometry_ipe_06_06.pdf
  12. https://math.ucr.edu/~res/math153-2020/week3/unit03/hinge-theorem.pdf
  13. https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Cosumnes_River_College/Math_370%3A_Precalculus/11%3A_Applications_of_Trigonometry/11.03%3A_The_Law_of_Cosines
  14. https://www.andrews.edu/~rwright/geometry/powerpoints/Geometry%2006%20Relationships%20within%20Triangles.pdf
  15. http://www.csun.edu/science/courses/646/sketchpad/postulates&theorems.html
  16. https://www.imater.org/ourpages/auto/2020/11/30/55240816/332-339%20_5_7%20Inequalities%20in%20Two%20Triangles_.pdf
  17. https://www.math.washington.edu/~lee/Courses/445-2009/theorems.pdf
  18. https://sidoli.w.waseda.jp/Whittlesey_2020_Spherical_Geometry_Chap_3.pdf
  19. https://allinonehighschool.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/geometry-L6-postulates-and-theorems.pdf
  20. https://s3.amazonaws.com/PlanbookAttachments/1049517/Geo-5.7.pdf
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