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Tūī
Tūī with a white throat feather on a flax flower stalk
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Meliphagidae
Genus: Prosthemadera
Gray, GR, 1840
Species:
P. novaeseelandiae
Binomial name
Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae
(Gmelin, JF, 1788)

The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) is a medium-sized bird native to New Zealand. It is blue, green, and bronze coloured with a distinctive white throat tuft (poi). It is an endemic passerine bird of New Zealand, and the only species in the genus Prosthemadera. It is one of the largest species in the diverse Australasian honeyeater family Meliphagidae, and one of two living species of that family found in New Zealand, the other being the New Zealand bellbird (Anthornis melanura). The tūī has a wide distribution in the archipelago, ranging from the subtropical Kermadec Islands to the sub-Antarctic Auckland Islands, as well as the main islands.

Taxonomy

[edit]

Europeans first encountered the tūī in 1770 at Queen Charlotte Sound on the north coast of New Zealand's South Island during Captain James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean.[2][3] Specimens were brought back to England and an engraving of a tūī by the English naturalist Peter Brown, which he called "The New Zeland creeper", was published in 1776.[4] The tūī was seen on all three of Cook's voyages.[3] Cook's account of his second voyage to the Pacific was published in 1777 and included a description and an illustration of the tūī. He used the names "poly-bird" and "poe-bird". He praised the bird: "The flesh is most delicious, and was the greatest luxury the woods afforded us."[5] In 1782 the English ornithologist John Latham included the tūī as the "poë bee-eater" in his book A General Synopsis of Birds. Latham described a specimen in the Leverian Museum in London.[6] No author had introduced a scientific name, but when in 1788 the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin revised and expanded Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, he included the tūī with a short description, coined the binomial name Merops novaeseelandiae and cited the publications by Brown, Cook and Latham.[7] The tūī is now the only species placed in the genus Prosthemadera that was introduced in 1840 by the English zoologist George Gray.[8][9] The genus name combines the Ancient Greek prosthema meaning "appendage" with dera meaning "neck".[10]

Two subspecies are recognised:[9]

The bird's name comes from the Māori language. The plural is tūī in modern New Zealand English, or ngā tūī in Māori usage;[11] some speakers still use the '-s' suffix to produce the Anglicised form tūīs to indicate plurality, but this practice is becoming less common.[12] For many years the prevailing spelling was tui without the macrons that indicate long vowels, but spelling Māori loanwords with macrons is now common in New Zealand English.[13][14] The International Ornithologists' Union (IOC), which has a policy of not using accents,[15] lists Tui as the bird's English name.[16] Early European colonists called it the parson bird[17] or mocking-bird[18] but these names are no longer used.[19]

The closest living relative to tūī is the New Zealand bellbird; genetic analysis indicates its ancestor diverged from a lineage that gave rise to the New Zealand and Chatham bellbirds around 5 million years ago.[20] The cladogram below shows this relationship:

Plain honeyeater (Pycnopygius ixoides)

Marbled honeyeater (Pycnopygius cinereus)

Tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae)

New Zealand bellbird (Anthornis melanura)

Chatham bellbird (Anthornis melanocephala)

Description

[edit]

The tūī is a large honeyeater, 27 to 32 cm (11–13 in) in length. The Chatham Islands subspecies is larger on average than the nominate subspecies, and heavier. Males tend to be heavier than females. Nominate males weigh between 65–150 g (2.3–5.3 oz), and females 58–105 g (2.0–3.7 oz). Males of the Chatham subspecies are 89–240 g (3.1–8.5 oz) and females 89–170 g (3.1–6.0 oz).[21]

At first glance the bird appears completely black except for a small tuft of white feathers at its neck and a small white wing patch, causing it to resemble a parson in clerical attire. On closer inspection (see image) it can be seen that tūī have brown feathers on the back and flanks, a multicoloured iridescent sheen that varies with the angle from which the light strikes them, and a dusting of small, white-shafted feathers on the back and sides of the neck that produce a lacy collar.

