Hubbry Logo
ParahyanganParahyanganMain
Open search
Parahyangan
Community hub
Parahyangan
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Parahyangan
Parahyangan
Parahyangan
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
A view of a waterfall and country road in Preanger (Parahyangan) region near Sumedang, 1869

The Parahyangan (Dutch: Preanger) or Priangan (Sundanese script: ᮕᮛᮂᮚᮍᮔ᮪) is a cultural and mountainous region in West Java province on the Indonesian island of Java. Covering a little less than one-sixth of Java, it is the heartland of Sundanese people and their culture.[1] It is bordered to the West by Banten province, to the North by the northern coast region of Subang, Cirebon, and Indramayu (former residencies of Batavia and Cheribon), to the east by Central Java province (former residencies of Banyumas and Pekalongan), and to the south by the Indian Ocean.[2]

Etymology

[edit]
Tea plantation in northern Soekaboemi in 1923

The name "Parahyangan" has its origins in Sundanese words that mean "the abode of hyangs (gods)". Parahyangan is a mountainous region, and ancient Indonesians believed that the gods resided on the mountaintops.

A Sundanese legend of Sangkuriang contains the memory of the prehistoric ancient lake in the Bandung basin highland, which suggests that the Sundanese had already inhabited the region since the Stone Age era. Another popular Sundanese proverb and legend mentioned about the creation of Parahyangan highlands is: "When the hyangs (gods) were smiling, the land of Parahyangan was created".

The train serving Jakarta and Bandung was called Kereta Api Parahyangan (lit. 'the Parahyangan train'). Since April 2010, it is merged with Argo Gede to become Argo Parahyangan.

Mapping of Sundanese Culture

[edit]

The Sundanese cultural area in the western part of Java can be divided into several parts, which consist of:

  • Banten Sundanese (Sunda Pakulonan) ; contained the Sundanese cultural area in the west (Banten and also Lampung).
  • Priangan Sundanese (Sunda Pakidulan) ; contained the Sundanese culture in the central and southern highlands.
  • Jalawastu Sundanese (Sunda Pawetanan) ; contained Sundanese culture in the east (e.g. Brebes, Cilacap), located within the province of Central Java.
  • Pantura Sundanese (Sunda Pakaleran) ; contained Sundanese culture in the lowlands of the North Coast region in the western part of Java (inc.Cirebon and Indramayu).

History

[edit]

The region has been home to early humans since the prehistoric era (at least since 9,500 BCE).[3] There have been some prehistoric archaeological findings of early human settlements, in Pawon cave in the Padalarang karst area, West of Bandung, and around the old lake of Bandung.[4][5]

Stones of Bojongmenje temple ruins

The ruins of the Bojongmenje temple were discovered in the Rancaekek area, Bandung Regency, east of Bandung. The temple is estimated to be dated from the early 7th century CE, around the same period — or even earlier than the Dieng temples of Central Java.[6]

The oldest written historical reference to the Parahyangan region dates back to circa 14th century, found in Cikapundung inscription, where the region was one of the settlements within the Kingdom of Pajajaran.[7] Parahyangan is a part of the former Sunda Kingdom. The inland mountainous region of Parahyangan was considered sacred in the Sunda Wiwitan beliefs. The kabuyutan or mandala (sacred sanctuary) of Jayagiri was mentioned in ancient Sundanese texts and is located somewhere in Parahyangan highlands, probably north of modern-day Bandung on the slopes of Mount Tangkuban Perahu.

After the fall of the Sunda Kingdom in the 16th century, Parahyangan was administered by the nobles and aristocrats of Cianjur, Sumedang, and Ciamis, centered in Sumedang Larang Kingdom. These princes claimed as the rightful heir and descendants of the Sunda kings lineage, King Siliwangi. Although the dominant power at that time was held by Banten and Cirebon Sultanates, the Sundanese aristocrats of Parahyangan highland enjoyed relatively internal freedom and autonomy.

In 1617, Sultan Agung of Mataram launched a military campaign throughout Java and vassalized the Sultanate of Cirebon. In 1618, Mataram troops conquered Ciamis and Sumedang and ruled most of the Parahyangan region. In 1630 Sultan Agung deported the native population of Parahyangan after he quashed rebellions in the area.[8] The Mataram Sultanate was involved in a power struggle with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) centered in Batavia. Mataram was gradually weakened later through a struggle for succession of Javanese princes and Dutch involvements in internal Mataram court affairs. To secure their positions, later Mataram kings had made significant concessions with the VOC and had given up many of its lands originally acquired by Sultan Agung, including the Parahyangan. Since the early 18th century, the Parahyangan was under Dutch rule.

Grand Hotel Preanger, Bandoeng circa 1930, located in front of Java's Great Post Road

The area was known as De Preanger during the Dutch colonial period. Its capital was initially located in Tjiandjoer (Cianjur) and later moved to Bandung which gradually developed into an important settlement. By the 19th century, the Dutch had established its hold over most of Java. Moreover, through the construction of Daendels' Java Great Post Road that connected the Preanger plantation area with the port of Batavia and many other parts of Java, the Preanger was open for investment, exploitation, and business. Preanger Regencies Residency, which was founded in 1818, became an essential and productive plantation area during the Dutch East Indies era that produced coffee, tea, quinine, and many cash crops that benefited many wealthy Dutch plantation owners. The Java coffee, promoted worldwide by the Dutch, was the coffee grown in Preanger. In the early 20th century, Bandung grew into a significant settlement and a planned city. The pre-war Bandung was designed as the new capital of the Dutch East Indies, although World War II brought this plan to an end. After Indonesian independence, the Parahyangan is considered the romantic historical name for the mountainous region of West Java surrounding Bandung.[citation needed]

Geography

[edit]
Geocultural regions of West Java
  Bodebek
  Purwasuka
  Rebana
  West Parahyangan
  Central Parahyangan
  East Parahyangan

The area of Parahyangan Tengah (Central Parahyangan) covers the following regencies (kabupaten), together with the independent cities of Bandung and Cimahi, which are geographically within these regencies although administratively independent.

