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Polynices
Prince of Thebes
Member of the Seven against Thebes
Antigone on the side of Polynices, Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant, 1868
AbodeThebes
Genealogy
Parents
SiblingsAntigone, Ismene, Eteocles, and Oedipus
ConsortArgia
OffspringThersander, Adrastus, and Timeas

In Greek mythology, Polynices (also Polyneices) (/ˌpɒlɪˈnaɪsiːz/; Ancient Greek: Πολυνείκης, romanized: Polyneíkes, lit. 'manifold strife' or 'much strife'[1]) was the son of Oedipus and either Jocasta or Euryganeia, and the brother of Eteocles, Antigone, and Ismene. When Oedipus discovered that he had killed his father and married his mother, he blinded himself and left Thebes, leaving Polynices and Eteocles to rule jointly. However, due to a curse placed upon them by Oedipus, their agreement quickly fell apart, and a war for the kingdom ensued. During battle, the brothers killed one another.

Polynices is a central character in the Theban Cycle, a set of stories famous in ancient Greece. He is most well-known from three 5th century BC tragic plays by Sophocles known as the Three Theban Plays: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone, with his death and burial being the main driver of the plot of Antigone. He also features prominently in the Thebaid, Aeschylus' play Seven Against Thebes, and Statius' Thebaid. The story and his character was also of interest to ancient Greek philosophers, and was discussed by Aristotle,[2] Plato,[3] and Epictetus.[4]

Family

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Polynices is named as a son of Oedipus, king of Thebes and son of Laius, and Queen Jocasta, sister of Creon.[5] Some authors have alternately named Euryganeia, daughter of Hyperphas, as the mother of Polynices and his siblings.[5] Ancient Greek geographer Pausanias claimed that this difference in parentage is sourced from the Oedipodia, a poem in the Theban Cycle that is now lost.[6] Through Jocasta's father Menoeceus, Polynices was a descendant of Cadmus, the legendary founder of Thebes whose descendants often suffered great misfortune.[note 1]

Polynices had three full siblings: one younger brother, Eteocles, and two sisters, Ismene and Antigone.[7] Oedipus was both his father and his brother, as he had unknowingly married his own mother, Jocasta. Polynices married Argia, a daughter of King Adrastus of Argos and his wife Amphithea.[8] Together they had three sons: Adrastus, Thersander, and Timeas.[9][10][11]

Mythology

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Oedipus's curse

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In the Thebaid, the brothers were cursed by their father for their disrespect towards him on two occasions. The first of these occurred when they served him using the silver table of Cadmus and a golden cup, which he had forbidden.[12] The brothers then sent him the haunch of a sacrificed animal, rather than the shoulder, which he deserved. Enraged, Oedipus prayed to Zeus that the brothers would die by each other's hand.[13] However, in Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, Oedipus desired to stay in Thebes but was expelled by Creon. His sons argued over the throne, but Eteocles gained the support of the Thebans and expelled Polynices, who went to Oedipus to ask for his blessing to retake the city, but instead was cursed to die by his brother's hand.[14] His son was Thersander.

Quarrel over the rule of Thebes

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There are several accounts of how Eteocles and Polynices shared the rule after Oedipus' departure from the city. In Hellanicus' account, Eteocles offers his brother his choice of either the rule of the city or a share of the property. In Pherekydes, however, Eteocles expels Polynices by force, and keeps the rule of Thebes and the inheritance. The Bibliotheca and Diodorus state that the brothers agree to divide the kingship between them, switching each year. Eteocles, however, was allotted the first year, and refused to surrender the crown.[15]

Eteocles then has his brother exiled, though Polynices soon finds refuge in the city of Argos. There he is welcomed by the king, Adrastus who gives him his daughter, Argia, for his wife. Polynices then pleads his case to King Adrastus, requesting his help to restore him to the throne of Thebes. Adrastos promises to do so and to that end sets out to gather an expeditionary force to march against Thebes. He appoints seven individual champions to lead this assault, one for each of the seven gates in the walls of the city. Together, these champions, including Adrastus and Polynices, are known as the “Seven against Thebes”. The expedition soon proved to be complete disaster, as all of the Argive champions (save for Adrastus) were slain in the ensuing battle; Polynices and Eteocles face off against one another in single combat and kill each other.[citation needed]

Eteocles and Polynices, copy of mural in François Tomb from Vulci made in 4th century BC

Ten years after Polynices' death, the sons of the seven fallen champions gathered to launch a second assault against the city of Thebes to avenge the deaths of their fathers; they are the known as the Epigoni. Unlike their fathers before them, these Epigoni are successful in their attempt to take Thebes, after which they install Thersander, Polynices' son by Argia, as the city's new ruler.

