Morinda coreia

Morinda coreia is a species of flowering plant in the family Rubiaceae, commonly known as Indian mulberry or Aal in Hindi. It is an evergreen shrub or small tree that typically grows 5–10 meters tall, with a short, crooked bole, rough bark featuring deep longitudinal fissures, opposite oblong to lanceolate leaves measuring 15–25 cm long, fragrant white tubular flowers about 2 cm in length, and green syncarpous fruits 2–2.5 cm in diameter.^[1][2] Native to the Indian subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia, M. coreia is found in dry deciduous forests, mixed deciduous woodlands, hill evergreen areas, and open grasslands at elevations from 50 to 1,300 meters, often in habitats such as pastures, wastelands, and coastal regions. Its distribution spans India (particularly the Peninsular region including the Coromandel Coast), Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Indonesia. Taxonomically, the name M. coreia, first described by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton in 1822, is sometimes treated as a synonym of Morinda pubescens or Morinda tinctoria; however, it is accepted by the International Plant Names Index (IPNI).^[1][3][4][5] The plant holds significant ethnobotanical value, particularly for its root bark, which contains anthraquinones like morindone and yields a red or yellow dye used traditionally for coloring cotton, silk, and wool in textile industries. Medicinally, various parts are employed in Ayurvedic and traditional Thai systems to treat conditions such as diabetes, arthritis, hypertension, gastric ulcers, menstrual disorders, and inflammatory issues, with pharmacological studies supporting anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and wound-healing properties. The fruits are also nutritious, rich in proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins A and C, and have been used in fermented beverages with antibacterial effects.^[3][2][1]

Taxonomy

Description and history

Morinda coreia was first described scientifically by the botanist Francis Buchanan-Hamilton in 1822, within his "Commentary on the Hortus Malabaricus, Part I," published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London (volume 13, pages 504–568). In the protologue on page 537, Buchanan-Hamilton portrayed the plant as a moderate-sized tree featuring compressed, quadrisulcate branches with obtuse angles and glabrous surfaces; opposite, elliptical, undulate, and costate leaves on short petioles with deciduous stipules; and axillary or terminal peduncles bearing subrotund capitula of approximately 10–12 white, fragrant flowers. The floral structure included a thick, leathery corolla that was funnel-shaped with a 5-parted limb, five short filaments bearing linear anthers, a turbinate germen, a filiform style, and two exserted stigmas, with the calyx exhibiting an entire margin. He placed the species in the Rubiaceae family and recorded its occurrence in the forests of Mithila (modern-day Bihar region) in eastern India, noting the local Hindi name "Koreya." Buchanan-Hamilton's description drew from specimens collected during his extensive botanical surveys in India as a physician and naturalist employed by the East India Company, particularly in the early 19th century across eastern regions including the Coromandel Coast. These surveys aimed to document and utilize the subcontinent's flora for economic purposes, building on earlier works like the Hortus Malabaricus (1678–1693), which covered plants from the Malabar and Coromandel coasts and referenced similar Rubiaceae species. The naming reflects local vernaculars from Mithila, underscoring Buchanan-Hamilton's method of integrating indigenous knowledge into Linnaean taxonomy. The type material for M. coreia consists of a lectotype designated by B. Verdcourt in 1983, preserved at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (herbarium E, barcode E00327886), originating from Buchanan-Hamilton's collections labeled as specimen number 709. Early colonial botanical documentation, including surveys by contemporaries like William Roxburgh, emphasized the species' economic value, particularly its root's capacity to yield a red dye used traditionally for coloring cotton textiles, as noted in regional floras of the Coromandel area. This potential was explored in East India Company initiatives to commercialize natural dyes amid growing textile trade.^[6]

