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Myna
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Myna
Common myna (Acridotheres tristis)
Common myna (Acridotheres tristis)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Superfamily: Muscicapoidea
Family: Sturnidae

The mynas (/ˈmaɪnə/; also spelled mynah) are a group of birds in the starling family (Sturnidae). This is a group of passerine birds which are native to Iran and Southern Asia, especially Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Several species have been introduced to areas like North America, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and New Zealand, especially the common myna, which is often regarded as an invasive species. It is often known as "Selarang" and "Teck Meng" in Malay and Chinese respectively in Singapore, due to their high population there.

Mynas are not a natural group;[1] instead, the term myna is used for any starling in the Indian subcontinent, regardless of their relationships. This range was colonized twice during the evolution of starlings, first by rather ancestral starlings related to the coleto and Aplonis lineages, and millions of years later by birds related to the common starling and wattled starling's ancestors. These two groups of mynas can be distinguished in the more terrestrial adaptions of the latter, which usually also have less glossy plumage, except on the heads, and longer tails. The Bali myna, which is critically endangered and nearly extinct in the wild, is highly distinctive.

Some mynas are considered talking birds, for their ability to reproduce sounds, including human speech, when in captivity.

Myna is derived from the Hindi (मैना) mainā which itself is derived from Sanskrit madanā.[2][3]

Characteristics

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Mynas are medium-sized passerines with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct, and they are gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit.

A Common Myna in cage

Plumage is typically dark, often brown, although some species have yellow head ornaments. Most species nest in holes.

Some species have become well known for their imitative skills; the common hill myna is one of these.

Species

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The following are species of mynas. The coleto and the two Saroglossa starlings are included because of their position in the taxonomic list.

Jungle and hill mynas

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"True" mynas

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"Gracupica" mynas

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The following species are often included in the Acridotheres mynas:

References

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Sources

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Myna

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Mynas are medium-sized birds belonging to the starling family Sturnidae, with around 25-30 commonly referred to as mynas primarily native to southern and southeastern , where they inhabit open woodlands, grasslands, and urban areas. These adaptable, gregarious birds are renowned for their complex vocalizations, including impressive of environmental sounds and, in some cases, human speech, which has made certain popular as pets. With strong, direct flight and omnivorous diets consisting of , fruits, and scraps, mynas often thrive near human settlements, though several have become invasive in introduced regions like , the Pacific islands, and parts of . Physically, mynas exhibit varied but typically stocky builds, ranging from 20 to 36 cm in length, with robust yellow bills and legs adapted for on the ground or in trees. Many species display iridescent , such as the glossy black feathers of the Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa), which features prominent yellow wattles around the head and a white wing patch, enabling it to mimic human speech with remarkable clarity in the forested hills of South and Southeast Asia. In contrast, the (Acridotheres tristis), one of the most widespread species, has a rich brown body, black hood, brilliant orange-yellow facial skin, and striking white tail tip and wing patches that flash during flight; this species measures about 23-26 cm and weighs 82-143 g. Behaviorally, mynas are bold and social, often forming noisy flocks and aggressively defending territories, which contributes to their success as urban dwellers but also their status as pests that compete with native birds for nest sites and food. They are cavity nesters, typically laying 2-6 pale blue eggs with dark spots in holes or buildings, and both parents share incubation duties for about 14-18 days. While most mynas forage opportunistically on , , and grains, their invasive tendencies—particularly of the —pose threats to in non-native habitats by displacing local species and spreading diseases.

Taxonomy

Etymology and nomenclature

The term "myna" (also spelled "mynah") originates from the word mainā, which refers to starling-like birds noted for their vocal abilities, and ultimately derives from the madana-, meaning "delightful" or "joyful." This name entered English usage in 1769 to describe various birds from and the East, reflecting their lively, imitative calls that evoke joy. In scientific , mynas are classified within the family Sturnidae, with key genera bearing etymologies rooted in classical languages. The genus Gracula, encompassing hill mynas such as the (Gracula religiosa), stems from the Latin graculus, denoting a —a small, chatty corvid—highlighting similarities in vocalization and appearance. Similarly, the genus , which includes the (Acridotheres tristis), combines Greek elements: (locust) and theras (hunter), alluding to the birds' insectivorous habits, particularly their predation on grasshoppers and s. Common names like "myna" vary regionally and orthographically; in , "myna" predominates, while often favors "mynah" to approximate the pronunciation. In , local terms such as mainā persist, emphasizing cultural ties to the birds' and presence in . These variations underscore the transition from indigenous descriptors to standardized under the .