Burial

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In Sophocles' tragedy Antigone, Polynices' story continues after his death. King Creon, who ascended to the throne of Thebes, decreed that Polynices was not to be buried or even mourned, on pain of death by stoning. Antigone, his sister, defied the order, but was caught. Creon decreed death, this in spite of her betrothal to his son Haemon. Antigone's sister, Ismene, then declared she had aided Antigone and wanted the same fate. Creon imprisoned Antigone in a sepulchre; meanwhile the gods, through the blind prophet Tiresias, expressed their disapproval of Creon's decision, which convinced him to rescind his order. He then went to bury Polynices himself, and release Antigone. However, she had already hanged herself rather than be buried alive. When Creon arrived at the tomb where she was to be interred, his son Haemon made as if to attack him and then killed himself. When Creon's wife, Eurydice, was informed of their deaths, she took her own life.

Genealogy

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See also

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Notes

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Polynices

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Polynices (Ancient Greek: Πολυνείκης, romanized: Polyneíkēs, meaning "manifold strife" or "much quarrelling") is a prominent figure in Greek mythology, depicted as the elder son of Oedipus, king of Thebes, and his mother Jocasta, and thus the brother of Eteocles, Antigone, and Ismene. Exiled from Thebes after his younger brother Eteocles usurped the throne they were meant to share alternately, Polynices allies with Argos, marries the daughter of King Adrastus, and leads the Seven Champions against Thebes in a doomed bid to reclaim his birthright, culminating in a fatal duel with Eteocles at the city's seventh gate. His death, fulfilling Oedipus' curse on his sons, sparks further tragedy, as Creon denies him burial rites, branding him a traitor for attacking his homeland, which prompts his sister Antigone's defiant act of interment and her own demise. In the mythic cycle centered on the cursed House of , Polynices embodies themes of fraternal rivalry, exile, and the inexorable pull of fate. Following ' self-blinding and abdication after discovering his incestuous , the brothers' pact to rule Thebes in alternating years dissolves when refuses to relinquish power, driving Polynices into banishment. From Argos, Polynices amasses an army including renowned warriors like , , and , launching the assault immortalized in ' tragedy (467 BCE), where he is portrayed as a determined yet hubristic invader whose shield emblazoned with the figure of Justice ironically underscores his disputed claim. The siege fails, but Polynices and slay each other in single combat, their mutual bloodshed averting Thebes' total destruction while perpetuating the family's doom. Sophocles explores Polynices' legacy in his Theban plays. In Antigone (c. 441 BCE), his unburied corpse becomes the focal point of moral conflict: Creon decrees it rot as punishment for Polynices' "treacherous" assault aimed at incinerating Thebes, yet Antigone insists on honoring him as kin, prioritizing familial and divine duty over state law. This act of piety versus state law drives the play's exploration of divine versus human authority. Later, in Oedipus at Colonus (406 BCE, posthumously produced), a humbled Polynices, now an exile with an Argive army, seeks his blind father's blessing at Colonus near Athens to bolster his campaign against Eteocles. Oedipus, embittered by his sons' abandonment during his own exile, rejects him harshly, cursing both brothers to die by each other's hand and prophesying their intertwined ruin. Beyond these canonical tragedies, Polynices appears in epic traditions like the (a lost ) and later works, symbolizing strife within the Theban royal line that traces back to ' founding curse. His story underscores Greek dramatic preoccupations with hybris (overweening pride), familial bonds, and the inescapability of inherited doom, influencing subsequent literature from ' Roman to modern adaptations.

