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Pelite
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A pelite (from Ancient Greek πηλός (pēlós) 'clay, earth')[3] or metapelite is a metamorphosed fine-grained sedimentary rock, i.e. mudstone or siltstone. The term was earlier used by geologists to describe a clay-rich, fine-grained clastic sediment or sedimentary rock, i.e. mud or a mudstone, the metamorphosed version of which would technically have been a metapelite. It was equivalent to the now little-used Latin-derived term lutite.[4][5][6] A semipelite is defined in part as having similar chemical composition but being of a crystalloblastic nature.[7]
Pettijohn (1975)[8] gives the following descriptive terms based on grain size, avoiding the use of terms such as clay or argillaceous which carry an implication of chemical composition. The Ancient Greek terms are more commonly used for metamorphosed rocks, and the Latin for unmetamorphosed:
| Texture | Common | Ancient Greek | Latin |
|---|---|---|---|
| Coarse | gravel(ly) | psephite (psephitic) | rudite (rudaceous) |
| Medium | sand(y) | psammite (psammitic) | arenite (arenaceous) |
| Fine | clay(ey) | pelite (pelitic) | lutite (lutaceous) |
Barrovian facies series
[edit]In the late 1800s and early 1900s, George Barrow discovered the classic Barrovian-type metamorphic sequence in the southeastern Scottish Highlands.[9][10] It represents a common type of regional pelitic orogenic metamorphism. He observed that as a pelitic rock undergoes higher pressures and temperatures, its mineral assemblage changes from predominantly chlorite to biotite to garnet to staurolite to kyanite to sillimanite. This later turned out to be overly simplistic.
References
[edit]- ^ Wei, Chunjing; Powell, Roger (2003). "Phase relations in high-pressure metapelites in the system KFMASH (K2O–FeO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O) with application to natural rocks". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 145 (3): 301–315. doi:10.1007/s00410-003-0454-1. S2CID 129368566.
- ^ Wei, Chunjing; Powell, Roger; Clarke, Gordon (2004). "Calculated phase equilibria for low‐ and medium‐pressure metapelites in the KFMASH and KMnFMASH systems". Journal of Metamorphic Geology. 22 (5): 495–508. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2004.00530.x. S2CID 128393826.
- ^ πηλός. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
- ^ Potter, P.E., J.B. Maynard, and P.J. Depetris (2005) Muds and Mudstones. New York, New York, Springer. 279 pp. ISBN 978-3-540-22157-9
- ^ Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackson, eds. (2005) Glossary of Geology (5th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia, American Geological Institute. 779 pp. ISBN 0-922152-76-4
- ^ Whitten, D. G. A. (1972). The Penguin Dictionary of Geology. London: Penguin Books. p. 342. ISBN 0140510494.
- ^ British Geological Survey (2023). "Semipelite". BGS Rock Classification Scheme. UK Research and Innovation. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
- ^ Pettijohn, F. J. (1975), Sedimentary Rocks, Harper & Row, ISBN 0-06-045191-2.
- ^ Barrow, George (1893). "On the origin of the crystalline schists: With special reference to the Southern Highlands". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 13 (2). doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(93)80026-9.
- ^ Barrow, George (1912). The geology of the country around Ivybridge and Modbury: with chapter on altered rocks by G. Barrow. [Great Britain. Geological survey] Memoirs of the Geological survey, England and Wales. Explanation of sheet ;349. Printed for H.M Stationery off., by Darling and son.
Further reading
[edit]Winter, John (2013). Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0321592576.