Other than central Parahyangan, there is also an area known as Parahyangan Timur (Eastern Parahyangan). Together with the independent cities of Tasikmalaya and Banjar, which are geographically within these regencies although administratively independent, this area covers the regencies of:

While in the west, the area known as Parahyangan Barat (Western Parahyangan) covers:

The Western Parahyangan area is occasionally mentioned as Bogor Raya (Greater Bogor) if grouped with Bogor Regency and the City of Bogor.

See also

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Parahyangan

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Parahyangan (Sundanese: ᮕᮛᮂᮚᮍᮔ᮪), also known as Priangan, is a cultural and mountainous region in province, , serving as the traditional heartland of the , 's second-largest ethnic group numbering approximately 42 million as of 2023. This scenic highland area, encompassing fertile volcanic landscapes and deep valleys, is renowned for its natural beauty, historical significance, and as the cradle of , arts, and traditions. The name "Parahyangan" derives from the Sundanese "para-hyang-an," meaning "the abode of the divinities" or "place of the gods," reflecting ancient beliefs in , spiritual entities inhabiting the mountains and forests. Geographically, Parahyangan covers the Priangan highlands in southern , centered around the city of , with rugged terrain featuring steep slopes, active volcanoes like , and annual rainfall often exceeding 3,000 mm, supporting lush agriculture and biodiversity. The region spans several regencies, including , West Bandung, , , , , and parts of others, forming a plateau surrounded by mountain ranges. Parahyangan remains a vibrant center of Sundanese identity, predominantly inhabited by . Historically, Parahyangan was the core territory of the (c. 669–1579 CE), whose rulers and events are detailed in the Carita Parahyangan, an Old Sundanese composed around 1567–1608 that chronicles the dynasty from mythological origins to its fall to the Sultanate of Banten. During the Dutch colonial era (17th–19th centuries), the area was known as the Preanger Regencies and became a key site for forced coffee cultivation under the Preanger System, a labor arrangement that exported beans to and shaped the region's economy. Today, Parahyangan blends its cultural legacy with modern development, including education hubs like and eco-tourism focused on its highlands and traditional villages.

Etymology

Linguistic Origins

The term "Parahyangan" originates from Sundanese morphology, combining "para," denoting a place or abode, with "," signifying a , spirit, or divine , and the locative "-an," to form "para-hyang-an," which translates to "abode of the gods" or "land of the divine." This compound reflects the spiritual reverence for elevated landscapes in Sundanese cosmology, where mountains were seen as residences of ancestral spirits. In traditional , the name appears as Parahyangan (ᮕᮛᮂᮚᮍᮔ᮪), also known as Priangan, emphasizing its regional identity. During the Dutch colonial era, the region adopted the name "Preanger," a phonetic adaptation of "Priangan" used in administrative and cartographic documents starting in the early 18th century, as the expanded control over West Java's highlands for plantation economies. This nomenclature persisted in official records, such as those detailing the Preanger Regencies, until the early , evolving from initial mappings that integrated local toponyms into European orthography. The shift highlights colonial linguistic influences on indigenous place names, standardizing "Preanger" for and purposes. Linguistically, "" traces to Austronesian roots, inherited from Old Sundanese "hyaṅ" (meaning "god" or "divinity") and ultimately from Proto-Austronesian *qiaŋ, denoting a supreme spiritual entity. This etymon appears in related across , such as Javanese "" for divine essence and Balinese "" in ritual contexts, illustrating shared conceptual frameworks for animistic and deific reverence in the . Comparable terms, like "kahyangan" in signifying a sacred , underscore the broader Austronesian pattern of associating elevated terrains with spiritual domains.

Mythological and Cultural Associations

In Sundanese , the of recounts a tale of forbidden love and cosmic retribution that explains the of the Parahyangan highlands through volcanic activity, portraying it as an act of divine intervention. According to the story, , a skilled warrior, attempts to fulfill an impossible task set by his mother Dayang Sumbi—whom he unknowingly seeks to marry—by damming the to create a vast lake in the Basin and constructing a boat from a massive tree. In a fit of rage upon discovering the truth, he kicks the unfinished boat, which lands upside down and becomes Mount , while the dam's rupture floods the area, shaping the surrounding volcanic landscape of Parahyangan. This narrative not only echoes prehistoric volcanic events, such as the ancient Lake Bandung formed during the Pleistocene epoch (approximately 126,000–20,000 years ago), but also symbolizes the gods' enforcement of moral order, with the highlands emerging as a transformed sacred terrain born from human hubris and supernatural forces. The name Parahyangan derives from its association with "," revered in pre-Hindu Sundanese cosmology as ancestral spirits or deities embodying supernatural powers over nature and the unseen world. These , often personified as Sang Hyang, were believed to inhabit elevated realms, controlling elements like forests, rivers, and mountains, and serving as intermediaries between humans and the supreme creator. In ancient texts such as the Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian, are depicted as omnipotent entities subordinated only to the monotheistic divine force, influencing daily rituals and ancestor veneration among early Sundanese communities. Within the Sundanese , Parahyangan functions as a sacred, elevated in , contrasting sharply with the profane coastal lowlands and representing a spiritual high ground connected to divine and ancestral presences. This cosmological distinction positions the highlands as Kahyangan, an abode where reside, fostering a sense of identity tied to reverence for mountainous terrains as sites of purity and proximity to the . The Carita Parahyangan, a late 16th-century chronicle composed around 1567–1608, reinforces this by portraying the region as a divinely ordained heartland, integral to Sundanese spiritual geography and communal harmony.

History

Prehistoric and Ancient Settlements

The earliest evidence of human habitation in Parahyangan dates to approximately 9,500 BCE, as indicated by of artifacts and human remains from Pawon Cave in West Regency. This site, located near the ancient Lake , reveals a prehistoric society through findings such as flaked stone tools made from and , bone implements including deer spearheads, and jewelry crafted from teeth and mollusk shells. These artifacts, spanning occupations from 11,700 to 5,600 years , demonstrate reliance on marine and terrestrial resources, with evidence of processing and animal in a landscape shaped by volcanic activity and seasonal lakes. Further illustrating early Hindu-Buddhist integration, the Bojongmenje temple ruins in Regency, dated to the 7th-8th centuries CE, represent a Hindu built amid the waning influence of . Constructed from stone with a square base and fragments of pedestals, nandi statues, and antefixes, the temple indicates ritual practices tied to worship and continuity of coastal kingdom traditions into the highlands. Its location in the Priangan highlands points to expanding settlement patterns, where elite sponsorship of such structures fostered and ideological ties to broader Southeast Asian polities. These sites collectively underscore Parahyangan's role as a transitional zone from prehistoric to ancient agrarian societies influenced by external cultural exchanges.