Family Background

Parentage and Birth

Polynices was the elder son of , king of Thebes, and his wife , born as part of the royal Labdacid dynasty in the city of Thebes. In variant mythological traditions, particularly those recorded by , is referred to as Epikaste, but consistently names her as the mother of ' children, including Polynices. In some accounts, the mother is Euryganeia, daughter of Hyperphas. This parentage placed Polynices at the heart of Thebes' ruling lineage, descended from through and . The circumstances of Polynices' birth were inextricably linked to the inadvertent incestuous union of his parents, which occurred after solved the Sphinx's riddle and was rewarded with the throne of Thebes and marriage to the widowed , unaware that she was his mother. This resolution of the riddle, posed by the Sphinx to terrorize the city, lifted the immediate curse on Thebes and elevated to kingship, leading directly to the birth of Polynices and his siblings through this unwitting familial transgression. The union's tragic irony was only revealed later, but it formed the foundational element of the family's doomed heritage. The etymology of Polynices' name, derived from the Greek roots poly- ("many" or "manifold") and neikos ("strife" or "quarrel"), translates to "manifold strife" or "much quarrelling," a designation that prophetically underscored his destined role in perpetuating familial discord within the Theban royal house. This speaking name, common in to highlight character fates, appears in ' Seven Against Thebes and is analyzed in scholarly examinations of the play's thematic . The Labdacid dynasty's history was shadowed by an ancestral curse originating with , ' father, whose abduction and violation of ' son provoked a prophetic doom on his line, manifesting in cycles of violence and ill-fated procreation that extended to the birth of Polynices and his generation. This inherited fault, rooted in excessive dynastic expansion and moral transgression, imbued Polynices' origins with inevitable tragedy without yet invoking the specific familial curses that would unfold later.

Siblings and Early Relations

Polynices was the eldest son of and , with three full siblings: his younger brother and two sisters, and . In the royal household of Thebes under Oedipus's rule, the siblings shared a privileged upbringing in the Labdacid palace, where familial bonds were initially unmarred by the revelations that would later fracture them. As the elder son, Polynices was positioned as the presumptive heir to the Theban before the family's downfall, reflecting traditional Mycenaean succession practices in mythic narratives. Early interactions among the siblings, as depicted in ancient accounts, emphasized their close kinship ties, with emerging as a particularly loyal figure to her brothers, while displayed a more reserved demeanor within the household dynamics. Prior to the disruptive originating from Oedipus's , the brothers Polynices and are portrayed in sources like Aeschylus's as having agreed to alternate rule over Thebes, suggesting an initial cooperative relation forged in their shared royal youth. This pact underscores the pre-conflict harmony in their , rooted in the stability of the Theban court.

The Theban Succession Conflict

Oedipus's Curse

In the aftermath of Oedipus's self-blinding upon discovering his incestuous marriage to his mother and the of his father , he pronounces a on his sons and Polynices for their failure to support him during his exile from Thebes. This event, depicted in Sophocles' , occurs as Oedipus wanders as a beggar, neglected by his sons who prioritized political power over familial duty. The arises from their refusal to aid him, contrasting sharply with the loyalty of his daughters and . In epic traditions like the Thebais, the curse is pronounced earlier, upon Oedipus's initial exile from Thebes, for his sons' disrespect: first for serving him from a forbidden cup associated with , and second for their unequal sharing of rule—emphasizing their ingratitude but aligning with the core of fraternal slaughter. In ' play, the curse is delivered directly to Polynices in the of Colonus, after the brothers' initial pact to alternate rule has been broken and Polynices exiled, where the humbled prince seeks his father's blessing for a against Thebes. In a moment of prophetic fury, Oedipus declares: "Never to win by arms thy native land, / No, nor return to Argos in the Vale, / But by a kinsman’s hand to die and slay / Him who expelled thee," invoking the Furies, , and the gods to ensure mutual destruction between the brothers over the throne. In ' timeline, has already arrived at Colonus and received protection from ' king by the time of the curse, with the succession conflict already underway. This arrangement of alternating rule had initially been honored after Oedipus's but dissolved into , fulfilling the curse's foundational tension. Thematically, Oedipus's functions as an instrument of divine retribution within the , perpetuating the ancestral guilt originating from Laius's sin of abducting the youth , which invoked Apollo's wrath on the Labdacid house. Scholars interpret it as embodying nemesis—the inescapable justice of the gods—where human failings amplify generational doom, transforming personal neglect into cosmic inevitability without altering fate's course.