  • Painting of adult and young tūī
    Painting of adult and young tūī
  • Several photos showing a tūī in flight
    Several photos showing a tūī in flight

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Tūī are native to New Zealand, and are found throughout the country, particularly the North Island, the west and south coasts of the South Island, Stewart Island / Rakiura and the Chatham Islands, where an endangered sub-species particular to these islands exists. Other populations live on Raoul Island in the Kermadecs,[22] and in the Auckland Islands (where, with the New Zealand bellbird, it is the most southerly species of honeyeater).[23] Traditionally, Māori ate tūī that had been preserved in calabashes or gourds. Populations have declined considerably since European settlement, mainly as a result of widespread habitat destruction and predation by mammalian invasive species.[citation needed]

Nonetheless, the species is considered secure and has made recoveries in some areas, particularly after removal of livestock has allowed vegetation to recover. Predation by introduced species remains a threat, particularly brushtail possums (which eat eggs and chicks), cats, stoats, the common myna (which competes with tūī for food and sometimes takes eggs), blackbirds, and rats.[21]

Tūī prefer broadleaf forests at low altitudes, although have been recorded up to 1500 metres.[21] They will tolerate quite small remnant patches, regrowth, exotic plantations and well-vegetated suburbs. They are one of the most common birds found in urban Wellington. Tūī are usually seen singly, in pairs, or in small family groups, but will congregate in large numbers at suitable food sources, often in company with silvereyes, bellbirds, or kererū (New Zealand pigeon) in any combination. Generally, when interspecific competition for the same food resources among New Zealand's two species of honeyeater occurs, there is a hierarchy with the tūī at the top and bellbirds subordinate. The latter are thus frequently chased off by tūī at a food source such as a flowering flax plant.[21]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]
1888 illustration of a tūī nest

Male tūī can be extremely aggressive, chasing all other birds (large and small) from their territory with loud flapping and sounds akin to rude human speech. This is especially true of other tūī when possession of a favoured feeding tree is impinged. Birds will often erect their body feathers in order to appear larger in an attempt to intimidate a rival. They have even been known to mob harriers and magpies.[24]

The powered flight of tūī is quite loud as they have developed short wide wings, giving excellent maneuverability in the dense forest they prefer, but requiring rapid flapping. They can be seen to perform a mating display of rising at speed in a vertical climb in clear air, before stalling and dropping into a powered dive, then repeating.[24] Much of this behaviour is more notable during the breeding season of early spring—September and October. Females alone build nests of twigs, grasses and mosses.[24]

Feeding

[edit]
Tūī feeding on kōwhai flower

Nectar is the normal diet but fruit and insects are frequently eaten, and pollen and seeds more occasionally. Particularly popular is the New Zealand flax, whose nectar sometimes ferments, resulting in the tūī flying in a fashion that suggests that they might be drunk. They are the main pollinators of flax, kōwhai, kaka beak and some other plants. Note that the flowers of the three plants mentioned are similar in shape to the tūī's beak—a vivid example of mutualistic coevolution.[25]

Breeding

[edit]

The large untidy shallow cup-shaped nest is built by both sexes, but the female does most of the work. The eggs usually have a pale pink or white background with blotches of pale red mostly at the larger end. The clutch is usually 4 eggs and the average size of an eggs is 27.5 mm × 20.3 mm (1.08 in × 0.80 in). The eggs are incubated by the female alone for 14 days. Both sexes feed the young and remove the faecal sacs. The chicks fledge after around 20 days. The parents continue to feed the fledglings for another couple of weeks.[26] The birds are nidicolous.[27]

Songs and calls

[edit]
Tūī singing 1
Tūī singing at Johnsonville in Wellington
Tūī singing 2
Tūī singing at Trelissick Park in Wellington
Problems playing these files? See media help.

Tūī are known for their noisy, unusual, sometimes soulful calls, different for each individual, that combine bellbird-like notes with clicks, cackles, timber-like creaks and groans, and wheezing sounds.[28]

Tūī have a complex variety of songs and calls, much like parrots.[29] They also resemble parrots in their ability to clearly imitate human speech,[30] and were trained by Māori to replicate complex speech.[31] They also re-create sounds like glass shattering, car alarms, classical music and advertising jingles.[28]

All birds have a sound producing organ called a syrinx, which is typically controlled with two sets of muscles. Songbirds or passerines like tūī have nine pairs of muscles giving them the ability to produce much more complex vocalisations, and they can be seen to be very physically involved with their songs. Their dual voice box allow tūī to make two sounds at the same time.[28] Tūī song also exhibits geographical, microgeographic, seasonal, sex and individual variation.[32][33][34][35] Tūī will also sing at night, especially around the full moon period.[36]