Medieval Period and Sunda Kingdom

The medieval period in Parahyangan marked the consolidation of the as a prominent Hindu-Buddhist polity in the highlands of western , established circa 669 CE as a successor to the Kingdom, with key epigraphic evidence such as the Cikapundung inscription of 1441 CE and discovered near the in present-day representing references to Parahyangan (then known as Pajajaran or Priangan) as a core territory of the kingdom, detailing administrative and ritual matters in . This artifact underscores the kingdom's organized governance and cultural continuity in the area, building on earlier Sunda-Galuh traditions but formalizing Parahyangan's role as the political heartland. Under influential rulers such as (r. 1482–1521), also revered as Prabu Siliwangi in Sundanese lore, the experienced its zenith, characterized by territorial stability, economic prosperity through trade in pepper and , and diplomatic maneuvering. Sri Baduga's reign fostered a golden age of relative peace, with Pakuan Pajajaran serving as the fortified capital in the Parahyangan highlands, symbolizing the kingdom's resilience amid regional power shifts. The kingdom notably resisted expansionist pressures from the Majapahit Empire of eastern Java, exemplified by the Bubat incident of 1357, where Sunda envoys rejected Majapahit hegemony during a proposed marriage alliance, resulting in a tragic clash that solidified Sunda's independence and aversion to subordination. This defiance preserved Parahyangan's autonomy, preventing full integration into Majapahit's sphere despite ongoing border tensions. The advent of Islamic influences in Parahyangan began with the decline of the in the late , culminating in its conquest by the , which supplanted Hindu-Buddhist dominance with Islamic governance and culture. In 1579, Banten forces, under Maulana , overran Pakuan Pajajaran after a series of invasions starting in the 1520s, including the earlier capture of coastal ports like in 1527; this marked the effective end of Sunda rule and the integration of Parahyangan's inland territories as vassal lands under Banten's . The 's influence facilitated the gradual Islamization of the region through royal patronage, intermarriages with local elites, and the establishment of (Islamic boarding schools), blending Sundanese customs with Islamic practices while maintaining Parahyangan's distinct highland identity.

Colonial Era under Dutch Rule

The (VOC) established control over the Parahyangan region, known as "De Preanger" in Dutch administration, in the late , with formal territorial demarcation into five regencies—Sumedang, Cianjur, Bandung, Limbangan, and Sukapura—by 1684 to facilitate through local chiefs. This laid the groundwork for the Preanger System, a forced cultivation regime introduced in the early that mandated as a form of tribute, transforming the highlands into a key export hub for the VOC's monopoly trade. By 1720, households were compelled to deliver at below-market prices, with quotas escalating to 1,000 trees per family by 1795, yielding over 86,000 pikul annually by 1793 and supporting colonial revenues through low-cost labor mobilization. The Priangan Residency was established during the in 1815, with its capital at . In 1864, the administrative center was relocated to , establishing it as the colonial capital of . This move coincided with the construction of the (Groote Postweg), a 1,000-kilometer coastal highway from Anjer to Panarukan completed under Daendels' orders, which passed through and enhanced connectivity for administrative oversight, troop movements, and transport from inland plantations. The infrastructure spurred Bandung's growth, with its population rising from 12,000 in 1850 to 38,000 by 1906, fostering a planned colonial urban layout around the alun-alun square that integrated European-style governance with local structures. The Preanger System evolved into the broader under Governor-General in 1830, intensifying forced labor in Parahyangan where quotas demanded up to 137 days of annual from households, diverting resources from subsistence farming and causing food shortages and famines, such as those in 1833–1834. Local agriculture suffered as sawah fields were requisitioned for , leading to over 50% landlessness among families by 1860 and reliance on that eroded crop diversity and soil fertility. In the , these impositions fueled a regrowth of Sundanese resistance movements, manifesting in desertions, sabotage like destroying trees, and uprisings tied to the (1825–1830), where grievances against cultivation burdens contributed to widespread unrest against Dutch exploitation. The system's abolition in 1870–1871 via the Agrarian Law introduced land rents and reduced quotas, though colonial economic priorities persisted into the early .

Post-Independence Developments

Following Indonesia's proclamation of independence on August 17, 1945, Parahyangan emerged as a vital hub of resistance during the National Revolution (1945–1949), with serving as a central base for republican forces and youth militias known as pemuda. The region's strategic importance stemmed from its position as the Sundanese heartland, where local fighters mobilized against returning Dutch colonial forces and their British allies, contributing to the broader struggle for sovereignty. A pivotal event was the on March 23, 1946, when retreating Indonesian militias deliberately torched much of southern —including residential areas and the Chinese quarter—in response to a British ultimatum demanding evacuation within 48 hours; this act of scorched-earth resistance forced approximately 200,000 residents to burn their homes, destroying much of southern and symbolized the fierce determination of Parahyangan's inhabitants to deny resources to occupiers, though it inflicted severe hardship on the local population. By 1950, Parahyangan was formally integrated into the newly sovereign Republic of Indonesia as part of province, established under Law No. 11/1950, which marked the transition from the short-lived federal Republic of the (1949–1950) to a under the Provisional of 1950. This integration involved administrative reforms that centralized governance, dissolving federal structures and reorganizing local regencies—such as those in the Priangan highlands—under provincial authority to foster national unity and streamline post-revolutionary reconstruction. These changes built on the region's colonial-era foundations, like 's planned grid layout, to support emerging national institutions. The 1955 Asian-African Conference in further elevated Parahyangan's global profile, hosting delegates from 29 nations to promote , non-alignment, and economic cooperation; the event's final communiqué emphasized and , laying groundwork for the and affirming Indonesia's leadership in the developing world. In the late , Parahyangan experienced rapid urban expansion and infrastructure development, particularly in , driven by policies and from the 1980s onward, which attracted migration and investment to transform the area into a hub of and . The construction of highways linking to in the 1970s and 2000s, alongside the growth of institutions like the (founded 1920 but expanded post-independence), facilitated population influx and the rise of creative sectors such as fashion and design clusters in areas like Cihampelas. By the , these developments positioned as an emerging "creative city," with local governance and universities fostering arts and media initiatives that capitalized on the region's to drive innovation and .