Quarrel with Eteocles

Following the exile of their father , and initially agreed to allow their uncle Creon to serve as regent of Thebes to avert the fulfillment of 's that they would divide their inheritance "with iron." Once they reached maturity, the brothers made a pact to share rule by alternating yearly terms, swearing an by the gods to uphold it; accounts vary on the order, with some stating would rule first while voluntarily exiled himself for one year before assuming the throne. Eteocles duly assumed power at the end of Creon's regency but, upon the completion of his year, refused to relinquish the , citing his superior claim and the support of the Theban ; he then expelled Polynices from the city, breaking the sworn agreement and seizing sole control. This betrayal directly enacted the curse's prophecy of mutual destruction, as the brothers' division of power turned to violent rivalry. Driven from Thebes, Polynices sought refuge in Argos, where he gained the protection of King Adrastus; his marriage to Adrastus's daughter Argia not only secured personal asylum but also advanced political ambitions, forging ties that would enable Polynices to rally support against his brother. The union was strategically motivated, as Adrastus's realm offered military resources to challenge Theban dominance, positioning Polynices as a key ally in regional power dynamics. In ' Phoenician Women, the quarrel escalates through failed diplomacy, with attempting to mediate between the brothers on the battlefield; accuses Polynices of tyranny in demanding his share, while Polynices retorts that 's greed violated their , highlighting the intrigue of false promises and unheeded pleas for . This variant emphasizes the personal betrayal and rhetorical clashes that deepened the rift, underscoring how 's ambition overrode familial and divine bonds.

The War for Thebes

Exile and Alliances

Following his expulsion from Thebes by his brother , who refused to honor their agreement to alternate rule, fled into exile and sought refuge in Argos. There, he encountered King Adrastus, who provided him hospitality after intervening in a quarrel between and the exiled outside the city gates. Adrastus, guided by a prophetic dream foretelling the arrival of a and a boar, interpreted the armed exiles as fulfilling this omen and welcomed them warmly. To secure his support, Adrastus arranged the marriage of his elder daughter, Argia, to Polynices, while Tydeus wed the younger daughter, Deipyle; this union positioned Polynices as a potential heir to the Argive throne and solidified Adrastus's commitment to restoring him to Thebes. The , though lavish, was overshadowed by ill omens, including the gift of Harmonia's cursed to Argia, foreshadowing . Through this alliance, Polynices gained access to Argos's military resources, transforming his personal grievance into a broader campaign backed by a powerful kingdom. With Adrastus's aid, Polynices recruited a of champions to lead the expedition against Thebes, forming the famed Seven. Key allies included , driven by his own exile from Calydon and loyalty to Polynices; , a boastful warrior motivated by glory and disdain for divine interference; Eteoclus, an Argive noble; Hippomedon, a strong fighter; , a young Arcadian hunter; and , the reluctant seer compelled by an extracted through deceit, foreseeing his own doom yet bound by honor. The group—the seven champions , , Eteoclus, Hippomedon, , Polynices, and —swore a solemn before , , and Phobos to either sack Thebes or perish in the attempt, placing symbolic tokens on Adrastus's as pledges. These motivations blended personal ambition, familial ties, and martial vows, uniting disparate exiles and Argive nobles under Polynices's cause. Before resorting to arms, Polynices pursued diplomatic channels to reclaim his throne peacefully. He dispatched as an ambassador to Thebes, demanding that relinquish power in accordance with their original pact. not only rejected the overture but ambushed on his return, an act that escalated tensions and justified the impending war in the eyes of the Argives. Throughout his , Polynices endured profound psychological torment, brooding incessantly on his lost kingship and the slow passage of time that prolonged his displacement. In Statius's depiction, he wanders in anguish, tormented by flickering hopes of vengeance and visions of his brother's downfall, his mind a storm of rage, grief, and unquenched desire for home. This inner suffering, compounded by perilous journeys and the weight of Oedipus's , fueled his resolve but eroded his spirit, portraying him as a figure caught between ambition and despair.