[edit]
  • Tūī
  • Tūī feeding on harakeke
    Tūī feeding on harakeke
  • Tūī on kōwhai
    Tūī on kōwhai
  • Juvenile tūī
    Juvenile tūī
  • Tūī on kōwhai
    Tūī on kōwhai
  • Tūī feeding on red hot poker
    Tūī feeding on red hot poker
  • Tūī amongst kōwhai
    Tūī amongst kōwhai
  • Feathers fluffed up and calling
    Feathers fluffed up and calling
  • Parent feeding juvenile
    Parent feeding juvenile
  • Tūī defending a food source from a much larger kākā parrot
  • A short video of tūī vocalisations

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Tūī

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) is a medium-sized bird endemic to and the sole species in its , belonging to the Australasian Meliphagidae. It measures 27–32 cm in length and weighs 58–240 g depending on sex and , featuring iridescent blackish with blue, green, and bronze sheens, a distinctive white throat tuft resembling a , and a sturdy, slightly downcurved bill adapted for feeding. Renowned for its complex, bell-like song and abilities, the tūī is a key and seed disperser in native ecosystems, often heard and seen in forests, gardens, and urban areas. The tūī inhabits a range of environments, primarily mixed podocarp-broadleaf or forests with native flowering trees, but it has adapted well to modified landscapes including suburban parks and orchards across the , western and southern , /Rakiura, and offshore islands. It is scarce only in drier, open regions east of the , reflecting its preference for moist, vegetated habitats where food sources abound. Two exist: the nominate P. n. novaeseelandiae on the mainland and the larger P. n. chathamensis on the , where populations are more localized. Ecologically, the tūī is primarily nectarivorous, favoring flowers from native species like flax (Phormium spp.), kōwhai (Sophora spp.), pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), and rātā (Metrosideros spp.), but it supplements its diet with invertebrates such as insects, fruit, and occasionally pollen or seeds. Its behavior includes defending feeding territories aggressively, especially at abundant nectar sources, and performing elaborate aerial displays during courtship; breeding occurs from August to January, with females constructing bulky cup-shaped nests in trees and laying 2–4 eggs. Although classified as Least Concern globally by the IUCN due to its widespread distribution and estimated of approximately 2.3 million individuals as of , with recent increases in some regions such as over 200% in from 2014 to 2024, the tūī faces threats from loss, predation by introduced mammals like rats, cats, stoats, and possums, and at feeders. Conservation efforts in , including predator control and restoration, have led to recoveries in protected areas, with the mainland considered Not Threatened nationally while the form is Nationally Vulnerable.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Scientific classification

The tūī belongs to the family Meliphagidae, commonly known as the honeyeaters, within the order Passeriformes and the suborder Oscines (songbirds). It is the sole species in the genus Prosthemadera, which was established by the English zoologist in 1840. The scientific name Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae was originally applied to the species by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, based on specimens from . Two subspecies are currently recognized: the nominate P. n. novaeseelandiae, found on the , , , and nearby islets of , and P. n. chathamensis, endemic to the , which is notably larger and exhibits richer purple tones in its mantle and wing coverts compared to the mainland form. Phylogenetically, the tūī is part of the diverse Australasian radiation of honeyeaters. Within , Prosthemadera forms a sister clade to the bellbird (Anthornis melanura), with their divergence estimated at around 3.8 million years ago in the , reflecting isolation facilitated by 's oceanic separation and subsequent geographic barriers that limited with continental populations. This positions the tūī as a key example of vicariant evolution among 's endemic avifauna, embedded within the broader Oscines suborder that originated in .