Geography

Location and Boundaries

Parahyangan, also known as Priangan, is a cultural and geographical region situated primarily in the southern portion of province on the island of , . It spans approximately 21,524 km², representing about one-sixth of Java's total land area. The region's boundaries are defined as follows: to the west by province, to the north by the northern coastal lowlands of (historically part of the Batavia residency), to the east by the former residency of , now in , and to the south by the . Natural features such as the Salak-Gede and Burangrang-Tangkubanperahu mountain ranges form the northern limit, while the Citanduy River marks the eastern edge, and coastal inlets like Pelabuhanratu define the western and southeastern perimeters. Administratively and culturally, Parahyangan is subdivided into three main divisions: Western Parahyangan, Central Parahyangan, and Eastern Parahyangan, reflecting historical residency structures from the colonial era. Key urban centers include , the provincial capital and central hub of the region; Tasikmalaya in the east; and Ciamis, also in the eastern division. The region is predominantly mountainous, shaping its distinct highland identity.

Topography and Natural Features

Parahyangan, also known as the Priangan region, is characterized by a rugged dominated by highlands and volcanic formations that form the core of its physical . The area encompasses the Priangan highlands, a elevated plateau rising to approximately 2,000 meters above , shaped by extensive volcanic activity over millennia. This highland terrain creates a series of undulating plateaus and steep escarpments, with the transitioning from densely forested slopes to open basins, providing a natural framework for the region's distinctive geography. The topography is markedly influenced by a chain of volcanoes that define the Priangan highlands, contributing to its dynamic and fertile landforms. Prominent among these is Mount Tangkuban Perahu, an active reaching 2,084 meters in elevation, featuring multiple craters from historical eruptions that add to the area's dramatic relief. Other notable volcanic features include Mount Gede and surrounding peaks, which form part of the broader stretching across , with elevations often exceeding 2,000 meters and steep gradients that characterize the highland ridges. Major rivers originating from these volcanic highlands carve through the terrain, forming deep valleys and supporting expansive lowland areas. The , the longest in at 269 kilometers, begins at Mount Wayang (1,700 meters) and flows northward, creating fertile alluvial valleys along its course through the Parahyangan region. Similarly, the Cimanuk River drains an inter-mountain basin surrounded by volcanoes such as Mount Tampomas and Mount , channeling water from highland sources to form terraced valleys that enhance the region's hydrological diversity. Volcanic soils, enriched by ash deposits from ancient eruptions, underpin the area's rich , fostering unique ecosystems in craters and surrounding slopes. These andesitic soils promote diverse and adapted to the nutrient-rich but acidic environment, with features like hot springs—such as those near Ciater, fed by geothermal activity from —emerging as natural manifestations of ongoing subsurface . Craters from past eruptions, including the Queen's Crater (Kawah Ratu) at , serve as preserved geological records, often filled with sulfurous fumes and hydrothermal deposits that highlight the region's active tectonic setting.

Climate and Environmental Characteristics

Parahyangan exhibits a tropical highland characterized by mild temperatures and significant seasonal rainfall variations. Average annual temperatures range from 18°C to 24°C, influenced by the region's between 500 and 2,200 meters above , which moderates the equatorial heat typical of lowland . The area experiences two distinct seasons: a from October to April, driven by winds, and a drier period from May to , though light rains persist year-round. Annual varies from about 2,000 mm in lower elevations to over 3,000 mm in the highlands, supporting lush but also contributing to frequent and . Volcanic in the region creates localized microclimates, where slopes around peaks like Mount Tangkuban Perahu experience cooler, more humid conditions than surrounding valleys. The environmental characteristics of Parahyangan highlight its role as a , particularly within protected areas such as , which spans over 1,100 square kilometers across the highlands. This park preserves diverse ecosystems, including montane rainforests, subalpine meadows, and wetlands, hosting endemic species like the (Panthera pardus melas) and over 200 bird species, including 32 endemics such as the (Nisaetus bartelsi). Flora is equally rich, with ancient dipterocarp trees, orchids, and ferns thriving in the humid conditions, alongside human-modified landscapes like expansive tea plantations that integrate with natural contours. These plantations, established in the , now cover significant highland areas and support agro-biodiversity through shade-grown cultivation. Environmental challenges in Parahyangan stem from historical and contemporary pressures that threaten its ecological integrity. Colonial-era agriculture, particularly Dutch-introduced and plantations in the Priangan highlands during the , led to widespread of mountain slopes, eroding soil stability and altering hydrological cycles. In modern times, rapid around cities like has intensified threats to watersheds, including the basin, through , increased , and from industrial effluents and untreated sewage. These developments exacerbate flood risks during the and reduce water recharge for downstream regions, underscoring the need for integrated conservation efforts to protect the area's vital environmental services.

Culture

Sundanese Traditions and Identity

Parahyangan serves as the cultural heartland of the , encompassing the highland plateau in central and southern where their distinct ethnic identity has flourished independently from the Javanese cultural influences prevalent in central and eastern . This region, often referred to as Priangan, embodies the core of Sundanese ethnicity through its agrarian roots and communal values, setting it apart from the more hierarchical and court-centered Javanese traditions. Central to Sundanese traditions in Parahyangan are practices deeply intertwined with agrarian life, such as the Seren Taun harvest ritual, which expresses gratitude for the earth's bounty and reinforces community bonds in villages like Cigugur. Similarly, performances, involving instruments played collaboratively, accompany planting and harvest ceremonies, symbolizing harmony with nature and the fertility of the land in Sundanese communities. These rituals highlight the Sundanese emphasis on participation and , preserving cultural continuity amid modernization. A foundational social in Parahyangan is encapsulated in the principle of "silih asah, silih asih, silih asuh," which promotes mutual instruction (silih asah) for skill-building, mutual love (silih asih) for equality and , and mutual nurture (silih asuh) for communal responsibility and unity. This guides interpersonal relations and , fostering a cohesive identity that distinguishes Sundanese in Parahyangan by prioritizing egalitarian over individualistic pursuits.

