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Redonda (Antiguan and Barbudan Creole: Redaanda or Redawnda) is an uninhabited Caribbean island which is a dependency of Saint John, Antigua and Barbuda,[2] in the Leeward Islands, West Indies. The island is about 1.6 kilometres (1 mi) long, 0.5 kilometres (0.3 mi) wide, and is 296 metres (971 ft) high at its highest point.[3]

Key Information

It lies between the islands of Nevis and Montserrat, 56.2 kilometres (34.9 mi) southwest of Antigua. Redonda is closer to Montserrat than to any other island; it is located 22.5 kilometres (14.0 mi) northwest of Montserrat and 32 kilometres (20 mi) southeast of Nevis.

Redonda is home to vast numbers of sea birds, and the island was an important source of guano before artificial fertilisers started to be mass-produced. Guano-mining operations started in the 1860s and ceased after the start of World War I. During the mining operations a few buildings and other installations were put in place on the island, and some physical remnants of that phase in its history are still visible.

The name "Redonda" means "round" in Spanish. In 1493, on his second voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus saw the island and named it "Santa María la Redonda" (the name in the Spanish language means "Saint Mary the Round").

The island was annexed by the Antiguan Parish of Saint John on 26 March 1872.[1]

Description

[edit]
Antigua and Barbuda map with Redonda (lower left).
The west (leeward) coast of Redonda consists almost entirely of sheer cliffs many hundreds of feet high, 2011

At a distance, Redonda appears as if it were one very large rock. It is the remnant of an ancient extinct volcano. The land rises from sea level mostly as sheer cliffs, especially on the leeward (west) side. At the top of the island there is a relatively flat but tilted area of grassland which slopes to the east. There is no source of fresh water other than rain.

Judging by the name he gave the island, to Columbus the island appeared to be rounded, at least in profile. In reality the island is long and narrow, and reaches a height of almost 1,000 feet (300 m). The actual land area of the island is hard to estimate because of the extreme steepness of the slopes, but it is calculated to be somewhere between 1.6 square kilometres (400 acres) and 2.6 square kilometres (640 acres).

Redonda is uninhabited. The difficult topography, the lack of a safe place to land a boat, and the absence of any freshwater source other than rainfall makes the island inhospitable to humans.

A small stone hut on the top of the island dates from the days when guano was mined there.

A herd of feral goats and thousands of rats were cleared from the island in 2017 as part of an island restoration programme.[4]

A detail of the west coast shows the reddish volcanic rock cliffs and a small rock islet with a visible intertidal algal zone, 2011

History

[edit]

In 1493, Christopher Columbus and his crew became the first known Europeans to see Redonda, on his second journey. He claimed it for the Crown of Castile, but did not land there. He named the island Santa María la Redonda, meaning Saint Mary the Round, reflecting the island's apparent profile when viewed from the side.

As the island is a rock of just over a square kilometre, it did not represent any interest for the powers involved in the colonisation of the Americas and, for centuries, it was a refuge for pirates.

In the 1860s, the island became a British possession.[how?]

During the decades after the 1860s, the rich guano deposits of Redonda were mined for fertiliser, with an annual yield of up to 7,000 tons. Only during this time was the island inhabited by workers; the population was 120 in 1901. After the guano mining, aluminium phosphate for gunpowder production was discovered and mined. A cableway was constructed to transport material down to the loading pier on the coast.[5]

In 1914, during the First World War, the mining operations ceased, and most workers left the island. Maintenance workers remained on the island until 1929, when a hurricane destroyed almost all the remaining facilities.[5] The island has remained uninhabited since then. Two stone huts still stand from the time when the island was occupied. Although the closest island to Redonda is Montserrat, and the second closest is Nevis, in 1967 Redonda became a dependency of the more distant Antigua, now part of Antigua and Barbuda.

Scientists from the Montserrat Volcano Observatory[6] visit the island in a helicopter periodically; they are using Redonda as an observation point from which to take measurements of the Soufrière Hills, an active volcano on Montserrat.