Synonyms and classification

The taxonomic status of Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. remains debated among botanical authorities. While some databases, such as World Flora Online, recognize it as an accepted name within the genus Morinda (family Rubiaceae), the Plants of the World Online (POWO) database, maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, treats M. coreia as a synonym of Morinda pubescens Sm., the earlier basionym published in 1819.^[4] This synonymy is supported by morphological and nomenclatural revisions, with M. pubescens prioritized due to its earlier valid publication date under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.^[7] Key synonyms associated with M. coreia include Morinda pubescens Sm. (1819), Morinda tinctoria Roxb. (1824), Morinda exserta Roxb., Morinda aspera Wight & Arn., and the variety Morinda coreia var. tomentosa (Hook.f.) R.R. Fernandez, which was established based on regional revisions of the genus in India.^[4][7] These synonyms reflect historical descriptions from the early 19th century, often based on overlapping specimens from South Asia, and highlight ongoing efforts to resolve nomenclatural confusion within the genus.^[8] In classification, Morinda coreia (or its accepted synonym M. pubescens) belongs to the genus Morinda L., which comprises approximately 80 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas primarily distributed in tropical regions.^[7] The genus is placed in the tribe Morindeae, subfamily Rubioideae, family Rubiaceae, order Gentianales, class Magnoliopsida, phylum Tracheophyta, and kingdom Plantae.^[7] Close relatives include Morinda citrifolia L. (commonly known as noni) and Morinda royoc L., both sharing arborescent habits and head-like inflorescences characteristic of the tribe.^[7] Phylogenetic studies using DNA sequence data, particularly from chloroplast and nuclear markers post-2010, position Morinda coreia within the broader Asian clade of Morinda, characterized by arborescent species adapted to Old World tropics. These analyses suggest potential for further synonymy or subdivision based on molecular evidence, as the clade exhibits low genetic divergence among Southeast Asian taxa, supporting the merger of M. coreia with M. pubescens.

Description

Habit and growth

Morinda coreia is an evergreen shrub or small tree that typically grows to 5–10 meters in height, though it can reach up to 15 meters under favorable conditions.^[1][9] The bole is characteristically short and crooked.^[1] The bark is rough, featuring deep longitudinal fissures, and is brown in color.^[9] Young branches are quadrangular, becoming rounded (terete) with age, and are pubescent in their early stages, contributing to a dense crown structure.^[10]

Leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits

The leaves of Morinda coreia are arranged oppositely on the stems and are simple in structure. They are typically elliptic to oblanceolate in shape, measuring 15–25 cm in length and 4.5–11.5 cm in width, with an acuminate apex and attenuate to cuneate base.^[11][12][13] The leaf margins are entire, and venation is reticulate with a prominent midrib and 7–10 pairs of secondary veins; the upper surface is bright green and glossy, while the lower surface is paler and may be glabrous or sparsely pubescent.^[11][13][10] Interpetiolar stipules are triangular, approximately 4 mm long, and caducous.^[10] Stems of M. coreia are woody and cylindrical, with young branches terete to subterete, smooth, greenish, and glabrous. Older stems develop shallowly fissured, brownish to gray bark and may feature lenticels; the wood is pale yellow and relatively soft.^[13][12][10] The flowers are bisexual and arranged in dense, leaf-opposed capitula that are globose, measuring 2–5 cm in diameter, borne on peduncles 2–6 cm long. The corolla is hypocrateriform and white, with a glabrous tube 12–20 mm long and oblong lobes 10–15 mm long that are reflexed and glabrous; stamens are exserted with yellow, oblong anthers 6–7 mm long, while the stigma is bilobed and half-concealed, distinguishing M. coreia from close relatives.^[12][13][10] Fruits of M. coreia form a syncarp composed of 10–35 fused drupelets, resulting in an ovoid to globose structure 1–3 cm in diameter that develops from green to black or yellowish upon ripening.^[12][13][10] The seeds within are ellipsoid to ovoid, 6–9.5 mm long, with a rough testa.^[13]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Morinda coreia is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia, with its primary distribution spanning the Indian subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. In the Indian subcontinent, it occurs across various regions of India, including the Western Ghats, Northeast India (such as Assam and the Eastern Himalayas), and coastal areas, as well as in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.^[7][1] In Southeast Asia, the species is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Indonesia, particularly on the islands of Java and Sumatra.^[7][1] It also extends to Myanmar, where it grows naturally in hot zones and at the base of hills like the Bago Yoma.^[14] Beyond its native range, M. coreia is sporadically cultivated in tropical gardens in other regions, but it has not achieved widespread naturalization or invasive status. For instance, limited cultivation occurs in parts of Myanmar and other tropical areas for ornamental or utilitarian purposes, though it remains primarily wild or semi-cultivated within its core distribution.^[1][13] The species typically grows at elevations from 50 to 1,300 meters, with some subpopulations occurring at sea level in coastal regions of India.^[1] Historically, its distribution expanded through human activity, particularly via colonial trade in the 19th century, when it was commercially cultivated in India—especially in Bengal—for the red dye extracted from its root bark, marketed under the trade name "Suranji."^[15] This cultivation facilitated its spread and increased presence in trade networks across tropical Asia.^[1]