Language and Oral Heritage

The , known locally as basa Sunda, serves as the primary linguistic medium in Parahyangan, the cultural heartland of the in , . It belongs to the Austronesian family and is spoken by approximately 40 million people, predominantly in this region. The language exhibits dialectal variations across Parahyangan's subregions: the Western dialect, prevalent in areas like , features distinct phonological shifts such as softer vowel sounds; the Central or Priangan dialect, centered in , , and , is considered the standard (basa lulugu) and is used in education, media, and formal communication due to its widespread adoption during the colonial era; while the Eastern dialect, found in and surrounding areas, shows influences from Javanese, including lexical borrowings and intonation differences. These variations reflect geographic and historical influences, yet remains high, fostering cultural unity. Central to Parahyangan's oral heritage is the tradition of pantun Sunda, a narrative performance art that intertwines storytelling, poetry, and music, often recited during communal gatherings or rituals to preserve historical and moral tales. Pantun narratives, such as those recounting the deeds of ancient Sunda kingdoms like Pajajaran, are delivered by a solo performer (sindag) accompanied by the kacapi zither, blending sung verses (kawih) with prose explanations (carita) to engage audiences for hours. This form, dating back centuries, embodies didactic elements, teaching values like harmony and ancestry reverence, and remains vital in rural communities like the Baduy, where it integrates into ceremonies despite declining in urban areas. Complementing this is the custom of carita pantun, extended oral stories that guide ethical conduct, passed down generationally without written aids. Additionally, Sundanese oral interactions emphasize undak usuk basa, a system of speech levels promoting gentle, respectful dialogue—ranging from casual (basa loma) to highly polite forms (basa sopan) using honorifics like abdi for "I" in formal contexts—to maintain social harmony and avoid conflict in daily life. Historically, Sundanese writing evolved from ancient Indic scripts like Kawi, a Brahmi-derived system used in 8th–16th century inscriptions across Java, which influenced the Old Sundanese script (aksara Sunda kuno) from the 14th to 18th centuries for palm-leaf manuscripts (lontar) containing epics and religious texts. This script, with its rounded characters adapted for local phonetics, was supplanted by the Latin alphabet during Dutch colonial rule in the 19th century, facilitated by missionary printing presses and standardized in the early 20th century for broader literacy. Post-independence, amid the dominance of Bahasa Indonesia as the national language, efforts to preserve the Sundanese script intensified; the modern form was standardized in 1996 and added to the Unicode Standard in 2008, it is now taught in schools and used in cultural signage, though Latin remains predominant for practicality. These preservation initiatives, supported by linguistic institutions, ensure the script's role in safeguarding Parahyangan's literary heritage against assimilation pressures.

Arts, Architecture, and Festivals

Parahyangan's artistic heritage is deeply rooted in Sundanese traditions, featuring distinctive forms of and that reflect the region's cultural identity. Wayang golek, a form of three-dimensional wooden rod puppet theater, emerged in the Sundanese highlands during the Islamic period as puppeteers from Java's north coast migrated inland, creating Sundanese wayang golek purwa to perform stories blending Islamic and pre-Islamic narratives. These performances, led by a dalang and accompanied by music, use elongated, abstract puppets to convey moral and heroic tales, serving as a vital medium for and in Parahyangan villages. Complementing this, Priangan batik—also known as Parahyangan batik—developed in the 20th century across areas like Ciamis, Tasikmalaya, and , showcasing Sundanese aesthetics through natural and geometric motifs. Styles vary by locale: Garut employs lereng areuy (vine patterns) and cupat manggu (palm leaf designs) in earthy tones; Tasik features abstract winged motifs and indigo-black hues from tarum plants; while Ciamis draws on (diagonal) patterns in warm colors like red and orange, adapting classical influences to local simplicity and functionality. Traditional architecture in Parahyangan emphasizes with the natural , exemplified by the Sunda, elevated wooden houses designed for elevation and ventilation in the humid highlands. These structures, seen in communities like Kampung Naga in , feature a julang ngapak (bird-like) gabled roof thatched with ijuk fibers from the sugar palm (), providing durability against heavy rains while symbolizing cosmological layers—upper (roof), middle (living space), and lower (foundation on stone plinths). Walls of plaited (bilik) and wooden plank floors further integrate sustainable local materials, fostering a modest aesthetic aligned with Sundanese values of simplicity and environmental respect. degung ensembles, unique to Sundanese culture, are integral to these architectural spaces, housed in community halls (bale) for performances that unite villagers. This small orchestra, comprising metallophones, gongs, drums, and flutes tuned to the degung scale, originated among Parahyangan but evolved post-independence into communal property, accompanying dances, ceremonies, and modern fusions like jaipong to promote social cohesion. Festivals in Parahyangan blend ancient rituals with contemporary creativity, reinforcing cultural continuity amid urbanization. The Bandung Creative City Forum (BCCF), established in 2008 as a hub for over 50 creative groups, organizes events like Helarfest—a triennial gathering since 2009 showcasing fine arts, design, fashion, music, and —to prototype urban solutions and elevate 's status as a City of Design. Complementing this, the Ngaruat tradition embodies Sundanese thanksgiving practices, such as Ngaruat Cai, where communities gather for rituals to bless natural resources like rivers, offering prayers and symbolic items to ensure prosperity and unity, often tied to agrarian and in the volcanic highlands.

Society and Demographics

Population and Ethnic Composition

Parahyangan, a key cultural region within province, has an estimated population exceeding 22 million as of 2023, based on projections from the 2020 data for its constituent regencies and cities. This figure reflects steady growth from the approximately 20 million recorded in the 2020 across areas including Bandung City, Bandung Regency, West Bandung Regency, Cimahi City, Sumedang Regency, Garut Regency, Cianjur Regency, Tasikmalaya City, Tasikmalaya Regency, Ciamis Regency, Kuningan Regency, and Pangandaran Regency. The is densely concentrated in the , or Bandung Raya, which includes City, Bandung Regency, West Bandung Regency, and City and houses around 9 million residents as of 2023. This urban core drives much of the region's demographic density, with the broader highlands featuring more dispersed rural settlements. Ethnically, Parahyangan is predominantly Sundanese, forming the vast of the and underscoring its role as the historical and cultural heartland of this group. Small minority communities include Javanese migrants in peri-urban zones, Betawi descendants in trading hubs, and Chinese-Indonesian populations concentrated in Bandung's commercial districts. A pronounced urban-rural divide characterizes the region's demographics, with ongoing migration from rural highland areas to fueled by access to higher education and opportunities in services and . This trend has intensified since the , contributing to Bandung's expansion while straining rural communities in regencies like and .