Phylogenetic relationships

Mynas are classified within the Sturnidae, the starlings, as part of the order Passeriformes, with their placement supported by both morphological traits and molecular . Post-2000 molecular phylogenies, utilizing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences, have delineated the major lineages within Sturnidae, emphasizing the prominence of Asian and Australasian clades. These studies confirm that mynas do not form a single monophyletic group but are distributed across several well-supported subclades, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions of and . A key analysis of nuclear (myoglobin intron 2, RAG-1) and mitochondrial (ND2) genes recovered major lineages in Sturnidae, including a basal Philippine Rhabdornis , an Oriental-Australasian (including Gracula and Aplonis glossy starlings), and an Afrotropical-Palaearctic (including and ). Within this framework, genera such as Gracula and represent distinct evolutionary divergences driven by geographic isolation and ecological adaptations in Asian habitats, highlighting the polyphyletic nature of mynas. Notable divergences include the jungle and hill mynas of Gracula, which constitute a distinct early-branching lineage within the Oriental-Australasian , characterized by genetic distances suggesting ancient separation from other starlings. In contrast, the true mynas of form a more recent, rapidly diversifying group nested within the Palearctic-Oriental radiation of the Afrotropical-Palaearctic . The Gracupica group, comprising pied starlings, represents a separate closely allied with and , supported by shared mitochondrial and nuclear markers indicating in traditional groupings. Historically, taxonomic revisions in the , initiated by naturalists like Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot who established the in 1816, separated "true" mynas from broader starlings based on , bill structure, and vocal traits. These morphological distinctions have been largely corroborated by modern DNA-based phylogenies, which refine relationships while resolving prior uncertainties, such as the polyphyletic nature of some genera.

Description

Physical morphology

Mynas, members of the starling family Sturnidae, are medium-sized birds typically measuring 23 to 30 cm in total length and weighing 80 to 270 g across genera, with common mynas ( spp.) averaging 23–26 cm and 82–143 g, and hill mynas (Gracula spp.) reaching 27–30 cm and 142–269 g. These birds feature strong, sturdy legs and feet that enable efficient ground-walking and , distinguishing them from more arboreal starlings. Bill morphology varies by genus to suit dietary preferences: true mynas possess a straight, pointed, and stout bill ideal for probing and extracting , whereas hill mynas have a heavier, slightly decurved bill with a hooked tip for grasping and manipulating fruits. Skeletal features include a robust at the trachea's base, comprising paired labia and muscles that facilitate complex sound production and through independent control of medial and lateral vibration sources. Their wings exhibit a rounded morphology with pointed primaries, optimized for short, agile flights and maneuverability in cluttered environments rather than sustained soaring.

Plumage variations

Mynas exhibit a range of colors and patterns that distinguish major groups within the family Sturnidae, often featuring glossy or iridescent elements adapted to their environments. Hill mynas (Gracula spp.) display striking glossy black with a gloss overall and tinges on the head and neck, complemented by prominent yellow wattles and an orange-yellow bill; large white wing patches are visible in flight but concealed at rest. In contrast, true mynas such as the (Acridotheres tristis) have a brown body with a black head, neck, and upper breast, accented by iridescent sheens on the head feathers and yellow bare skin around the eyes, bill, and legs; the tail shows white tips, creating a white undertail appearance when folded. Juveniles of this species possess lighter, brownish on the head and upper breast compared to the darker adult tones. Jungle mynas (Acridotheres fuscus) feature uniform grey that is darker on the head and wings, with conspicuous white wing patches and a white tail tip; juveniles are notably browner overall, with a paler and midline on the underparts. Gracupica mynas, including the (Gracupica contra), showcase bold black-and-white patterns, with a black head, a white nuchal collar and underparts, black wings and tail, and a yellowish bill with a reddish base; the skin around the eye is reddish. Young birds in this group have darker brown replacing the black elements of adult . Sexual dimorphism is minimal or absent in myna across , with males and females typically indistinguishable by coloration or patterns. Some mynas undergo molts that subtly alter gloss or intensity, though pronounced seasonal color shifts are uncommon in these mostly tropical birds.