Ecology and conservation

[edit]

The island is a breeding colony for multiple species of seabirds.[7] It has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports red-footed, brown and masked boobies, as well as magnificent frigatebirds.[8]

Animals endemic to the island include the Redonda ground dragon,[9] the Redonda anole[10] and an unnamed species of dwarf gecko.[11]

The island's local ecology was severely affected by invasive species, particularly introduced goats and rats, for almost a century. Island restoration efforts were initiated in 2016, beginning with removing the island's 60 goats and roughly 6,000 rats.[12][4] The Redonda Restoration Programme involves the Environmental Awareness Group, Wildlife Management International and Fauna and Flora International. Several years after the goats were removed, some local plant life began to recover.[12][13]

In September 2023, the Redonda Ecosystem Reserve was established, covering nearly 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) of land and sea,[14] making it the largest marine protected area in the region.[15]

Micronation

[edit]
Main article: Kingdom of Redonda
The island of Redonda, seen from Nevis, with Montserrat in the distance, 2006

Redonda is the setting for the myth of the "Kingdom of Redonda". M. P. Shiel, an author of fantasy novels, claimed that in the year of his birth, 1865, his father Matthew Dowdy Shiell, from Montserrat, decided to celebrate his first male child by arranging for the boy to be crowned King of Redonda at the age of 15, in a ceremony purportedly carried out on the small island by a bishop.

Shiel first expressed the idea of the "Kingdom of Redonda" in a promotional leaflet for his books. Since then, the title has been "passed down", and continues to the present day. For a period of time the "Royal" lineage of Redonda had a more or less solely literary theme, with the title being given to writers, such as John Gawsworth and Jon Wynne-Tyson. Wynne-Tyson (King Juan II), his successor the Spanish novelist Javier Marías (King Xavier), and rival contenders for the Redondan title, such as Gawsworth, William L. Gates and Bob Williamson, were featured in a BBC Radio 4 documentary, Redonda: The Island with Too Many Kings, which was broadcast in May 2007.[16]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Redonda

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from Grokipedia
Redonda is an uninhabited in the , situated approximately 56 kilometers southwest of and forming part of the sovereign state of . The island measures about 1.6 kilometers in length and 0.5 kilometers in width, rising steeply to a maximum of 296 meters, with a total land area of roughly 1 square kilometer. Once a site of mining in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Redonda has become a global model for island restoration, having been cleared of invasive rats and goats between 2016 and 2018 to revive its native . Historically, Redonda was likely sighted by Christopher Columbus in 1493 and named for its supposed round shape, though it is actually oblong and rugged with steep cliffs and minimal soil cover due to erosion. European settlers introduced goats around 300 years ago for food, while black rats arrived in the 1800s via guano mining operations, which extracted phosphate deposits until World War I, leading to severe ecological degradation that stripped vegetation and threatened endemic species. By the mid-20th century, the island supported only 17 plant species and was overrun by invasives, impacting seabird colonies and reptiles like the endemic Redonda ground lizard (Ameiva atrata) and Redonda tree lizard (Anolis nubilus). Restoration efforts, led by organizations including Fauna & Flora International and the Environmental Awareness Group, successfully eradicated rats using bait in 2017 and airlifted the last goats off the island in 2018, resulting in rapid regreening with over 88 plant species recorded by 2021 and an eightfold increase in lizard populations by 2019. By 2024, tree lizard populations had increased 16-fold, further demonstrating the success of these efforts. Today, Redonda hosts globally significant seabird colonies, including 1% of the world's brown boobies (Sula leucogaster) and red-billed tropicbirds (Phaethon aethereus), alongside 23 bird species and more than 30 threatened or near-threatened taxa, making it a Key Biodiversity Area. In 2023, it was designated as the Redonda Ecosystem Reserve, encompassing 29,587 hectares of land and surrounding marine areas to protect its recovering coral reefs and beds.

Geography

Location and extent

Redonda is situated in the of the archipelago within the , approximately 56 km (35 mi) southwest of . Its geographic coordinates are approximately 16°56′N 62°21′W. The island lies approximately 23 km north-northwest of and 32 km southeast of , forming part of the broader archipelago. The island covers an area of 1.6 km² (0.6 sq mi) and consists of an elongated rocky outcrop rising steeply from the sea, with no permanent human or habitation. Redonda remains uninhabited, serving primarily as a protected natural feature. Administratively, Redonda has been a dependency of since 1872, when it was incorporated into the Parish of Saint John in , and it continues as one of two official dependencies alongside . Recent designations, such as the surrounding marine areas within the Redonda Ecosystem Reserve established in 2023, encompass approximately 295 km² of adjacent waters.