Religion and Spiritual Beliefs

Parahyangan, the cultural heartland of the in , , is overwhelmingly Muslim, with comprising 97.4% of the province's population as of 2023. This dominance reflects the historical in the region since the , when it became the formal religion among the Sundanese, integrating local spiritual traditions rather than supplanting them entirely. Sundanese Islam exhibits significant syncretism with pre-Islamic animist beliefs rooted in Sunda Wiwitan, a traditional system emphasizing the veneration of natural forces, ancestral spirits, and the supreme deity known as Sang Hyang. The concept of hyang—unseen spiritual entities embodying divine or ancestral power—persists in blended practices, where hyang are often equated with Allah while honoring sacred natural sites. For instance, Kawah Putih, a volcanic crater lake in the highlands near Bandung, is revered in Sundanese folklore as a taboo realm inhabited by ancestral spirits, where sulfuric mists were believed to house otherworldly beings, drawing pilgrims for reflection and offerings that reinforce spiritual harmony with nature. These animist elements, considered compatible with Islamic orthodoxy by many locals, manifest in rituals that blend Quranic recitations with invocations to hyang for protection and prosperity. Remnants of the region's Hindu-Buddhist past, dating to the (8th–16th centuries), endure in archaeological sites like Candi Cangkuang, an 8th-century Shivaist temple in , the only fully restored Hindu structure in , symbolizing the era's Shaivite devotion. Christian minorities, introduced during the Dutch colonial period (17th–20th centuries) through missionary efforts focused on education and trade communities, constitute a small but influential presence, exemplified by institutions like Parahyangan Catholic University in , which promotes amid the Islamic majority. A key spiritual practice in Parahyangan is ziarah, or to keramat—sacred graves of revered saints, ancestors, or (Islamic holy figures)—such as those in honoring figures like Syekh Musa or Dalem Cikundul, where devotees seek blessings through prayer and communal gatherings. These visits, often timed with or personal milestones, foster community cohesion by uniting families and neighbors in shared rituals that blend Sufi mysticism with Sundanese reverence for the deceased, reinforcing social ties and cultural identity across generations.

Social Structure and Modern Life

Parahyangan's social structure reflects the Sundanese emphasis on and communal , with traditional family units often extended and interdependent, centered around mutual support in rural settings. The practice of gotong royong—community cooperation for collective tasks like village maintenance or assistance—remains a cornerstone in villages, promoting social cohesion and reciprocity without hierarchical impositions. However, , especially in , has transformed these structures, leading to a rise in nuclear families and increased mobility as rural residents migrate to cities for work and , gradually eroding extended kinship networks while preserving core values of togetherness. Education has emerged as a driving force in contemporary Parahyangan, with hubs like Universitas Katolik Parahyangan (UNPAR) in offering programs in fields such as , , and social sciences, fostering and professional skills among youth. The province's literacy rate for individuals aged 15 and over reached 98.49% in 2022, enabling high and youth mobility, as graduates pursue careers in urban centers or migrate internationally, contributing to social upward movement and cultural exchange. This educational emphasis supports adaptive lifestyles, blending traditional values with modern aspirations. Modern influences in Parahyangan are evident in Bandung's creative economy, designated a City of Design in 2015, where a youthful —68% under 40—drives through collaborative initiatives like workshops and urban games that engage communities in problem-solving. These efforts enhance lifestyle dynamism, promoting creativity as a tool for social progress. Yet, challenges persist, including severe from rapid vehicle growth (over 400% from 2004 to 2014), resulting in average weekday commutes of 65 minutes and hindering daily mobility. Additionally, income inequality remains moderate, with a of 0.416 as of March 2025, exacerbating urban-rural divides amid demographic shifts toward greater .

Economy

Agriculture and Natural Resources

Parahyangan's agriculture benefits from its fertile volcanic soils, formed by the weathering of lava and ash from surrounding mountains, which support a range of cash and staple crops. Rice remains the primary staple, cultivated extensively in irrigated lowlands and terraced highlands, contributing significantly to West Java's output as one of Indonesia's leading rice-producing provinces. The region's highland plateaus, at elevations around 300 to 1,500 meters, are particularly suited for plantation crops such as tea and coffee, which thrive in the misty, temperate conditions and nutrient-rich andisols. The historical Preanger System, introduced by the in the and lasting until 1916, shaped modern management in Parahyangan (then known as Preanger or Priangan). This revenue mechanism required local regents to deliver fixed annual quotas of without imposing additional taxes, relying on traditional tributes of and labor; it transformed the highlands into a major export hub, generating substantial revenue until the mid-19th century when became Java's top export. Legacies of this system persist in organized practices, with and tea estates still dotting areas like Pangalengan and Lembang, where smallholder and large-scale farming coexist. Natural resources extraction complements agriculture, with highland forests providing timber from species such as and , supporting local wood carvings and furniture industries. These montane rainforests, dense in the upland plateaus, have been selectively logged since colonial times, though has led to conservation efforts. Additionally, cinchona plantations, introduced in the mid-19th century, yield bark rich in , historically centered in Priangan areas like Lembang and West , once supplying over 90% of global demand before production declined post-World War II. Since the 2000s, sustainable practices have gained traction in response to and degradation from intensive cultivation and historical . initiatives, particularly for and , have expanded in West Java's highlands to mitigate erosion rates exacerbated by the Green Revolution's chemical inputs, promoting through reduced and natural fertilizers. These efforts, supported by NGOs and government programs, aim to preserve the volcanic soils' fertility while addressing and , with case studies showing improved viability for smallholders in districts like .