Preferred habitats

Morinda coreia primarily inhabits deciduous dipterocarp forests, hill evergreen forests, and mixed deciduous forests, with occurrences also in secondary scrub and along forest edges. It also occurs in open grasslands, pastures, wastelands, roadsides, shorelines, and coastal regions. These habitats are typically found in dry to moist tropical environments across its range.^[1][3] The species favors a tropical monsoon climate, featuring annual rainfall between 1,000 and 2,500 mm, mean temperatures of 20–35°C, and the ability to endure seasonal dry periods of several months. Such conditions support its growth in regions with distinct wet and dry seasons, where precipitation is concentrated in monsoon periods.^[16][17] It prefers well-drained loamy or sandy soils with a pH range of 5.5–7.5, often on lateritic or alluvial substrates in India, which provide adequate aeration and nutrient availability while preventing waterlogging.^[18][17] In Indian habitats, M. coreia commonly associates with teak (Tectona grandis) and sal (Shorea robusta), contributing to the understory or mid-canopy layers of these deciduous formations; in Southeast Asia, it co-occurs with various dipterocarp species in similar forest types.^[16][1]

Ecology

Reproduction

Morinda coreia flowers primarily between March and May in its native Indian range, forming spherical capitula measuring 3–5 cm in diameter on peduncles 2–3 cm long. The inflorescences consist of numerous small, white, tubular, and fragrant corolla tubes approximately 1–2 cm long, with 3–7 oblong lobes per flower; these structures briefly reference the detailed flower morphology described elsewhere. In tropical and subtropical habitats, flowering may extend year-round but peaks during the pre-monsoon period, with individual flowers typically lasting 2–3 days before wilting.^[19][12][2] The species is entomophilous, with pollination primarily facilitated by hawkmoths (Sphingidae) in its natural environment, leveraging the long corolla tubes suited to their proboscises; while self-compatible, outcrossing is favored to enhance genetic diversity. Flowers are hermaphroditic, promoting both self- and cross-pollination, though specific pollinator observations confirm a reliance on nocturnal moths in Indian populations.^[20] Seed production follows shortly after pollination, with green syncarps developing from the fused inflorescences and ripening to black within 2–3 months, typically by June in seasonal climates. Each mature syncarp, ovoid and 2–2.5 cm in diameter, comprises coalescent drupes enclosing numerous oblong, stony pyrenes (seeds), providing a representative example of multiple-seeded fruits in the Morindeae tribe. Seed viability persists for several months under natural conditions, supporting recruitment in dry forest understories.^[19][12] Germination of Morinda coreia seeds occurs in moist, shaded environments typical of its habitat.

Interactions with other organisms

Morinda coreia exhibits seed dispersal primarily through ornithochory, where birds consume its black drupes and facilitate regeneration in South Indian forests.^[21] Vertebrates, including birds, play a key role in frugivory and seed dispersal for this species, contributing to its distribution in tropical dry evergreen forests.^[20] The plant is susceptible to several insect pests, including the citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus woglumi), spiraling whitefly (Aleurodicus dispersus), Oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis), and the hummingbird hawkmoth (Cephonodes hylas) as a host within the Rubiaceae family.^[22] These sucking insects and fruit pests can impact growth, though no major fungal pathogens or root rot diseases have been prominently reported for M. coreia.^[22] Symbiotic interactions include ant-plant mutualism, potentially aiding in defense.^[23] As a member of the Rubiaceae family, *M. coreia_ likely forms arbuscular mycorrhizal associations in forest soils, enhancing nutrient uptake, though specific studies on this species are limited. Leaves experience foliar herbivory in dry evergreen forests, with damage levels around 15-32% in sampled populations.^[24][25] In its ecosystem, M. coreia provides nectar and pollen to pollinators such as bees and hawkmoths, supporting biodiversity in moist and dry deciduous forests of peninsular India.^[23] It contributes to understory diversity as a shrub or small tree, aiding forest structure and regeneration.^[23][26]