Etymology and cultural significance

The name tūī originates from the and is onomatopoeic, reflecting the bird's distinctive, melodious calls that mimic other species and even human speech. In traditional usage, the plural form is ngā tūī, though often treats it as invariant. The scientific binomial Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae, established by Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, derives from : prosthema () combined with dera (), alluding to the bird's prominent white throat tuft known as poi in , while novaeseelandiae denotes its provenance. In Māori tradition, the tūī holds profound cultural significance as a (treasure), embodying the vitality of the forest and serving as a bridge between the physical and spiritual worlds. Prized for its remarkable vocal mimicry, it was historically kept by (chiefs) as a , often trained to imitate speech and designated a manu rangatira (chiefly bird); some were even named after tribal ancestors. Mythologically, the tūī is linked to deities such as Rehua, the star god who bestowed its voice as a gift, and , the deity of forests and birds, positioning it as a messenger or intermediary in celestial narratives. Its iridescent plumage and dual voice boxes further symbolize harmony, healing, and connection to te ao wairua (the spiritual realm). The tūī features prominently in Māori oral traditions, including proverbs like Me he korokoro tūī ("like the throat of a tūī"), which praises gifted orators or singers for their eloquent, resonant voices akin to the bird's song. This imagery extends to waiata (songs) and (performances), where the tūī represents the forest's lively spirit and communal expression in pre-European society. As a symbol of and , it underscores the Māori worldview of interdependence with nature. In contemporary , the tūī endures as a national , celebrated in for its striking beauty and evoking a sense of kainga (home), and immortalized on postage stamps since the 1935 pictorial series, which highlighted native . Often paired with the kiwi as an emblem of Aotearoa's unique and heritage, it appears in public symbolism, conservation campaigns, and modern expressions, reinforcing its role as a living .

Description

Physical characteristics

The tūī is a medium-sized , typically measuring 27–33 cm in length and weighing 60–150 g, with males averaging larger than females at around 125 g compared to 90 g for females. is minimal overall, though males exhibit slightly brighter iridescent sheen and a more pronounced throat tuft. The of the tūī appears predominantly black at a distance but reveals an iridescent sheen ranging from blackish-green to in good light, with brown tones on the back and flanks. A distinctive feature is the pair of , curly throat feathers forming a lacy "poi" tuft, which is more prominent in males and partially concealed unless the bird is displaying. Small shoulder patches are visible in flight but hidden when perched, and the eyes are dark brown. The tūī has a sturdy, slightly curved black bill adapted for probing flowers to extract , paired with short, dark legs and feet. Two are recognized, with the nominate Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae occurring on the main islands of and nearby islets. The (P. n. chathamensis) is larger and heavier, with males reaching up to 240 g and females up to 170 g; it also has paler and longer white throat tufts compared to the mainland form. Juveniles possess duller with reduced , appearing more brownish overall and lacking or having shorter throat tufts; they molt into adult coloration after their first year.

Adaptations for vocalization

The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) features a highly specialized , the avian vocal organ located at the tracheobronchial junction, which enables its renowned capacity for complex vocalizations. As an oscine within the honeyeater family (Meliphagidae), the tūī possesses a double structure that supports independent sound production from each , allowing for the simultaneous generation of multiple frequency components and facilitating of environmental sounds. This configuration is controlled by four to six pairs of intrinsic syringeal muscles, providing fine-tuned modulation of tension in the syringeal membranes to produce a diverse of notes, trills, and harmonics. Supporting the syrinx, the tūī exhibits specialized musculature surrounding the throat region, where visible pulsations occur during singing, aiding in and amplification of sounds through vibration of the surrounding soft tissues. The bird's brush-tipped , primarily adapted for extraction, contributes to vocal versatility by enabling subtle adjustments in and oral cavity shaping during call emission. These anatomical traits collectively allow for a broad frequency in vocal output, with harmonics extending up to approximately 5 kHz in recorded examples. Evolutionarily, the tūī's vocal adaptations have been shaped by its isolation in New Zealand, where the absence of mammalian predators and diverse forested habitats favored the development of intricate songs for territory defense and mate attraction, diverging from continental relatives with simpler repertoires.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) is endemic to , where it occurs across the , , , and numerous offshore islands. It is widespread and locally abundant in forested and suburban areas, though scarce in drier, open regions east of the and much of the eastern . The species' current distribution covers most of 's approximately 268,000 km² land area, with population densities notably higher in the northern . Two subspecies are recognized based on geographic isolation. The nominate subspecies P. n. novaeseelandiae inhabits the main North and South Islands, , the , and the . P. n. chathamensis, a larger form, is restricted to the group, primarily and Pitt Islands, with re-establishment on the main Chatham Island following a translocation in 2009. Historically, the tūī was more uniformly distributed across New Zealand's extensive pre-European forests, but its range contracted following widespread during European settlement, resulting in reduced presence in modified landscapes. Populations on offshore islands like Raoul in the Kermadecs became established in the , likely through human-assisted introduction.