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Pelite
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Pelite (from Ancient Greek πηλός (pēlós) 'clay, mud') is a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay minerals and silt particles, typically forming from the compaction of mud or clay-rich sediments in low-energy depositional environments such as deep marine basins or floodplains.[1]
These rocks are characterized by their high aluminum content, with clay minerals often comprising 60% or more of the composition, alongside significant amounts of silicon, potassium, iron, and magnesium.[1] The median global composition of pelites, based on extensive geochemical analysis, includes approximately 64.1% SiO₂, 19.6% Al₂O₃, 6.9% total FeO, and lesser amounts of TiO₂ (0.9%), MgO (2.4%), and CaO (0.7%), reflecting their derivation from weathered continental crust.[2] Pelites form through the diagenesis of fine detrital sediments, where particles smaller than 0.0625 mm—predominantly clays like kaolinite, illite, and smectite—undergo burial and lithification, often resulting in mudstones or shales with low permeability and fissility.[3] Their formation is linked to sedimentary processes in quiet water settings, where chemical weathering products from source areas accumulate without significant sorting.[3] Due to their abundance in the stratigraphic record—comprising 65–80% of sedimentary sequences—pelites serve as key archives for paleoenvironmental reconstruction and basin analysis.[3][4] In metamorphic contexts, pelites are transformed into pelitic rocks or metapelites, undergoing dehydration reactions that produce diagnostic index minerals such as chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, and aluminosilicates (kyanite, sillimanite, or andalusite), which record pressure-temperature conditions during orogeny.[1] These transformations occur across a range of grades, from low-temperature slates (200–400°C) to high-grade gneisses (>600°C), with mineral assemblages varying by tectonic setting—barrovian (medium pressure) or buchan (low pressure).[1] Pelites are particularly significant in geology for interpreting metamorphic evolution, as their predictable mineral progressions enable mapping of isograds and reconstruction of collisional histories, making them arguably the most crucial rock type for such studies.[2] Additionally, their role in element cycling and as potential barriers in subsurface applications, such as radioactive waste containment, underscores their broader environmental importance.[2][5]
These rocks are characterized by their high aluminum content, with clay minerals often comprising 60% or more of the composition, alongside significant amounts of silicon, potassium, iron, and magnesium.[1] The median global composition of pelites, based on extensive geochemical analysis, includes approximately 64.1% SiO₂, 19.6% Al₂O₃, 6.9% total FeO, and lesser amounts of TiO₂ (0.9%), MgO (2.4%), and CaO (0.7%), reflecting their derivation from weathered continental crust.[2] Pelites form through the diagenesis of fine detrital sediments, where particles smaller than 0.0625 mm—predominantly clays like kaolinite, illite, and smectite—undergo burial and lithification, often resulting in mudstones or shales with low permeability and fissility.[3] Their formation is linked to sedimentary processes in quiet water settings, where chemical weathering products from source areas accumulate without significant sorting.[3] Due to their abundance in the stratigraphic record—comprising 65–80% of sedimentary sequences—pelites serve as key archives for paleoenvironmental reconstruction and basin analysis.[3][4] In metamorphic contexts, pelites are transformed into pelitic rocks or metapelites, undergoing dehydration reactions that produce diagnostic index minerals such as chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, and aluminosilicates (kyanite, sillimanite, or andalusite), which record pressure-temperature conditions during orogeny.[1] These transformations occur across a range of grades, from low-temperature slates (200–400°C) to high-grade gneisses (>600°C), with mineral assemblages varying by tectonic setting—barrovian (medium pressure) or buchan (low pressure).[1] Pelites are particularly significant in geology for interpreting metamorphic evolution, as their predictable mineral progressions enable mapping of isograds and reconstruction of collisional histories, making them arguably the most crucial rock type for such studies.[2] Additionally, their role in element cycling and as potential barriers in subsurface applications, such as radioactive waste containment, underscores their broader environmental importance.[2][5]
Definition and Classification
Definition
Pelite is a fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock characterized by particles predominantly smaller than 0.0625 mm, encompassing clay-sized (< 0.004 mm) and silt-sized (0.004–0.0625 mm) grains, often collectively referred to as mud in field classifications.[6] This grain size distinguishes pelite as the finest detrital sediment, equivalent to lutite in some terminologies.[7] The term "pelite" originates from the Greek word "pēlos," meaning mud or clay, reflecting its composition of clayey or muddy material.[7] In geological usage, pelite broadly encompasses mudrocks such as shale, mudstone, and claystone, which are indurated fine-grained sediments lacking significant fissility in some cases or exhibiting it in others due to aligned clay minerals.[3] Pelite is differentiated from coarser clastic rocks through granulometric classification: psammite for sand-sized grains (0.0625–2 mm) and psephite for gravel-sized grains (> 2 mm).[7] While primarily sedimentary, the term extends to metamorphic equivalents like pelitic schist, where the original fine-grained protolith undergoes transformation.[3]Classification