Geology and topography

Redonda is a volcanic island within the Lesser Antilles island arc, resulting from the subduction of the North American Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate along a tectonically active zone. The island originated as a former volcanic center positioned along a WNW-trending fault system northwest of Montserrat. Composed primarily of newer volcanic rocks, Redonda exhibits no current volcanic activity, reflecting the broader evolutionary stages of the arc where volcanism has transitioned from active phases to erosional remnants. The island's features steep, rugged cliffs that rise abruptly from the surrounding to a maximum of 297 meters (971 feet) at its highest point, creating a barren, minimally vegetated landscape with thin soil layers prior to ecological interventions. Narrow ridges and a distinctive wedge-shaped profile define the terrain, shaped by prolonged and of the underlying volcanic materials. This dramatic relief underscores Redonda's status as an uplifted remnant, with sheer basalt-dominated cliffs contributing to its isolated and inaccessible character. Key landforms include exposed volcanic structures and erosion-carved caves, the latter historically serving as sites for guano accumulation from nesting seabirds and bats. The absence of beaches or natural harbors necessitates challenging steep ascents for any land access, emphasizing the island's harsh, unforgiving profile. Mineral resources on Redonda center around phosphates derived from deposits, which formed through the concentration of excrement on the volcanic substrates and were exploited in the past.

History

Discovery and colonial period

Redonda was first sighted by in during his second voyage to the . He named it Santa María la Redonda, Spanish for "Holy Mary the Round One," owing to its rounded silhouette visible from the sea. Following its discovery, the island attracted minimal interest from Spanish colonizers, who prioritized more accessible and resource-rich territories in the . Its remote location, steep volcanic cliffs rising over 300 meters, and absence of fresh water sources rendered it uninhabitable, with no evidence of prior indigenous or Carib settlement. Early European records and maps depicted Redonda chiefly as a navigational peril for ships traversing the [Leeward Islands](/page/Leeward Islands), due to its jagged shores and unpredictable currents. British attention turned to Redonda in the mid-19th century amid rising global demand for as a . Naval expeditions conducted limited surveys, identifying substantial deposits of bird on the island's plateaus, though no exploitation occurred at the time. To assert control over these potential resources and preempt claims by other powers, Britain formally annexed Redonda on 26 March 1872 via an ordinance incorporating it into the colony under Antigua's administration.

Guano mining and exploitation

Guano mining on Redonda commenced in the 1860s, driven by the global demand for seabird droppings as a rich source of nitrogen and phosphorus for agricultural fertilizers. The British government granted a license in 1869 to the US-owned Redonda Phosphate Company, which established operations to extract and export the deposits despite the island's steep, uninhabitable terrain. During this era, a local merchant associated with the Shiel family claimed the island as a hereditary kingdom in connection with guano rights, giving rise to the literary 'Kingdom of Redonda'. Initial efforts focused on surface guano layers, which were shoveled and transported to waiting ships, but the activity quickly expanded to underlying phosphate-rich rock formations revealed by the guano. Phosphate mining intensified in the late , with workers blasting volcanic crevices and caves to access the , which was then broken manually and loaded into sacks. The extracted material, containing up to 42% phosphoric anhydride, was shipped primarily to the and for use in fertilizers and, increasingly, munitions production due to its content. Operations peaked in the , employing over 100 laborers, mostly men from nearby , who worked in rotating shifts of three months amid harsh conditions including dust inhalation and limited fresh water collected from rainfall. To facilitate extraction and transport, the company constructed basic infrastructure, including a small pier on the eastern beach for loading lighters, an 800-foot aerial tramway spanning 525 feet in height to descend from the mining sites, and a 1,200-foot wire tramway to the shore. Temporary camps housed workers in simple sheds with bunks, while a superintendent's residence overlooked the operations; waste rock, or gangue, was discarded into the sea, contributing to immediate environmental disturbance. Annual exports reached several thousand tons during peak years, supporting the company's levy payments to the British colonial administration in Antigua. Mining activities declined sharply after 1914 due to the onset of , which disrupted shipping routes and trade, compounded by the gradual depletion of accessible deposits. The lease was formally relinquished around 1930, with the last maintenance workers departing by 1929, leaving behind rudimentary structures and accelerated erosion from excavations that destabilized the island's steep slopes and cave systems. The operations also inadvertently introduced through ship arrivals, exacerbating long-term ecological pressures on the fragile terrain.