Habitat preferences

The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) primarily inhabits native podocarp-broadleaf forests, where it favors ecosystems rich in flowering trees such as rātā () and ( tetraptera). These forests provide essential resources and structural complexity for the bird's ecological needs. The species demonstrates high adaptability, thriving in modified landscapes including urban gardens, orchards, and regenerating scrublands, as long as suitable food sources are present; it is notably tolerant of human proximity and has become common in suburban areas with planted native vegetation. Tūī occupy an altitudinal range from to approximately 1,500 m, with a strong preference for lowland and coastal forests over higher montane zones. Microhabitat requirements include access to flowering plants for feeding, dense canopy cover in forests or shrubs for nesting sites constructed from twigs, , and grasses, and open or edges for . Tūī exhibit seasonal shifts in habitat use, undertaking local movements to track flowering resources, such as ascending to higher elevations in summer for blooms like those on rātā ().

Conservation

The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) is classified as Least Concern on the , reflecting its large global population and extensive range across and some offshore islands. A 2021 global bird population estimate, derived from eBird data, placed the tūī population at approximately 2.3 million individuals, underscoring its relative abundance compared to many other native species. In , the mainland subspecies (P. n. novaeseelandiae) is categorized as Not Threatened under the Department of Conservation's threat classification system, based on assessments indicating stable to increasing numbers in many areas. However, regional variations exist, with the species considered At Risk in parts of the due to localized range contractions observed between 1978 and 2019. The subspecies (P. n. chathamensis) is classified as Nationally Vulnerable, highlighting greater threats to isolated populations. Population trends show stability or increases in the , driven by urban adaptation and supplementary feeding in gardens, with counts rising 266% over the decade to 2022 according to the Garden Bird Survey. As of the 2024 Garden Bird Survey results, tūī counts continue to show increases nationally, with more than a 200% rise in over the past decade. In contrast, slight declines have occurred in the , particularly in eastern and southern regions, linked to changes, though overall numbers remain viable. Since the early 2000s, predator control programs in sanctuaries have supported recoveries, such as an 11-fold increase in tūī detections at Te Herenga Waka between 1995 and 2016. Monitoring relies on annual transect surveys through the New Zealand Garden Bird Survey and eBird submissions, which track density variations and reveal higher abundances in northern and western areas compared to the east. Native populations on in the have increased following the eradication of invasive goats, rats, and cats in the 1980s, supporting several hundred birds. Small translocated groups on other islands, such as the Chatham group, remain vulnerable to ongoing pressures.

Threats and management

The tūī faces significant threats from predation by introduced mammalian species, including cats, rats, and stoats, which have contributed to historical declines in native bird populations across . loss due to and further exacerbates these pressures, reducing the availability of native and nectar-rich environments essential for the tūī's survival. Additionally, competition from invasive bird species such as the Indian ( tristis) impacts tūī and nesting opportunities, with studies showing increased tūī abundance following myna control efforts on offshore islands. Climate change poses emerging risks to the tūī, including potential shifts in flowering seasons of key nectar sources like kōwhai and flax, which could disrupt food availability during breeding periods. Coastal habitats, where tūī are sometimes found, may also become more vulnerable to intensified storms and sea-level rise, indirectly affecting breeding success and population stability. Conservation management for the tūī emphasizes predator control through methods such as and the use of in forested areas, which has led to substantial population recoveries in treated sites. Habitat restoration initiatives involve planting native -producing to enhance resources and connectivity between fragments. Community-based programs encourage backyard feeding with solutions—typically one part to four parts —to supplement during lean periods, though experts caution against over-reliance, as it may reduce natural foraging behaviors and increase disease transmission risks if feeders are not cleaned regularly. The tūī is fully protected under the New Zealand Wildlife Act 1953, which prohibits hunting or harm to native birds without permits, providing a legal framework for enforcement and recovery efforts. It is also integrated into national biodiversity strategies, notably the Predator Free 2050 initiative, which aims to eradicate key invasive predators (rats, stoats, and possums) by 2050 to safeguard species like the tūī. Success stories highlight the efficacy of these strategies, particularly in predator-proof sanctuaries; for instance, in near , tūī counts have increased over elevenfold since the sanctuary's establishment in the early 2000s, from near-local in the 1990s to widespread presence across the urban area. Similar rebounds have been observed in the Eastern through Project Island Song, where tūī numbers nearly tripled between 2009 and 2017 following intensive predator control and habitat restoration.