Pelites are primarily classified based on granulometric criteria, encompassing all siliciclastic sedimentary rocks with grain sizes finer than 1/16 mm (0.0625 mm), which includes both silt (typically 4–63 μm) and clay (<4 μm) fractions. This broad category is subdivided into aleurolites, dominated by silt-sized particles, and pelitites, dominated by clay-sized particles, reflecting variations in the relative proportions of these fine components. Such granulometric distinctions align with schemes like that of Lundegard and Samuels (1980), which categorize mudrocks by silt content: claystones with <33% silt, mudstones with 33–67% silt, and siltstones with >67% silt.[8] Compositional classification of pelites focuses on the dominant clay minerals, which provide insights into provenance and depositional conditions. For instance, kaolinite-rich pelites often form in weathered, humid terrestrial environments due to intense chemical alteration of feldspars, while illite-rich pelites are more common in marine settings where diagenesis favors illitization of smectite precursors. These schemes emphasize the relative abundance of phyllosilicates like kaolinite, illite, smectite, and chlorite, with illite typically comprising the majority in most pelitic rocks.[9][8] Fabric-based subtypes distinguish pelites by their internal structure and degree of induration. Fissile varieties, known as shales, exhibit parallel alignment of clay flakes that imparts a tendency to split along bedding planes, whereas massive, non-fissile forms are termed mudstones. Highly indurated pelites without significant fissility are classified as claystones, reflecting cementation and compaction that obscure original layering.[8] International standards, such as ISO 14689:2017, provide a framework for classifying fine-grained clay-bearing rocks like pelites based on grain size, mineralogy, and structure, designating them as mudrocks when >50% of particles are <63 μm. Folk's classification, originally for coarser clastics and carbonates, has been adapted for mudrocks by emphasizing matrix composition and accessory grains. Similarly, QFL (quartz-feldspar-lithics) ternary diagrams are modified for fine clastics, incorporating argillaceous lithic fragments (e.g., terrigenous, carbonate, or siliceous types) to assess provenance in silt- and clay-dominated assemblages.[8]Composition and Properties
Mineral Composition
Pelites are predominantly composed of clay minerals, which typically constitute 60% or more of the rock volume and vary based on the provenance and depositional environment.[1] The dominant clay minerals include illite, smectite (often as illite-smectite mixed layers), kaolinite, and chlorite. For instance, in Devonian shales of the Appalachian Basin, illite averages 55%, illite-smectite mixed-layer clays 30%, chlorite 10%, and kaolinite 5%.[10] These proportions reflect detrital origins from weathered source rocks, with illite being particularly common due to its stability in marine settings.[11] Accessory minerals in pelites include quartz (typically 10-30%), feldspars, micas, carbonates, and iron oxides, which make up the remaining framework and contribute to the rock's overall texture.[12] Quartz often occurs as silt-sized grains derived from terrigenous input, while micas and feldspars are minor detrital components. Carbonates and iron oxides may form authigenically during early diagenesis, altering the mineral assemblage slightly.[11] The chemical composition of pelites is characterized by high silica (SiO₂ ≈ 64 wt%) and alumina (Al₂O₃ ≈ 20 wt%), reflecting the abundance of clay minerals and quartz.[2] Potassium (K) is notably enriched (around 3-4 wt% as K₂O) due to illite, which incorporates K⁺ in its structure. Trace elements such as titanium (TiO₂ ≈ 0.9 wt%), iron (total FeO ≈ 7 wt%), and magnesium (MgO ≈ 2.5 wt%) vary with provenance.[2] Variations in mineral composition distinguish detrital (transported clays like illite and chlorite) from authigenic minerals (such as neoformed kaolinite or smectite in low-energy environments).[11] In black shales, a subtype of pelite, organic matter influences the composition, with total organic carbon (TOC) reaching up to 20 wt% or more, primarily as kerogen associated with clay surfaces.[13]Physical Properties
Pelites exhibit a fine-grained texture that is typically either laminated, displaying thin, parallel layers due to depositional processes, or massive, appearing homogeneous without prominent layering.[14] This texture arises from the compaction of clay- and silt-sized particles, resulting in low porosity ranging from 5% to 15%, which limits fluid storage and flow within the rock.[15] Color variations in pelites are primarily influenced by iron content and organic matter; common hues include gray for typical compositions, red due to oxidized iron oxides, and black in organic-rich variants.[16] These colors reflect environmental conditions during deposition, with iron oxidation producing reddish tones and preserved organics yielding darker shades.[17] Mechanically, pelites display low permeability, often below 10^{-3} millidarcies (mD), due to their tight grain packing and clay matrix, which restricts fluid migration.[18] When wet, they exhibit high plasticity from clay minerals, allowing deformation without fracturing, though this can lead to swelling or slaking.[19] Compressive strength typically ranges from 20 to 100 MPa, varying with clay content and diagenetic compaction, providing moderate load-bearing capacity in geological settings. The specific gravity of pelites falls between 2.6 and 2.8, reflecting the density of dominant clay and quartz components.[20] Hardness is low, with Mohs values of 2 to 3 for the clay mineral fractions, making pelites susceptible to abrasion and weathering compared to coarser rocks.[21]Formation Processes