Post-exploitation and restoration

Following the cessation of guano mining operations around 1929, Redonda was abandoned, leaving the island in a desolate state exacerbated by the initial from extraction activities. goats, introduced by centuries earlier for food, and black rats, persisting from the mining era, proliferated unchecked, leading to severe vegetation loss and widespread that transformed the landscape into a barren moonscape by the . In 2016, the Redonda Restoration Programme was launched by the Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) of , in partnership with Fauna & Flora International, Re:wild (formerly Global Wildlife Conservation), and other collaborators including the . The initiative received funding from the Darwin Initiative of the government, the National Fish & Foundation, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Disney Conservation Fund, among others. Key restoration actions commenced promptly, with the removal of approximately 60 feral goats in 2017 through capture and relocation to via helicopter, marking the elimination of the last individuals from the island. In 2018, an estimated 6,000 black rats were eradicated using aerial broadcasting of bait, a method applied across the 1-square-kilometer island; subsequent monitoring confirmed the island rat-free by 2019. Initial trials of planting native vegetation followed these removals to accelerate natural regeneration. By 2023, total on Redonda had increased by more than 2,000%, with thousands of native trees and shrubs taking root and stabilizing the soil, while ongoing monitoring through 2025 demonstrates sustained ecological recovery in the absence of . planning began in 2024, led by EAG, focusing on low-impact options such as limited guided boat tours to minimize disturbance while supporting long-term conservation funding.

Ecology and conservation

Native biodiversity

Redonda's native flora consists of approximately 139 species adapted to its arid, rocky volcanic terrain, forming a dry scrub forest dominated by succulents and cacti that thrive in nutrient-poor soils with minimal rainfall. Characteristic plants include the Redonda daisy (Wedelia calycina var. calycina), a common shrub on cliffs and slopes, as well as Agave karatto, Pilosocereus royeni, and various Opuntia species that form sparse xeromorphic shrublands on talus slopes and summits. Other notable natives encompass Ficus citrifolia in moist western gullies, Croton flavens, Melocactus intortus, and Opuntia triacantha, contributing to a vegetation mosaic of cactus woodlands and herbaceous savannas resilient to the island's steep topography. The island supports globally significant seabird colonies, serving as a key breeding site for several species in the . Prominent among them are the red-billed tropicbird (Phaethon aethereus), with substantial but unquantified pairs nesting in crevices, alongside brown boobies (Sula leucogaster) forming regionally important colonies of at least 774 pairs as recorded in surveys, masked boobies (Sula dactylatra), and red-footed boobies (Sula sula). Additional breeders include Audubon's shearwater (Puffinus lherminieri), magnificent frigatebirds (Fregata magnificens) with 50-100 nests, and bridled terns (Onychoprion anaethetus), totaling over 10,000 pairs across species in pre-degradation estimates and relying on the surrounding marine productivity for foraging. These avifauna exhibit adaptations such as cliff-nesting to exploit the island's elevated, wind-exposed ledges. Redonda hosts four endemic lizard species, each specialized for its harsh, barren environment, with no native amphibians recorded. The critically endangered Redonda ground (Pholidoscelis atratus, formerly Ameiva atrata), a melanistic form reaching up to 30 cm in total length, inhabits open rocky areas; the Redonda tree (Anolis nubilus) perches in sparse vegetation or ruins; the Redonda pygmy (Sphaerodactylus sp., possibly S. elegantulus) is a diminutive nocturnal form in crevices; and a fourth unnamed species completes the assemblage, all demonstrating rapid evolutionary adaptations to isolation. The sole native is the Antillean fruit-eating bat (Brachyphylla cavernarum), a roosting in caves like Bat's Cave and pollinating native plants through nectarivory. The waters encircling Redonda harbor diverse marine communities, including coral reefs and stocks that sustain the island's seabirds via nutrient-rich currents. These habitats support foraging for like green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) turtles, with upwelling-driven productivity enhancing prey availability for tropicbirds and boobies.