Industry and Urban Development

Parahyangan, encompassing key urban centers like and in , has emerged as a hub for modern industries, particularly in textiles, (IT), and creative sectors. , often dubbed Indonesia's "," hosts vibrant ecosystems for IT startups and , with emerging as a cornerstone since the early . The region's creative , led by and , benefits from institutions like Institut Teknologi Bandung, fostering in apparel and digital media. These sectors leverage Parahyangan's skilled workforce and proximity to , driving economic diversification beyond traditional . Industrial zones in , adjacent to , specialize in assembly and automotive parts manufacturing, supporting Parahyangan's integration into national supply chains. These zones, part of 's broader manufacturing landscape, attract for component production, including wiring harnesses and electronic modules for vehicles. The manufacturing sector in , bolstered by such clusters, contributes approximately 20% to the province's GDP, underscoring Parahyangan's role in Indonesia's industrial output. Rapid urban development in Parahyangan has brought challenges, including uncontrolled sprawl that strains and exacerbates flooding in low-lying areas around . Since the 2010s, initiatives like 's program have aimed to address these issues through digital governance, integrated , and sustainable to curb expansion and promote compact urban growth. These efforts, supported by national policies, seek to balance industrial expansion with environmental resilience in the densely populated highlands.

Tourism and Cultural Economy

Parahyangan's tourism sector thrives on its diverse natural and historical attractions, with major sites such as the , floating markets in Lembang, and Bandung's collectively contributing to over 167 million domestic trips to in 2024. The , a with active craters featuring hot springs and boiling mud, attracts hikers and sightseers for its geological wonders and cultural legends tied to Sundanese folklore. Floating markets in the Lembang vicinity, inspired by traditional Southeast Asian markets, offer boat-based shopping for local produce and crafts amid scenic highland lakes, appealing to families and cultural enthusiasts. Bandung's colonial-era buildings, including the iconic with its influences, showcase Dutch architectural heritage from the early 20th century, drawing history buffs to explore the city's "Paris of Java" vibe. The economy in Parahyangan emphasizes immersive experiences that support local communities, with homestays providing authentic stays in traditional Sundanese villages and festivals like the Creative City Forum highlighting regional arts. These initiatives boost demand for local crafts, such as bamboo products used in furniture, utensils, and musical instruments like the , generating income for artisans through visitor purchases and workshops. Homestays, often family-run, integrate guests into daily rural life, promoting sustainable practices that preserve Sundanese traditions while contributing to the regional , estimated at several trillion rupiah from tourism-related activities. Post-2010s growth in eco-tourism has further elevated Parahyangan's appeal, particularly in national parks like Gunung Gede Pangrango, where guided treks through montane forests and biodiversity hotspots have seen increased visitation amid rising environmental awareness. The park's ecosystems, including habitats, support low-impact activities like and , aligning with global trends and attracting eco-conscious travelers. Enhanced accessibility via the Argo Parahyangan train, an executive-class service connecting to since the early 2000s with upgraded routes, has shortened travel times to under three hours, spurring weekend getaways and boosting tourist inflows by facilitating easier access to these sites. This infrastructure has amplified economic benefits, with tourism recovery post-pandemic reaching over 167 million domestic trips to in 2024 alone.