Distribution and habitat

Global range

Mynas, belonging to several genera within the family Sturnidae, are predominantly native to South and , with their core distributions spanning from the eastward to and the . Jungle mynas (Acridotheres fuscus) occupy regions from and eastward through , , , , and to , while hill mynas (Gracula religiosa) range from and southern southward through to , , and in the . True mynas of the genus Acridotheres, such as the (A. tristis), extend their native range westward to southeastern , , and , covering much of the and reaching into southern China, , and Indochina. Gracupica mynas, including the (G. contra), are distributed across the including , India, , , , and , with the Javan pied starling (G. jalla) restricted to and nearby islands. Their Australasian presence is limited, primarily confined to Indonesian islands within the Greater Sundas, though some species approach . Introduced populations have significantly expanded the global footprint of certain myna species, particularly the , which was deliberately released in starting in the 1860s for and has since become established along the eastern and southeastern coasts, often classified as invasive due to competition with native birds. The has been introduced to , various Pacific islands including , , and , and , while the jungle myna has been introduced to some Pacific islands such as , , , and ; where they thrive in urban and agricultural settings and pose threats to local avifauna. These introductions, often via the pet trade or efforts, have led to self-sustaining populations outside , with the listed among the world's worst invasive alien species. Most myna species are sedentary, maintaining year-round residency within their ranges, though some exhibit local movements between foraging areas and roosts or minor altitudinal shifts in response to seasonal changes. For instance, hill mynas may undertake short vertical migrations between lowland and montane forests, while common mynas show occasional altitudinal adjustments in parts of their range. These patterns reflect their adaptation to stable tropical environments rather than long-distance migration.

Habitat preferences

Mynas, belonging to the starling family Sturnidae, exhibit a broad range of habitat preferences that span open woodlands, grasslands, and human-modified landscapes across tropical and subtropical regions. These birds generally favor environments with access to scattered trees for nesting and perching, as well as proximity to water sources, which supports their opportunistic lifestyles. Their adaptability to varied ecosystems, from natural forests to urban settings, has facilitated range expansions, including in introduced areas. Jungle mynas (Acridotheres fuscus) and hill mynas (Gracula religiosa) show a particular affinity for forested habitats in humid, tropical lowlands and foothills. Jungle mynas inhabit open deciduous woodlands, forest edges, agricultural fields, and cultivation areas up to elevations of 2,000 meters, often near open water. Hill mynas prefer moist and semi-evergreen forests, including montane areas from 300 to 2,000 meters, with high rainfall and essential for their habitat selection. Both groups thrive in these humid environments but can extend into adjacent disturbed sites. True mynas, such as the (Acridotheres tristis), excel in anthropogenic landscapes, dominating agricultural fields, pastures, and urban areas like cities and suburbs. They select open, low-vegetation habitats with human structures for roosting and nesting, tolerating a wide subtropical to range. This proximity to human activity underscores their success in altered ecosystems, where they outcompete natives in resource-rich settings. Gracupica mynas, including the pied myna (Gracupica contra), occupy scrublands, open grasslands, and cultivated plains with scattered trees, often in lowlands up to 700 meters and near water bodies. These also frequent mangroves and semi-arid edges, adapting well to human-altered scrub and urban fringes in tropical zones. Their ecological flexibility in these drier, open niches highlights a tolerance for seasonal variations in subtropical climates.

Behavior and ecology

Vocalizations and mimicry

Mynas exhibit a diverse and complex vocal that includes a variety of sounds such as whistles, chips, gurgles, and harsh screeches, enabling effective communication within their environments. The (Gracula religiosa), in particular, is renowned for its exceptional abilities, capable of imitating other calls, environmental noises, and even speech with remarkable clarity and versatility. Each individual hill myna typically possesses a of 3 to 13 distinct call types, which can be shared among nearby conspecifics of the same sex through learned vocal traditions. The prowess of hill mynas is facilitated by the specialized structure of their , the avian vocal organ located at the base of the trachea, which features paired external that vibrate to produce voicing energy analogous to . This anatomical adaptation allows for precise control over pitch, , and formants. Vocal in these birds is a learned , with juveniles developing adult call types over 1 to 5 months post-fledging, and competency highest when begins in early life, such as from 4 to 8 weeks of age, before declining in older individuals. These vocalizations serve multiple ecological functions, including territorial defense and mate attraction during the breeding season, where males produce elaborate songs to repel rivals and court females. Alarm calls, often sharp and alerting, prompt conspecifics to adopt anti-predator behaviors such as fleeing or emerging from cover, enhancing group survival. In social contexts, mimicry may further reinforce individual recognition and coordination among flock members.