Behaviour and ecology

Foraging and diet

The tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) primarily consumes nectar, which constitutes approximately 50% of its diet (ranging annually from 37% to 98%), sourced from native flowering plants such as kōwhai (Sophora tetraptera), harakeke (Phormium tenax), fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata), puriri (Vitex lucens), rātā (Metrosideros spp.), pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), and introduced species like banksias. It supplements this with honeydew from scale insects on beech trees and, seasonally, soft fruits from trees like wineberry (Aristotelia serrata), kaikōmako (Pennantia corymbosa), mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), ngāio (Myoporum laetum), rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), and kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), particularly during autumn when fruit is abundant. Invertebrates, including insects such as cicadas, stick insects, beetles, and moths, as well as spiders, make up the remainder, with intake increasing during breeding seasons or periods of low floral availability to meet protein needs. Foraging occurs diurnally from dawn to , with tūī often commuting more than 10 km daily to exploit rich patches, following seasonal flowering patterns that shift their diet toward in non-flowering periods. They employ techniques such as hovering and probing flowers with their curved bill to access , while capturing invertebrates through hawking (aerial pursuit) or from foliage. Tūī solitarily, in pairs, or in small family groups but form loose aggregations at abundant resources like flowering stands or fruiting trees; males, being larger, dominate access and aggressively defend patches by chasing intruders with loud wing whirring displays. Their brush-tipped facilitates efficient lapping, and specialized gut adaptations allow of high-sugar diets without issues. As a key , the tūī transfers between native plants while on , supporting the reproduction of species like and in New Zealand's forests. Through fruit consumption and subsequent defecation, it aids for medium-sized fruited trees, contributing to forest regeneration and .

Reproduction and breeding

The tūī breeding season occurs from to , aligning with spring and summer in when nectar and availability peaks to support . Typically, pairs produce one brood per year, though food abundance can influence timing and success. Tūī are socially monogamous, forming pair bonds for the breeding attempt, but genetic studies reveal high rates of extra-pair paternity, with males engaging in promiscuous copulations and up to 57% of chicks sired by extra-pair males. involves males performing elaborate aerial displays and prolonged singing to attract females and establish territories. Nests are cup-shaped structures built primarily by the female using twigs, grass, and moss, often lined with softer materials such as fine grasses or feathers, and situated 2–10 m above ground in tree forks or shrubs. Clutches consist of 2–4 pale pink eggs speckled with reddish-brown spots, incubated mainly by the female for 12–15 days. The altricial chicks are brooded by the female and fed regurgitated and by both parents, with the female handling most early feeding duties; fledging occurs at 20–23 days, followed by 2–4 weeks of . Fledging success varies markedly with predation pressure, reaching much higher rates in protected areas with predator control but dropping to 10–20% in unmanaged habitats dominated by introduced mammals.

Vocalizations and social interactions

The tūī produces a diverse array of vocalizations, including complex, melodious songs characterized by bell-like notes, whistles, gurgles, coughs, grunts, and wheezes. Males typically deliver these songs from high perches to advertise territory and attract mates. Long-range broadcasting songs, lasting 1.3–40.4 seconds and spanning 0.25–22.1 kHz, facilitate territorial defense, while shorter interactive songs (1.4–17.9 seconds) support aggressive confrontations, , and pair-bond maintenance. Tūī calls include distinctive alarm notes resembling the bird's name "tūī," contact chirps for maintaining pair or group cohesion, and distress calls to warn of predators. These birds are adept mimics, imitating other species such as the bellbird and grey warbler, as well as environmental sounds like phone ringtones. Vocal functions extend to predator warnings and participation in the dawn chorus, where tūī contribute early-morning songs for territorial and mating purposes. Socially, tūī are primarily solitary or occur in pairs outside the breeding season, though they form loose flocks at abundant food sources. They exhibit strong toward intruders, chasing other birds—including larger —with loud wing-whirring displays and vocal threats to defend feeding and nesting territories. Song matching between neighboring males helps establish territorial boundaries and reduce via the "dear enemy" effect. Regional variations in vocal repertoires are evident, with North Island populations displaying greater syllable diversity (mean 19 ± 9 per song) and a higher proportion of trills (41 ± 24%) compared to some offshore populations, reflecting local dialects shaped by and social factors. Juveniles learn songs from adults during prolonged family associations, leading to cultural transmission of dialects across microgeographic scales (e.g., distinct phrases at sites 500–1000 m apart). Bioacoustic studies have documented over 300 distinct songs and 264 syllables from 30 individuals, aiding monitoring and conservation efforts.