Invasive species and restoration efforts

The primary invasive species impacting Redonda's ecosystem were black rats (Rattus rattus), introduced in the via guano mining ships, and feral goats (Capra hircus), introduced by early and later proliferated by 19th-century guano miners as a food source and allowed to proliferate after mining operations ended. These invasives arrived in the and exacerbated degradation post-exploitation, with sheep and cats present historically but eradicated prior to major restoration initiatives. Black rats preyed extensively on eggs, chicks, , and , severely reducing populations and contributing to the decline or extirpation of endemic species like the Redonda ground (Pholidoscelis atratus). Feral goats overgrazed native , trampling and causing widespread that transformed the island into a barren "lunar " with only 17 plant species remaining by 2012, leading to cascading effects on dependent fauna such as bats and through habitat loss. By 2016, cover had been reduced by approximately 80%, intensifying instability and limiting regeneration of native flora critical for the island's endemic biodiversity. Eradication efforts under the Redonda Restoration Programme, launched in 2016 by the Environmental Awareness Group, Fauna & Flora International, and the Government of , targeted these invasives systematically. In late 2016 and early 2017, around 60 feral goats were captured and relocated to via airlifts to accessible and remote areas. Black rats, numbering over 6,000, were eradicated in 2017 using bait (Klerat) distributed across the island, including manual placement by climbers on steep cliffs and drops for broader coverage; the island was declared rat-free in July 2018 after monitoring confirmed success. To prevent reintroduction, strict protocols were established, including inspections of visiting ships, equipment sterilization, and measures for any potential vectors. Post-eradication restoration focused on habitat rehabilitation and species recovery, beginning immediately after 2018. Native plant seeds were collected and banked from surviving populations on cliffs, with thousands of seedlings manually replanted starting in 2019 to accelerate vegetation regrowth and soil stabilization. This effort contributed to a more than 2,000% increase in vegetation biomass within five years, expanding plant diversity from 17 to nearly 90 species and restoring a lush cover that supported invertebrate and reptile populations. Seabird monitoring, conducted via remote cameras, annual counts, and nest surveys, documented rapid recovery, including a tenfold increase in land bird species (from 9 to 23) and booming colonies of tropicbirds, boobies, and frigatebirds by 2023, with the Redonda ground lizard population surging 13-fold since 2017. These outcomes highlight the effectiveness of invasive species removal in reversing ecological collapse on small islands.

Redonda Ecosystem Reserve

The Redonda Ecosystem Reserve was established in September 2023 by the government of , designating nearly 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) of land and surrounding marine areas as a protected zone, marking it as the largest in the Eastern . This reserve encompasses the entirety of Redonda Island, its adjacent meadows, a 70-square-mile system, and key migratory corridors for seabirds, providing comprehensive safeguards for both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The reserve's scope includes designated zones to balance conservation with limited human activity, such as no-take areas closed to commercial fishing to protect marine biodiversity and habitats critical for fish spawning. Sustainable tourism and scientific research are permitted under strict guidelines, with visitation restricted primarily to guided, low-impact activities to minimize disturbance to recovering wildlife. Management is led by the Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) in collaboration with international partners including Fauna & Flora International and Rewilding Europe, focusing on ongoing surveillance, habitat monitoring, and enforcement of protective regulations. In 2024, EAG completed a comprehensive Marine Research Monitoring Plan to track ecosystem health, building on prior restoration efforts that laid the groundwork for this legal framework. Since its creation, the reserve has achieved notable recoveries in , with populations showing marked increases following the cessation of invasive pressures, contributing to enhanced . Annual monitoring indicates sustained progress, though challenges persist from climate change impacts like hurricanes, which threaten coral reefs and nesting sites, and potential illegal activities in adjacent waters. To address these, EAG and partners implement regular patrols and to deter unauthorized access and , while 2025 ecotourism initiatives emphasize limited guided boat tours to generate sustainable funding without compromising the site's integrity. As of 2025, the EAG is piloting limited guided boat tours to generate sustainable funding while maintaining low-impact access.