Social and foraging behaviors

Mynas exhibit a highly social lifestyle, typically forming monogamous pairs that remain together year-round outside the breeding season, while engaging in loose flocks of 3 to 20 composed of pairs, families, or unpaired birds. These flocks facilitate reduced vigilance, allowing members to increase efficiency in urban and open habitats, though for can lead to aggressive interactions within groups. In some true myna , such as the jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus), occurs, where non-breeding helpers assist pairs in territory defense and offspring care, enhancing survival in resource-variable environments. Juveniles often form small post-fledging flocks before integrating into adult groups, promoting social learning of sites. Foraging behaviors reflect the opportunistic and omnivorous nature of mynas, with a diet comprising , earthworms, fruits, grains, , and scraps, enabling to diverse habitats from forests to cities. They primarily forage on the ground, using a probing technique with their strong bills to extract prey from or , and occasionally hop or walk to pursue mobile ; rates increase in larger groups to boost intake without compromising anti-predator scans. Daily consumption supports high metabolic demands in small-bodied passerines, though exact amounts vary with availability and season. Vocal signals briefly coordinate group movements to profitable patches during these activities. Daily routines of mynas are structured around environmental cues, beginning with dawn choruses of loud calls from sites to reaffirm social bonds and territories, followed by morning peaks when activity is high. Midday often involves resting or in shaded trees to avoid heat, resuming activity in late afternoon before converging on communal roosts in tall trees or structures at , where flocks can number in the thousands for safety and information sharing on food sources.

Reproduction

Mynas in their native Asian ranges typically breed from March to August, with pairs often producing two to three clutches per season, each containing three to six eggs. This timing aligns with the onset of the season, providing ample food resources for raising young. Courtship involves monogamous pair bonding, where mates perform synchronized calls and displays to strengthen their partnership before nesting. Nesting habits vary by species but generally involve cavities for protection. Hill mynas (Gracula spp.) prefer natural tree hollows, often high in tall forest trees, lining them with twigs, leaves, and feathers. In contrast, true mynas (Acridotheres spp.) are highly adaptable, utilizing tree cavities, building crevices, or even abandoned nests in urban and suburban settings, incorporating a mix of organic and anthropogenic materials like , , and cloth. Both sexes collaborate in nest construction, which can take several days to a week. Parental care is biparental, with both male and female sharing incubation duties for 12 to 18 days until . The altricial chicks remain in the nest for three to four weeks, during which parents alternate feeding and brooding to ensure development. Fledglings continue to receive provisioning from adults for up to three additional weeks, and survival rates are notably higher in social flocks where group members may assist in vigilance against predators.

Species diversity

Jungle and hill mynas

Jungle and hill mynas refer to a group of arboreal starlings in the genera Gracula and , characterized by their adaptations to tropical and subtropical forest canopies across , where they exhibit specialized behaviors for exploiting resources and engaging in complex vocal interactions. These birds thrive in humid, forested environments, often in the upper layers of trees, which supports their role in and through consumption of and . Their distinct yellow wattles, glossy black , and robust bills are morphological features aiding in fruit manipulation and social signaling within dense . The genus Gracula includes several species of hill mynas, such as the common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), the hill myna (G. ptilogenys), the southern hill myna (G. indica, southwest ), the Tenggara hill myna (G. venerata, ), and the hill myna (G. robusta, off ); the hill myna (G. miotera) is possibly . The hill myna (Gracula religiosa) stands out for its exceptional vocal mimicry, replicating sounds from other birds, mammals, and even human speech with remarkable clarity and variety, a trait that has made it a favored subject for studies on avian vocal learning. Native to hill forests from the through southern , Indochina, and the of , this species prefers tall, closed-canopy woodlands at elevations up to 2,000 meters, though it can tolerate selectively logged areas with sufficient fruiting trees. Its diet is predominantly frugivorous, focusing on figs and other wild fruits supplemented by , , and small vertebrates like , often feeding in noisy flocks of up to 20 individuals during peak fruit seasons. Closely related, the Sri Lanka hill myna (Gracula ptilogenys), endemic to 's wet zone forests, shares similar arboreal habits and vocal prowess, inhabiting lowlands and hills up to 1,800 meters in natural woodlands, gardens, and plantations. This species maintains a fruit-heavy diet akin to its northern counterpart, foraging in canopy layers while contributing to forest regeneration through seed distribution. In contrast, the jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus) occupies a broader range across the from to northeastern , extending into and the , favoring forest edges, open woodlands, and cultivated areas rather than deep interiors. It exhibits less pronounced but vocalizes with varied calls during , consuming a mix of , fruits, and nectar in small groups. Conservation challenges for and hill mynas are pronounced, particularly for Gracula , due to intense pressure from the international targeting their abilities; wild-caught hill mynas have experienced rapid population declines and local extinctions, especially on Indonesian islands, prompting listings under Appendix II to regulate . Habitat degradation from and further exacerbates vulnerabilities, though jungle mynas appear more resilient in human-modified landscapes. Efforts to mitigate these impacts include enforcement of trade quotas and promotion of programs in regions like .