The Seven Champions and Siege

The expedition against Thebes, led by Polynices following his exile and alliances with Argive forces, culminated in the famed assault known as Against Thebes. This campaign involved seven renowned champions, each commanding a contingent of the Argive army, targeting the city's seven gates in a strategic siege designed to overwhelm its defenses. The composition of these champions—Polynices, , , Eteoclus, Hippomedon, , and —reflected Polynices' recruitment efforts in Argos and beyond, emphasizing martial prowess and symbolic opposition to Theban rule. As the Argive host advanced toward Thebes, scouts reported the dust clouds and clamor of their approach, signaling an imminent and ferocious assault. The army encamped outside the walls, with positioning themselves at specific to maximize psychological and tactical pressure. This initial phase of the siege was marked by heralds and inscribed shields bearing boasts that amplified the attackers' resolve, while divine omens underscored the perilous stakes. In ' account, the scout's vivid descriptions heighten the drama, portraying the Argives as a tempest poised to engulf the city. The Seven Gates of Thebes formed the focal point of the conflict, with each champion assigned to one as follows:
GateChampionShield Device and Boast
ProetidStarry night sky with full moon; eager for battle, invoking nocturnal assault.
ElectranA man bearing fire with a blazing torch; vows to burn the city, defying even himself.
NeistanEteoclusArmed warrior scaling a wall; proclaims unyielding advance and victory.
Ogygian (near Onca )Hippomedon spewing fire; rages for the fray, threatening utter destruction.
Northern (at Amphion's tomb)Sphinx devouring Theban youth; aims to raze the gates and fortifications.
HomoloidNo device (blank shield); reluctant seer who rebukes the expedition's folly.
Seventh (Hypsistis or Proetid variant)Polynices (Dikē) leading a warrior home; prays to reclaim his paternal inheritance.
These assignments, drawn from the scout's report in ' play, served not only military purposes but also to broadcast the champions' hubris-laden threats, with emblems evoking cosmic defiance and rightful retribution. ' inscription, in particular, exemplifies overweening pride by challenging divine authority, a theme recurrent in . Inside Thebes, orchestrated countermeasures, methodically assigning defenders to match each gate's assailant, thereby countering the Argives' boasts with calculated resolve. For the Proetid Gate against , he chose the noble ; Polyphontes faced at the Electran; Megareus opposed Eteoclus at the Neistan; Hyperbius met Hippomedon near Onca ; defended against at the northern gate; and the steadfast Lasthenes guarded the Homoloid against . reserved the seventh gate for himself, confronting Polynices directly and invoking the gods to avert disaster. This pairing built intense dramatic tension, as weighed each threat against Theban strengths, urging piety and discipline amid the chorus of women's fearful laments. Divine interventions further colored the siege's outset, notably through , the prophetic seer among , who foresaw the expedition's catastrophic end yet participated due to prior oaths. In his rebuke to , Amphiaraus lamented the bloodshed and invoked ' justice, highlighting the moral peril of the assault. His blank shield symbolized reluctant truth-telling, contrasting the others' vaunting displays. Mythologically, the siege embodied the inexorable fulfillment of ' curse on his sons, who were doomed to divide their patrimony "with iron," transforming fraternal strife into civic war. This ancestral malediction, invoked by throughout the defense, framed the conflict as predestined retribution, with the champions' —evident in their defiant boasts—accelerating the curse's realization and underscoring themes of fate versus human arrogance in the .

Death in Combat

As the siege of Thebes reached its climax, Eteocles proposed a single combat between himself and Polynices outside the seventh gate to settle the conflict and spare further bloodshed among their armies, a tradition echoed in ancient accounts of the war. Polynices accepted the challenge, and both brothers agreed to abide by the outcome, with the victor claiming the throne of Thebes; this duel was positioned as a fulfillment of divine and familial doom. In Sophocles' depiction, the confrontation directly realizes Oedipus's curse that his sons would fall by each other's hand, dividing their inheritance in blood rather than land. The duel unfolded with lethal precision, as described in Euripides' Phoenician Women, where struck first, driving his into ' navel and piercing through to the spine, mortally wounding him. In a final desperate thrust, retaliated by plunging his blade under ' ear, severing vital arteries and causing instantaneous death; variants in ' Seven Against Thebes emphasize simultaneity, portraying the brothers as striking and killing one another in mutual without specifying sequence, underscoring the inescapable symmetry of their fate. Weapons were in both traditions, symbolizing the intimate betrayal within the family rather than the broader chaos of battle. In the immediate aftermath, the deaths demoralized the Argive forces, leading to their rout by the Thebans; a divine thunderbolt from , which had earlier struck down the Argive champion as he scaled the walls, further scattered the invaders and sealed their defeat. This cataclysmic event marked the peak of Theban familial , as the brothers' corpses lay entwined before the gate, embodying Oedipus's of shared destruction and the curse's inexorable grip on the house of .