Uses

Traditional medicine

Morinda coreia has been utilized in traditional medicine across South and Southeast Asia, particularly in India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, where various plant parts are employed to address a range of ailments including fevers, inflammatory conditions, and digestive disorders._^[27] Roots, bark, leaves, and fruits are the primary parts used, with preparations such as decoctions, pastes, and crushed extracts being common.^[1] In Ayurvedic and Siddha systems of medicine in India and Sri Lanka, root decoctions are traditionally prepared to treat gout, dysentery, fevers, amenorrhoea, cysts, and wounds.^[28] In northeastern Thai (Isarn) traditional medicine, the bark and wood are boiled to create decoctions used as a stomach tonic for treating blood stasis and as an antimalarial agent for fevers._^[27] Leaves and bark are crushed into a paste and applied topically to alleviate joint swelling, stiff muscles, and other inflammatory conditions, such as arthritis-like symptoms.^[14] Fruits, though less commonly used due to their odor, are occasionally fermented into a beverage with purported antimicrobial effects against enteropathogenic bacteria.^[1] Ethnomedicinal surveys in southern India, such as those conducted in Tamil Nadu, document the use of leaves for their antibacterial properties in treating infections, while broader traditional applications in the region include remedies for diabetes, arthritis, diarrhea, and dysentery using root and bark extracts._^[29] _^[2]

Dye production

The root bark of Morinda coreia serves as the primary source for natural dyes, yielding red and yellow pigments primarily composed of anthraquinones such as morindone, rubiadin, alizarin, damnacanthal, and nordamnacanthal. These compounds produce alizarin-like red hues along with chocolate, purple, and black shades, depending on processing conditions. Historically referred to as "Indian madder," the plant has been recognized as a viable substitute for the European madder (Rubia tinctorum) due to its similar anthraquinone profile.^[1][30] Extraction of the dye typically involves chipping the root bark from plants aged 3–4 years, washing it to remove impurities, and soaking or boiling it in water to create a dye bath; the addition of an alum mordant enhances color adhesion and fastness on natural fibers like cotton and silk. This method yields durable shades that resist fading, with pigment content increasing as the plant matures. The process has been adapted in tissue culture techniques using adventitious roots elicited with chitosan to boost anthraquinone yields up to 292 mg/g dry weight for sustainable production.^[1][30][31] In historical contexts, M. coreia (synonymous with Morinda tinctoria) has been employed for textile dyeing across India and Southeast Asia since pre-colonial eras, particularly in hand-block printing and weaving traditions that originated from Indian techniques. It was traded as "Suranji" during colonial periods, serving as an economical alternative to imported madder for producing vibrant reds and related tones on wool, linen, and silk.^[32][1][33] Modern applications remain limited due to synthetic dye dominance, but the plant has seen revival in eco-dyeing initiatives for handicrafts in India, where root extracts are used in sustainable practices on cotton textiles to promote environmentally friendly color production. These efforts emphasize renewable sourcing and mordant-based techniques to achieve consistent, lightfast colors.^[34][30]

Other uses

The wood of Morinda coreia is moderately hard, close-grained, and durable, featuring attractive red or yellow hues with red streaks, though the tree's short, crooked bole limits its suitability for large-scale construction. It is primarily utilized for crafting small household items such as plates and dishes.^[1] In agricultural applications, the fruits of M. coreia are fermented with molasses to produce a liquid fertilizer rich in plant nutrients, resulting from microbial succession involving lactic acid bacteria and yeasts over approximately 56 days. Additionally, a glycoside known as morindin-6-primeveroside extracted from the root bark exhibits insecticidal properties, proving lethal to cockroaches and houseflies when applied topically.^[35][1] As of 2024, fruits have been explored for synthesizing green-emissive nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots used in fluorescent sensors for environmental monitoring, such as ferric ion detection in water.^[36] The plant has no significant recorded edible uses beyond these utilitarian roles.^[1]

Cultivation and propagation

Methods

Morinda coreia is primarily propagated by seeds, sown fresh in a well-drained soil mix under warm and humid conditions.^[37] Semi-hardwood cuttings from healthy branches can be rooted in a moist, well-drained medium.^[37] In vitro micropropagation using nodal segments has been developed as an efficient method for propagation.^[3] Harvesting of roots and bark occurs after 3-4 years of growth, when dye and medicinal compounds have accumulated in the root bark.^[1][3]

Environmental requirements

Morinda coreia is adapted to tropical and subtropical climates in dry deciduous forests and similar habitats. It prefers well-drained soils and demonstrates moderate drought tolerance once established.^[1][37]