True mynas

The true mynas encompass the genus , a group of 11 species within the starling family Sturnidae, primarily native to tropical southern from to . These birds are characterized by their stocky builds, dark often with glossy black heads, yellow bills and legs, and adaptations to open, human-modified landscapes such as grasslands, farmlands, and urban edges. Unlike more forest-oriented mynas, true mynas thrive in disturbed habitats, exhibiting high adaptability that facilitates their spread. Prominent species include the (Acridotheres tristis), a widespread omnivorous measuring 23–26 cm in length with chocolate-brown body and white tail-tip patches, and the (A. ginginianus), a slightly smaller (20–23 cm) greyish bird distinguished by brick-red skin behind the eyes and a short frontal crest. Both display aggressive territoriality, vigorously defending nesting cavities in trees, buildings, or riverbanks against native , often evicting competitors through physical confrontations. Their diet is broadly omnivorous, encompassing , small vertebrates, fruits, , and anthropogenic refuse, which supports their scavenging lifestyle in diverse environments. Several species, notably the , were intentionally introduced to regions like and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as biocontrol agents against agricultural pests such as locusts and ticks. However, their rapid proliferation has transformed them into significant ecological pests, where they outcompete native cavity-nesters, spread diseases, and damage crops through foraging. In , common mynas have established populations across eastern states, while in , they occupy much of the , prompting ongoing eradication efforts. Population trends for true mynas in introduced urban settings demonstrate explosive growth, driven by abundant food and nesting opportunities; for instance, densities in Australian suburbs like have reached up to 100 birds per km² within decades of establishment. This adaptability underscores their invasive potential, with ongoing monitoring highlighting risks to in human-dominated landscapes. While true mynas possess vocal mimicry capabilities for alarm calls and songs, these are less sophisticated compared to those of hill mynas.

Gracupica mynas

The Gracupica mynas represent a distinct within the family Sturnidae, characterized by their bold black-and-white plumage and adaptation to open, often wetland-associated habitats across . This genus was established following phylogenetic analyses that separated it from the polyphyletic , with the split formalized in the late 2000s based on molecular evidence revealing deep divergences among Oriental lineages. The group encompasses four recognized , though they remain somewhat understudied compared to more widespread mynas due to ongoing taxonomic refinements and their regional distributions. Prominent among them is the pied myna (Gracupica contra), a medium-sized measuring about 20 cm in length, featuring glossy black upperparts, a white belly, and a yellow bill with an orange-red base. Another key species is the (G. nigricollis), distinguished by a prominent black collar against its otherwise similar pied patterning, and the Siamese pied starling (G. floweri), which shares the black-and-white contrast but with a more restricted range. The pied starling (G. jalla) rounds out the genus, notable for its Critically Endangered (Possibly ) status per IUCN (2024), with no confirmed wild population despite millions in captivity, primarily confined historically to . These species exhibit subtle morphological variations, such as differences in collar presence or forehead streaking, that underscore their and evolutionary divergence. Morphologically, Gracupica mynas are adapted for ground foraging, with slender, pointed bills suited for probing and , setting them apart from the bulkier bills of related genera. Their diet primarily consists of , such as beetles and earthworms, supplemented by fruits, , and occasionally seeds or human food waste, reflecting opportunistic feeding in altered landscapes. Socially, they form loose flocks of 5–20 individuals, often commuting between foraging sites in wetlands and roosting trees, with pairs engaging in year-round duetting and display behaviors that reinforce pair bonds. Distributionally, the genus is centered in the and , with G. contra ranging from and eastward through , , and to southern and Indochina. G. nigricollis occupies southern and much of , including and , while G. floweri is endemic to , , , and , favoring riverine lowlands. G. jalla's hyper-endemic status highlights the genus's vulnerability to in insular settings. Preferred habitats include open grasslands, agricultural fields, and edges with scattered trees, often near human settlements but less urban-tolerant than congeners, contributing to their relative obscurity post-taxonomic reclassification.