Political and cultural aspects

Administrative status

Redonda is a dependency of , formally annexed to on July 17, 1869, and incorporated into the federation under the Leeward Islands Act of 1872, which established unified administration across the islands. Upon 's independence from the in 1981, Redonda became fully integrated into the sovereign territory of the nation, as defined in the , which explicitly includes the islands of , , Redonda, and associated smaller islets and cays. As an uninhabited island with no permanent residents, Redonda lacks any separate and falls under the administrative subdivision of the Parish of Saint John, governed directly from . Designated as , Redonda receives legal protections through national legislation that prohibits resource extraction and emphasizes conservation. , which dominated the 's from the 1860s until operations ceased around 1914 with the last human inhabitants departing by 1929, effectively ended private exploitation rights as the island reverted to state control without renewal of concessions. In 2023, Redonda was elevated to a national under the Protected Areas on Lands (Declaration of Redonda as a ) Order, Statutory Instrument No. 37, enacted pursuant to Sections 55 and 56 of the Environmental Protection and Management Act, 2019, establishing the 295.866 km² Redonda Reserve encompassing the and surrounding marine zones. This designation bans all , , and extractive activities within the reserve to safeguard its ecological integrity. Access to Redonda is strictly regulated to prevent unregulated visitation or settlement, with entry prohibited in the core Replenishment Zone surrounding the island; permitted activities, such as scientific , restoration efforts, and limited guided , require prior authorization from the Department of Environment. The Ministry of Health, Wellness, Social Transformation, and the Environment, led by Minister Hon. Molwyn Joseph, oversees management, often in collaboration with the nongovernmental Environmental Awareness Group (EAG), which coordinates licensed expeditions for and conservation. Occasional scientific visits, including surveys, are allowed only with official permits to minimize human impact. In the international context, Redonda's status aligns with Antigua and Barbuda's membership in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), contributing to regional commitments on environmental protection and maritime boundaries without any active territorial disputes, as the island's sovereignty remains unchallenged and integrated into the nation's archipelagic framework.

Kingdom of Redonda micronation

The Kingdom of Redonda originated in 1865 when Matthew Dowdy Shiell, a merchant from Montserrat, proclaimed the uninhabited Caribbean island as his private kingdom upon landing there with friends, intending it as a legacy for his son. Matthew Phipps Shiell, born in 1865 in Montserrat, succeeded his father and, at the age of 15 in 1880, was ceremonially "crowned" as King Philippe I (also styled Felipe I) during a visit to the island. Inspired by Redonda's remote isolation, Shiell incorporated the island into his fantasy writings, using it as a mythical setting in novels such as The Purple Cloud and Prince Zaleski. The throne passed through a succession of literary figures, beginning with Shiell's designation of poet John Gawsworth as heir upon his death in 1947; Gawsworth, reigning as King Juan I until his death in 1970, expanded the kingdom's whimsical tradition by granting noble titles to prominent authors, including as Duke of Ark, as Duchess of Kerasia, and as Duke of Avec. This created an "intellectual aristocracy" that honored writers and artists, such as and . Post-1970, succession became disputed due to alleged sales of the title by Gawsworth; one prominent line proceeded to publisher Jon Wynne-Tyson as Juan II (1970–1997), who abdicated in favor of Spanish novelist as Xavier I (1997–2022), while another branch named as Juan II (1967–1989) and then William Leonard Gates as Leo (1989–present). As a primarily literary , the Kingdom of Redonda holds no territorial control or international recognition, functioning instead as a playful homage to and without political authority. It inspired Shiell's body of work and led to traditions like annual "coronations" held in or , where titles were bestowed in mock ceremonies. The cultural legacy endures through these literary appointments and related publications, emphasizing creativity over governance. Following Marías's death in September 2022, Colombian novelist was named his successor as king in one lineage, with the appointment announced in September 2023. A rival claim persists from British yachting writer Michael Howorth, known as Michael the Grey, who asserts kingship since around 2007 based on an earlier disputed inheritance. By 2025, the kingdom remains a folklore-inspired element tied to literary around the , exerting no political influence, as detailed in Michael Hingston's 2022 book Try Not to Be Strange: The Curious History of the Kingdom of Redonda.

References

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  46. https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Antigua_and_Barbuda.html
  47. https://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page=28
  48. https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/antigua/86019.htm
  49. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ant229068.pdf
  50. https://redonda-foundation.co.uk/history/
  51. https://www.biblioasis.com/shop/non-fiction/general-history/try-not-to-be-strange/
  52. https://thebcreview.ca/2022/12/20/1674-hayward-hingston/
  53. https://www.abc.es/cultura/libros/juan-gabriel-vasquez-sucedera-javier-marias-rey-20230923041038-nt.html
  54. http://www.kingdomofredonda.com/king-michael-the-grey.html
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