Sedimentary Formation
Pelitic sediments form primarily in low-energy depositional environments where fine-grained particles, such as clay and silt, can settle from suspension without significant disturbance by currents or waves. These settings include deep marine basins, lacustrine systems, and floodplains, where the accumulation of mud-sized material dominates due to the absence of high-energy processes like strong tidal action or fluvial scouring. In deep marine environments, pelitic deposition often occurs in subsiding basins far from shorelines, allowing clays to blanket the seafloor over vast areas. Similarly, in lakes and river floodplains, seasonal or episodic flooding contributes to the layering of fine sediments in quiescent waters.[3][22] The primary sources of pelitic material are the chemical and physical weathering of felsic igneous and metamorphic rocks, which release abundant clay minerals such as illite, kaolinite, and smectite through the hydrolysis of feldspars and micas. These clays are then transported to depositional sites via fluvial systems, where rivers carry suspended loads to coastal or inland basins, or through submarine turbidity currents that redistribute material across ocean floors. In continental settings, weathering under humid or temperate climates enhances clay production from granitic terrains, while in marine contexts, eolian dust or hemipelagic fallout can supplement terrigenous inputs. Turbidity currents, in particular, facilitate the rapid downslope transport of mixed fine-grained sediments, leading to graded pelitic layers interbedded with coarser turbidites.[23][24][25] Key processes governing pelitic sedimentation include flocculation, where clay particles aggregate in saline waters to form larger flocs that settle more efficiently than individual grains, thereby promoting deposition in estuarine or marine transitions. In freshwater-to-seawater mixing zones, increased salinity compresses the electrical double layers around clay particles, accelerating flocculation and enhancing settling rates by orders of magnitude compared to freshwater conditions. In glacial lake environments, varve formation exemplifies rhythmic pelitic deposition, with coarser summer layers of silt and clay from meltwater pulses overlain by finer winter laminae as ice cover reduces sediment input, creating annually preserved couplets in proglacial basins. These processes ensure the preservation of fine-grained textures in low-oxygen settings, minimizing bioturbation.[26][27][28] Stratigraphically, pelitic layers are prominent in flysch sequences, where they represent the pelitic background sedimentation between episodic turbidite sands in foreland basins associated with orogenic belts, as seen in Alpine and Appalachian flysch deposits. In anoxic basins, black shales exemplify pelitic accumulation under oxygen-depleted conditions that inhibit organic decay and benthic activity, such as the Devonian-age Marcellus and Ohio Shales in the Appalachian Basin, which formed in restricted epeiric seas with stratified waters. These examples highlight how pelitic sediments record episodes of basin subsidence and sea-level changes, often comprising over 50% of the stratigraphic column in such settings.[29][30][31][32]Diagenetic and Metamorphic Evolution
Pelites, as fine-grained sedimentary deposits, undergo diagenesis primarily through mechanical compaction and chemical cementation during burial. Initial porosities in unconsolidated muds can reach 70-85%, but compaction under increasing overburden pressure expels pore fluids and reduces this to 5-15% in mature mudrocks, representing a porosity loss of approximately 70-80%.[33] This mechanical process dominates early diagenesis at shallow depths (<2 km) and low temperatures (<70°C), with clay minerals like smectite and illite facilitating dewatering while phyllosilicates begin to align parallel to bedding.[34] Cementation in pelites occurs via precipitation of silica (as microcrystalline quartz or chalcedony) or calcite, filling remaining pores and enhancing lithification. Silica cementation is prominent in silica-rich environments at temperatures of 50-150°C, while calcite forms in carbonate-influenced settings at similar depths, often stabilizing the framework against further compaction.[35] Diagenetic stages progress from eogenesis (near-surface, <2 km, biogenic influences) to mesogenesis (burial >2 km, up to 200°C), where clay mineral transformations, such as smectite-to-illite conversion, further reduce permeability and porosity.[36] Transitioning to low-grade metamorphism, pelites transform into slate at temperatures of 150-300°C and pressures around 1-3 kbar, developing slaty cleavage through the preferred alignment of phyllosilicates such as white mica (sericite) and chlorite.[37] This foliation arises from pressure-solution and recrystallization, obliterating primary sedimentary fabrics while preserving the fine grain size (<0.03 mm). Further heating leads to phyllite formation, where mica crystals grow to 0.1 mm, imparting a silky sheen to the cleavage surfaces.[38] At higher metamorphic grades, pelites evolve into schist and gneiss through prograde reactions involving dehydration and mineral growth. In the greenschist to amphibolite facies (300-500°C, 2-10 kbar), index minerals like chloritoid appear in low-pressure settings, followed by staurolite and garnet in Barrovian sequences, marking zones of increasing grade.[39] These reactions, such as chlorite + muscovite → staurolite + quartz + H₂O, produce aligned micas and amphiboles, yielding schistose textures; at upper amphibolite conditions (>600°C), partial melting initiates gneissic banding with K-feldspar and sillimanite.[1] Barrovian zones in pelitic protoliths are defined by progressive index mineral assemblages—chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite—reflecting burial in convergent orogenic belts.[40]Geological Occurrence and Significance