References

  1. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/12580-Prosthemadera-novaeseelandiae
  2. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/tui-prosthemadera-novaeseelandiae
  3. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/tui1/cur/introduction
  4. https://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/tui
  5. https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/tui/
  6. https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/asia-pacific/new-zealand/stories-in-new-zealand/bringing-the-birdsong-back/
  7. https://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/getting-involved/students-and-teachers/in-the-environment-series/tui-connections.pdf
  8. https://animalia.bio/tui
  9. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2023170118
  10. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/516359/tui-numbers-take-off-in-canterbury-over-past-10-years
  11. https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/chatham-island-tui/
  12. https://itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=562481
  13. https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/fulltext/ZO07007
  14. https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/7/11/2983/2939550
  15. https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/society-publications/checklist/passeriformes-perching-birds/
  16. https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-sounds/8896/tui-and-its-song
  17. https://teara.govt.nz/en/nga-manu-birds
  18. https://fog.ccsf.edu/~jmorlan/NewZealand/TuiIMG_5353.htm
  19. https://waimaramamaori.co.nz/maori-animals/
  20. https://terralingua.org/stories/maori-oral-tradition-ancestral-sayings-and-indigenous-knowledge/
  21. https://www.whatbird.co.nz/maori-mythology-and-bird-symbolism/
  22. https://www.newzealandstamps.net/1-tui/
  23. https://ebird.org/species/tui1
  24. https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/3085_/pdf
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264243428_The_vocalisation_of_tui_Prosthemadera_novaeseelandiae
  26. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2053716625000271
  27. https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/3236/02_whole.pdf
  28. https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Shortnote_Hill_65_237-238.pdf
  29. https://www.birdforum.net/opus/Tui
  30. https://earthlife.net/tui/
  31. https://www.1news.co.nz/2021/05/18/tui-make-up-23-million-of-global-bird-population-of-50-billion-research-project-finds/
  32. https://pce.parliament.nz/media/1fcpch1r/lc2786_walkeretal_forestbirds__final_corrected.pdf
  33. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/485897/increase-in-kereru-piwakawaka-and-tui-garden-bird-survey
  34. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/environment/516359/tui-numbers-take-off-in-canterbury-over-past-10-years
  35. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270571701_Changes_in_bird_numbers_on_Raoul_Island_Kermadec_Islands_New_Zealand_following_the_eradication_of_goats_rats_and_cats
  36. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7984369/
  37. https://www.waikato.ac.nz/int/news-events/news/bringing-the-tui-back-to-town-how-native-birds-are-returning-to-nzs-restored-urban-forests/
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282188461_Changes_in_bird_abundance_following_Common_Myna_control_on_aNew_Zealand_island
  39. https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/2021-Climate-Change-Commission-Draft-Advice-Submission.pdf
  40. https://predatorfreenz.org/research/tui-predator-control-project-island-song/
  41. https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/1809-Overview-Article-Sugar-feeders.pdf
  42. https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/legislation/wildlife-act/
  43. https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/predator-free-2050/
  44. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Changes-in-tui-counts-in-Zealandia-over-3-time-periods-birds-per-5-minute-bird-count_fig1_328233829
  45. https://www.unitec.ac.nz/epress/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Perspectives-in-Biosecurity-2.pdf
  46. https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1162-native-bird-adaptations
  47. https://www.10000birds.com/the-very-angry-tui.htm
  48. https://www.birdlife.org/news/2019/01/04/why-we-need-birds-far-more-than-they-need-us/
  49. https://www.mynativeforest.com/nz-native-birds/tui
  50. https://phys.org/news/2014-11-flight-frisky-tui.html
  51. https://taranakimounga.nz/our-bird/tui/
  52. https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-sounds/12453/dawn-chorus
  53. https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Hill___Ji_2013.pdf
  54. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7984439/
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