Aftermath and Legacy

Burial and Its Significance

Following the mutual of and during of Thebes, Creon, as the newly installed king, decreed that ' body be denied burial and left exposed as carrion for birds and beasts, branding him a traitor who had attacked his native city, while received full heroic honors with a proper interment. This edict, proclaimed to assert state authority and deter future , explicitly forbade any Theban from performing rites for under penalty of death, emphasizing the distinction between loyal defender and foreign aggressor in Creon's eyes. Antigone, Polynices' sister, openly defied Creon's prohibition, performing a ritual and symbolic burial for her brother out of devotion to familial bonds and unwritten divine laws that mandated honoring the dead regardless of their deeds in life. Captured in the act, she was condemned to live entombment in a rocky vault, a that highlighted the irreconcilable clash between human decree and religious piety, ultimately leading to her suicide and further familial devastation. This confrontation forms the core conflict of ' tragedy , where the burial attempt underscores themes of moral duty overriding civic order. The edict's enforcement proved temporary; after Adrastus, the surviving Argive leader, sought aid from Athens, compelled Thebes to surrender the bodies of champions, including Polynices, allowing their ritual and on Eleusis plain, though some traditions place the full resolution after the Epigoni—the sons of —conquered Thebes a decade later, fulfilling oracles that prophesied victory only upon proper rites for the unburied dead. This delayed interment resolved immediate ritual neglect but perpetuated the saga's prophetic fulfillments. In religious worldview, denying inflicted miasma—a contagious spiritual pollution—upon the community, as unburied corpses trapped souls in , preventing their passage to and spawning restless, vengeful shades that cursed the living with plague, infertility, and endless strife. For Thebes, Polynices' exposure amplified ' ancestral curse, transforming personal into collective doom and exemplifying how ritual violations sustained intergenerational tragedy in the Labdacid line.

Depictions in Ancient Literature

In ' Seven Against Thebes (467 BCE), Polynices serves as the offstage antagonist, embodying the threat of civil war as the exiled leader of the Seven Champions besieging Thebes. Though absent from the dramatic action, his role is vividly conveyed through a scout's report detailing the Argive assailants at the city's seven gates, culminating at the seventh where Polynices' shield depicts a woman labeled Justice guiding a —interpreted as himself—back to reclaim his paternal home, underscoring his claim as the rightful heir displaced by his brother . This portrayal emphasizes themes of strife and inevitable familial doom, aligning with the fulfillment of ' curse without humanizing Polynices through direct speech or presence. Sophocles presents Polynices more tragically in his Theban plays. In Antigone (c. 441 BCE), he is the slain rebel whose corpse lies unburied outside Thebes' walls by Creon's edict, branding him a traitor who attacked his homeland with foreign aid; yet Antigone's defiance frames him as a brother deserving honors, highlighting conflicts between state law and . In Oedipus at Colonus (406 BCE), Polynices appears onstage as a remorseful supplicant, pleading with his blind father for aid in reclaiming the throne from , whom he accuses of usurpation; Oedipus rebukes him for failing to prevent his years earlier and curses both sons to die by each other's hands, portraying Polynices as a flawed figure driven by ambition yet haunted by paternal rejection. Euripides' Phoenician Women (c. 410 BCE) offers a dialogue-intensive depiction, staging the brothers' heated quarrel before in a tense confrontation that exposes mutual accusations of tyranny and betrayal. emerges as a more sympathetic , justifying his Argive as a necessary response to ' refusal to honor their alternating rule, while lamenting the curse's grip on their house; the play culminates in their fatal , with ' death underscoring the futility of fraternal strife amid divine inevitability. Epic treatments expand Polynices' narrative arc. Fragments from the Epic Cycle's (7th–6th century BCE) describe his flight to Argos after Eteocles seizes power, his marriage to Adrastus' daughter, and recruitment of allies for the Theban assault, presenting him as a determined avenger rather than a mere . The Roman epic by (c. 92 CE) elaborates this in twelve books, detailing Polynices' emotional exile, strategic alliances, and heroic yet doomed combat with , often humanizing him through laments over lost patrimony and the war's horrors. Homeric references are sparse and indirect, as in the (Book 4), where Nestor recounts the Seven's failed expedition under Adrastus and Polynices as a of divine wrath against presumptuous mortals. Across these works, Polynices' character evolves from a peripheral figure in early epic allusions to a complex tragic in Athenian drama, with variants reflecting shifting emphases: some traditions, like ', cast him sympathetically as the elder brother wronged by fraternal greed, while others, such as ', vilify him as a foreign-backed usurper endangering Theban , inconsistencies often tied to interpretations of ' curse's fulfillment.

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  32. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/euripides-phoenician_women/2002/pb_LCL011.207.xml
  33. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D376
  34. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.09.57/
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