References

  1. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_Sunda_language/P
  2. https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr_oa/n025p079.pdf
  3. https://www.academia.edu/15610988/The_Old_Sundanese_Carita_Parahyangan_King_Warak_and_the_Fracturing_of_the_Javanese_Polity_c_803_A_D
  4. https://www4.gsid.nagoya-u.ac.jp/_wp/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/DiscussionPP_Ohashi_-216.pdf
  5. https://www.cortsfoundation.org/news/180-november-2019-four-volumes-priangan-digital-available
  6. https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/53687/INDO_28_0_1107121625_17_54.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  7. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hyang
  8. https://www.academia.edu/40002276/T_I_M_H_A_N_N_I_G_A_N_SULTANS_SPICES_AND_TSUNAMIS_THE_INCREDIBLE_STORY_OF_SOUTHEAST_ASIAS_LARGEST_NATION_A_BRIEF_HISTORY_OF
  9. https://ejournal.cwcu.ac.id/index.php/IJSELES/article/download/49/68/331
  10. https://www.britannica.com/place/Bandung
  11. https://www.internationaljournalssrg.org/IJMS/2018/Volume5-Issue7/IJMS-V5I7P104.pdf
  12. https://www.academia.edu/126960546/Mythology_and_the_Belief_System_of_Sunda_Wiwitan
  13. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/584/1/012059
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352761215_THE_EXISTENCE_OF_BOJONGMENJE_TEMPLE_THE_COLLAPSE_OF_TARUMANEGARA_KINGDOM_AND_THE_ESTABLISHMENT_OF_SUNDA_KINGDOM_VIII-X_CENTURY
  15. https://opus.hbk-bs.de/files/221/Thesis_Noviana_small.pdf
  16. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392728389_The_Role_of_Sri_Baduga_Maharaja_in_the_Spread_of_Islam_in_The_Sunda_Region
  17. https://berkalaarkeologi.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/berkalaarkeologi/article/download/522/536/2790
  18. https://journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/2937
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374526593_16th_Century_Sundanese_Royal_Trade
  20. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/32864/597440.pdf
  21. https://www.ijicc.net/images/Vol5iss2_/86_Herlina_P1517_2019R.pdf
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341200613_Europa_in_de_Tropen_The_Colonial_Tourism_and_Urban_Culture_in_Bandung
  23. https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1886&context=wacana
  24. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/255/oa_edited_volume/chapter/3180527
  25. https://escholarship.org/content/qt5592v6r0/qt5592v6r0.pdf
  26. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2860933/view
  27. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/bandung-conf
  28. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/48629/1/MPRA_paper_48629.pdf
  29. https://ejournal.brin.go.id/purbawidya/article/download/65/14/495
  30. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/in/indonesiacountry00fred/indonesiacountry00fred.pdf
  31. https://hywr.kuciv.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ihp/riverCatalogue/Vol_01/04_Indonesia-1.pdf
  32. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=263090
  33. https://weatherspark.com/y/118121/Average-Weather-in-Bandung-Indonesia-Year-Round
  34. https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/indonesia/bandung-climate
  35. https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/indonesia/bandung
  36. https://www.jica.go.jp/indonesia/english/activities/activity17.html
  37. https://fr.authentic-indonesia.com/blog/the-mount-halimun-salak-national-park-in-west-java/
  38. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20723109
  39. https://wri-indonesia.org/en/insights/without-forests-jakartas-water-situation-worsens
  40. https://ejournal2.undip.ac.id/index.php/ihis/article/download/16037/8516
  41. https://www.academia.edu/44832344/Power_Plays_Wayang_Golek_Puppet_Theater_of_West_Java
  42. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%253A2955260/view
  43. https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/wacana/vol15/iss2/5/
  44. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-angklung-00393
  45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340300244_The_Value_of_Silih_Asah_Silih_Asih_Silih_Asuh_in_Conflict_Resolution_Education_at_Elementary_Schools
  46. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2cda/772494d09ad16846f6ba72f27753892e47c4.pdf
  47. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/sundanese.php
  48. https://linguistik.fib.ui.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/sites/46/2018/01/214-219-VLC_Rozan-Fahreza-Muhammad-Ihsan.pdf
  49. https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/wacana/vol17/iss3/2/
  50. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1325791.pdf
  51. https://jurnal.masoemuniversity.ac.id/index.php/englishpedagogy/article/download/419/296/2243
  52. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06002-n3022-sundanese.pdf
  53. https://wepa.unima.org/en/indonesia/
  54. https://journals.itb.ac.id/index.php/jvad/article/view/608/332
  55. https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/pdf/2016/29/matecconf_ibcc2016_00108.pdf
  56. https://theatticmag.com/reports/2266/indonesia-for-beginners%253A-priangan-and-gamelan-degung.html
  57. https://www.britishcouncil.id/sites/default/files/d3_cultural_cities_indonesia_bandung.pdf
  58. https://www.neliti.com/publications/178040/ngaruat-cai-sebuah-pengikat-kebersamaan-di-cirateun
  59. https://www.citypopulation.de/en/indonesia/jawabarat/reg/admin/
  60. http://www.globalfuturecities.org/republic-indonesia/cities/bandung
  61. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sundanese
  62. https://medium.com/un-global-pulse/tracing-migration-patterns-across-indonesia-66ffa73b54cf
  63. https://databoks.katadata.co.id/en/demographics/statistics/1e2daeaea864c11/974-of-west-javas-population-is-muslim
  64. https://factsanddetails.com/indonesia/minorities_and_regions/sub6_3c/entry-4005.html
  65. https://www.ijrrjournal.com/IJRR_Vol.7_Issue.4_April2020/IJRR0022.pdf
  66. https://jurnaliainpontianak.or.id/index.php/alalbab/article/download/2977/1392
  67. https://www.travelookapp.com/indonesia/west-java/bandung/kawah-putih
  68. https://atlantisjavasea.com/2015/09/09/hyang-concept/
  69. https://www.exploresunda.com/cangkuang.html
  70. https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Religions
  71. https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2025-04/Indonesia%25202025%2520USCIRF%2520Annual%2520Report.pdf
  72. https://www.sukabumiupdate.com/food-travel/130361/5-makam-keramat-di-cianjur-yang-banyak-dikunjungi-peziarah
  73. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322978606_Personalities_and_Historic_Places_in_Nusantara_Keramat_and_Ziarah
  74. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392882502_Sundanese_Women_in_Politics_A_Structural_Analysis_to_Inform_Educational_Strategies_for_Gender_Equality
  75. https://knepublishing.com/index.php/KnE-Social/article/download/16832/26752
  76. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/21/14445
  77. https://jabar.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/ODEzIzI=/literacy-rate.html
  78. https://jabar.bps.go.id/en/pressrelease/2025/07/25/1252/--the-gini-ratio-in-march-2025-was-recorded-at-0-416.html
  79. https://www.britannica.com/place/West-Java
  80. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Preanger-system
  81. https://www.academia.edu/15651903/COFFEE_PRIANGAN_IN_THE_NINETEENTH_CENTURY
  82. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340442795_ECOLOGICAL_STUDY_OF_KINA_TREE_Cinchona_spp_AND_ITS_BENEFITS_IN_OVERCOMING_THE_SPREAD_OF_MALARIA_DISEASE
  83. https://www.sinkonaindonesia.com/en/company/quinine-heritage/
  84. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301655223_Viability_of_Organic_Farming_case_study_of_West_Java_province_1
  85. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/302365963_Problems_and_Prospects_of_Organic_Farming_in_Indonesia_lessons_from_five_districts_in_West_Java_province_1
  86. https://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/27684/1/INS_thesis_MaryunaniSR_2019.pdf
  87. https://www.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2025/02/Bandung_Monitoring_Report_2019.pdf
  88. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/working_papers/WR1100/WR1180/RAND_WR1180.pdf
  89. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/396378693_The_Role_of_the_Manufacturing_Industry_in_the_Economy_of_West_Java_Province_An_Input-Output_Analysis_Approach
  90. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282433329_Bandung_City_Indonesia
  91. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360083194_The_Strategy_Smart_City_Development_Concepts_in_Indonesia
  92. https://www.jabarprov.go.id/en/berita/wisatawan-ke-jawa-barat-meningkat-signifikan-sepanjang-2024-17367
  93. https://www.travelookapp.com/indonesia/west-java/bandung/floating-market-lembang
  94. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g297704-Activities-c47-t3-Bandung_West_Java_Java.html
  95. https://www.jabarprov.go.id/en/berita/event-besar-dongkrak-pariwisata-kota-bandung-hunian-hotel-melonjak-21716
  96. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375909030_Crafting_Tourism_Destinations_The_Dance_of_Tradition_and_Sustainability_in_Sukabumi%27s_Unesco_Geopark_Ciletuh_Pelabuhanratu
  97. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377012839_Impact_of_Domestic_Tourist_Spending_on_the_Economy_of_West_Java_Province_Indonesia
  98. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a70f/4be983b658749cf5eaa614f85281ba3a142a.pdf
  99. https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/cibodas
  100. https://kemenparekraf.go.id/en/articles/current-travel-trends-by-train-making-vacations-fun-and-exciting
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.