Conservation

Major threats

Myna populations, particularly those in forested regions, face significant pressure from habitat loss driven by and . For the jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus), tree cover within its mapped range has declined by approximately 10% over the past 10 years, reflecting broader trends in across South and . Similarly, the (Gracula religiosa) has experienced a 14% loss of tree cover over the same period, exacerbating vulnerability for species dependent on mature forests for nesting and foraging. The international and domestic pet trade represents a primary anthropogenic threat, especially to hill mynas prized for their vocal abilities. Between 1994 and 2003, over 170,000 wild-caught common hill mynas were exported from range countries, contributing to substantial local population declines in areas like , , and ; domestic trade volumes are believed to be even higher, with ongoing captures estimated in the thousands annually across . This overexploitation, often targeting breeding adults and juveniles, disrupts and in affected subpopulations. In regions where mynas have been introduced, such as , common mynas (Acridotheres tristis) pose competitive pressures on native avifauna by aggressively dominating nesting cavities and food resources, leading to declines in species like the sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) and (Platycercus elegans). Specific vulnerabilities vary by species, as noted in assessments of and hill mynas.

Protection measures

The hill myna (Gracula religiosa) has been listed under CITES Appendix II since 1997, following its initial inclusion in Appendix III in 1992 at Thailand's request; this regulates international trade to prevent overexploitation due to demand in the pet trade. Several myna species benefit from inclusion in protected areas across their ranges. In India, the common hill myna, designated as the state bird of Chhattisgarh, is safeguarded within Kanger Valley National Park, where habitat conservation and anti-poaching patrols aim to counter threats from tree felling and illegal trapping. In Indonesia, the critically endangered Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) inhabits West Bali National Park, protected under national law since 1970, with ongoing habitat restoration to support its persistence. Reintroduction programs form a key component of conservation for threatened mynas. For the endangered black-winged myna (Acridotheres melanopterus), captive breeding at centers like Cikananga in Java supports potential releases into protected sites such as Baluran National Park, with multiple reintroduction attempts conducted since 2012, addressing population declines from trade. Similarly, the Bali myna has seen multiple reintroductions since 1983 through the Bali Starling Project, releasing captive-bred individuals into West Bali National Park to bolster wild numbers, which had fallen to fewer than 50 mature individuals in 2009 but reached around 420 as of 2021. Efforts to manage invasive mynas focus on in non-native regions. In , community-led trapping programs target the (Acridotheres tristis), an competing with native for nest sites; in , the Canberra Indian Myna Action Group's initiative since 2006 has reduced myna abundance from the third to the 17th most common in garden surveys, demonstrating local-scale effectiveness through humane traps and protocols.

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  50. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347207003417
  51. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/commyn/cur/behavior
  52. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/hilmyn/cur/breeding
  53. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350342741_The_Breeding_Ecology_of_the_Crested_Myna_Acridotheres_cristatellus_on_Tropical_Hainan_Island
  54. https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/updates/species-updates/
  55. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/sri-lanka-hill-myna-gracula-ptilogenys
  56. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.junmyn1.01
  57. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/14868-Acridotheres
  58. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/commyn/cur/introduction
  59. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/banmyn1/cur/introduction
  60. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.2994
  61. https://pestsmart.org.au/toolkit-resource/overview-of-common-indian-myna-acridotheres-tristis-or-sturnus-tristis/
  62. http://fennerschool-associated.anu.edu.au/myna/minimise_files/Myna_Mitigation_PhaseI.pdf
  63. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Myna/sounds
  64. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/aspsta2/cur/introduction
  65. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=DE89E1FBB545F8CF
  66. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/aspsta3/cur/systematics
  67. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/aspsta2/cur/foodhabits
  68. https://ebird.org/species/aspsta2
  69. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0040622
  70. https://india.mongabay.com/2021/02/efforts-on-to-protect-chattisgarhs-state-bird-the-common-hill-mynah-from-extinction/
  71. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/bali-myna-leucopsar-rothschildi
  72. https://www.silentforest.eu/in-situ-projects/cikananga-conservation-breeding-centre/
  73. https://www.cikanangawildlifecenter.com/black-winged-myna/
  74. https://news.mongabay.com/2025/10/indigenous-led-protections-spark-bali-starlings-recovery-in-the-wild/
  75. https://indianmynaaction.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Submission-ACT-Govt-Mynas-as-Pest-Animals-May-2016.pdf
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