Natural Settings
Pelites, as fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks, are widely distributed throughout the Earth's crust, particularly within Phanerozoic sedimentary basins where they constitute a significant portion of the stratigraphic column. In many such basins, mudrocks—including pelites—comprise up to 60% of the total strata, reflecting their prevalence in low-energy depositional environments that favor the accumulation of clay- and silt-sized particles.[41] Overall, mudrocks represent the most abundant type of sedimentary rock globally, accounting for over 65% of all preserved sedimentary sequences due to their resistance to erosion in certain settings and the ubiquity of fine-grained sedimentation processes.[42] In tectonic contexts, pelites are commonly deposited in foreland basins adjacent to orogenic belts, where they form thick sequences interbedded with coarser sandstones in alternations driven by fluctuating sediment supply from eroding highlands. For instance, Mississippian mudrocks in the eastern Great Basin exemplify foreland basin deposition, accumulating as distal, fine-grained equivalents to proximal coarser clastics.[43] Similarly, in passive margin settings, pelites contribute to expansive shelf and slope deposits, often sealing underlying reservoirs and recording transgressive phases; the Cretaceous shales of the Monte Soro Unit in Sicily illustrate such passive margin mudrock accumulations alongside sandstones.[44] These associations highlight pelites' role in cyclic sedimentary packages across convergent and divergent margins. Pelites play a crucial role in fossil preservation owing to their fine grain size, which minimizes post-mortem disturbance and promotes rapid burial in low-oxygen environments. The Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale lagerstätte in the Canadian Rocky Mountains exemplifies this, where soft-bodied organisms are exceptionally preserved within the mudstones of the Stephen Formation, a thin-bedded sequence of claystones and siltstones that facilitated anoxic conditions for organic remains.[45][46] Modern analogs for pelitic deposition include the clay-dominated sediments of the Mississippi River Delta, where montmorillonite-rich muds accumulate in prodeltaic and delta-front settings, mirroring ancient fine-grained basin fills.[47] The Black Sea provides another contemporary example, with its anoxic bottom waters fostering organic-rich mud deposition analogous to ancient pelites, as seen in Holocene sediments below the chemocline.[48]Role in Metamorphic Series
Pelites play a central role in regional metamorphism, particularly in Barrovian-type sequences, where they serve as the primary protolith for a wide range of metamorphic rocks due to their fine-grained, aluminous composition that facilitates the development of foliation and index minerals. In such settings, pelites undergo progressive metamorphic transformations driven by increasing temperature and pressure, evolving from low-grade slates to high-grade migmatites, which provide key insights into orogenic processes. The Barrovian metamorphic series, first described by George Barrow in the Scottish Highlands, is characterized by a sequence of index mineral zones in pelitic rocks that mark increasing metamorphic grade. These zones include chlorite (lowest grade, ~300-400°C), biotite (~400-500°C), garnet (~500-550°C), staurolite (~550-600°C), and kyanite (~600-700°C and above), reflecting the sequential appearance of these minerals as pelites recrystallize under burial and heating. This progression culminates in the partial melting of pelites to form migmatites at temperatures exceeding 700°C, with the entire series spanning 400-700°C and moderate pressures of 3-8 kbar typical of continental collision environments. Pelites' high aluminum and silica content promotes the stability of these hydrous aluminosilicates, making them ideal for mapping isograds and facies boundaries in orogenic belts. Geodynamically, pelites are integral to metamorphic series in convergent margin settings, such as the Alps and Himalayas, where they act as protoliths for metasedimentary schists and gneisses during crustal thickening and subduction-related burial. In these collision zones, the burial of pelitic sediments to depths of 10-30 km triggers the Barrovian sequence, contributing to the rheological weakening of the crust and facilitating tectonic exhumation. Scientifically, pelites in metamorphic series are invaluable for reconstructing pressure-temperature (P-T) paths using thermodynamic modeling like pseudosections, which simulate mineral assemblages to infer tectonic histories. Additionally, they enable geochronology through Ar-Ar dating of white micas, which record cooling ages during exhumation, providing timelines for orogenic events.References
- https://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Coastal_and_marine_sediments