Hubbry Logo
RegniRegniMain
Open search
Regni
Community hub
Regni
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Regni
Regni
Regni
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
"Regini" redirects here. For the "REGINI" MS Windows registry console editor, see Windows Registry.

Regni
Celtic tribes of South England
Geography
CapitalNoviomagus Reginorum (Chichester)
LocationSussex
(Also parts of Hampshire, Kent, Surrey)
RulersDiviciacus of the Suessiones: 90 - 60 BC

Commius, the Atrebatian: 51 - 35 BC

Commius the Younger: 35 - 20 BC

Tincomaros: 30 BC - 7 AD

Eppillus: 30 BC - 15 AD

Verica: 15 - 41 AD

Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus: 43 - 80 AD

The Regni (also the Regini or the Regnenses) were a Celtic tribe, or group of tribes, living in Britain prior to the Roman Conquest, and later a civitas or canton of Roman Britain. They lived in what is now Sussex, as well as small parts of Hampshire, Surrey and Kent, with their tribal heartland at Noviomagus Reginorum (modern Chichester).

Territory

[edit]

It is generally accepted that the Regni broadly occupied the region that later became Sussex. Surrey is sometimes included within Regni territory and sometimes within the territory of the Atrebates to the north. However the archeological record north of the Weald shows significant differences to the south and so it would appear Surrey was not normally included in the Regni tribal area.[1]

The tribe was surrounded on the west by the Belgae, on the north by the Atrebates, and on the east by the Cantiaci. To the south and east across the Oceanus Britannicus or Oceanus Gallicus (the present day English Channel) lay Gaul and the tribal areas of the Caletes, Veliocasses, Catuslugi, Ambiani and the Morini.

Name

[edit]

The tribe’s existence is traced to the city of Chichester. During the Roman era, Chichester was a Civitas Capital, indicating it was a minor capital city governing a small tribal region. While maps typically indicate the Atrebates as the tribe occupying Chichester, the name of the city suggests the Regini actually controlled the area.[2]

Chichester's Roman name, Noviomagus Reginorum, is widely accepted to translate as “New Market,” but the meaning of Reginorum has been a subject of debate. Originally interpreted as “The People of the Kingdom,” i.e., the people of Cogidubnus’ client kingdom, a comparison with other civitas capitals reveals a different meaning. For instance, the tribal capital of the Durotriges tribe in Dorset (Dorchester) is Durotrigium, corresponding to the land of the Durotriges. This naming convention is also seen in other regional capitals like Atrebatum (Silchester) within Atrebates territory and Belgarum (Winchester) in Belgae territory. Applying this pattern to Chichester suggests that Reginorum should be understood as “New Market, Land of the Regini”[3][4]. Regnini or Regni is believed to come from a Brythonic word Regini (and the Gaulish and Old Welsh word Regin) meaning the “proud ones” or the “stiff ones.”[5]

The name of this people is not entirely certain. Ptolemy refers to the Ρηγνοι (Latin: Regni), whose only city was Νοιομαγος, Noiomagus.[6] This appears to be the same place as Navimago Regentium[7] or Noviomagus Regionorum, from which Regnenses, occurring in some modern sources,[8] appears to be derived. The location is generally supposed to be Chichester. The Antonine Itinerary refers to a place called Regno at the end of Roman Road 7, perhaps referring to a site along the coast of the Solent. Some scholars reject Regnenses in favour of Ptolemy's Regni or a Brythonic name Regini.[5]

Background

[edit]

By the Middle Iron Age (c. 250 BC) the first millennium BC hillforts on the northern and southern edges of the South Downs, such as Chanctonbury Ring and Highdown Hill had fallen out of use, replaced by new, smaller number of more dramatic hillforts on the Downs, such as at the Caburn, Cissbury and the Trundle. Unlike in the region of Wessex to the west, settlement close to these hillforts was limited. These hillforts were probably built to be impressive monuments rather than defensive structures, uniting local communities and giving them a renewed sense of identity. Also at this time, the coastal plain to the west of modern-day Brighton was resettled. By the end of the Middle Iron Age (c. 100BC) the downland hillforts had been abandoned, and settlements on the coastal plain became more numerous.[9]

Late Iron Age (c. 100 BC – early 1st century)

[edit]

The Regni were probably a group of native tribes influenced by the Belgae. The sudden appearance of new coin designs hints that some tribes in south-eastern Britain might have been under the control of a Belgic elite and adopted aspects of their culture as early as 100–80 BC. The distribution of Aylesford-Swarling pottery in south-eastern Britain has also been associated with the Belgae; however, recent studies proposed that migration might not have played as significant a role as once thought, with increased trade connections being more important, although this remains uncertain.[10][11][12]

The Impact of Belgic Culture on the Regini Tribe of Contemporary Sussex

The Regni entered a period of historical documentation around 75 BC, with the emergence of written records and the rise of a literate society, accompanied by a more complex economic system. Various groups' movements were no longer tracked solely through pottery artefacts but also through the identification of coins, marking a level of literacy, the aggregation of core cultures in specific regions, and the introduction of monetary transactions for trading surplus goods. Driven by pressures from tribal factions on the Continent and the Romans' continued conquests in Gaul, rebellious groups set out across the sea in search of unoccupied lands, especially where local chieftains resisted Roman rule. This likely marked the initial 'invasion' of Sussex, although detailed accounts of battles and conquests are scarce. The Gallo-Belgic tribes, also known as Celts, integrated their dominance into the existing social structure rather than replacing it; even during the later Roman era, indigenous Neolithic inhabitants coexisted with Iron Age urban residents in Sussex. Significant newcomers like Commius of the Atrebates, who sought sanctuary in Britain around 52 BC, brought and promoted a level of civilisation influenced by Rome. The Atrebates settled across a wide area encompassing Hampshire, Wiltshire, and parts of eastern Sussex, with some falling under the rule of the Catuvellauni by 25 BC.[13]

Following the initial 'conquest' and subsequent power shifts, Sussex stabilised into a new order. The influence of the Atrebates extended toward the Ouse and partially into the Weald, while tribes in the northeast and Kent maintained a more defensive stance, with Mount Caburn being a strongly fortified boundary town. The new ruling class notably abandoned the large developed hill-forts at the Trundle and Cissbury in favour of sophisticated urban centres on the coastal plain. This was particularly in the Selsey-Chichester area, which has since succumbed to coastal erosion.[14]

Beach Sustainability and Biodiversity on Eastern Channel Coasts Interim Report of the Beaches At Risk (BAR) Project University of Sussex, East Sussex County Council, Université de Rouen in association with the Université de Caen, University of the Littoral Opal Coast, Dunkerque

The settlements of the Regni tribe are mapped out in the West Sussex region, particularly situated around the River Lavant and between the river systems of the Arun and Adur. Noteworthy is the Major Oppidum (City) located in Chichester, along with the Selsey/Mixon rocks. It's believed that the Cymenshore/Mixon rocks were submerged around the 7th or 8th century AD, Large iron age shrine/votive site, also of significance is the Romano-Belgic Palace found at Fishbourne, which included a coin mint and shrine at Ratham, alongside ironworks at Boxgrove. The discovery of the Mystery Atrebate Warrior and the burial of the North Bersted Man at Bersted contribute to the historical narrative or the Regini.

Trade and fishing activities were prevalent at a small enclosure in Pagham, while Climping was recognised as a major trade centre. Coldharbour at the mouth of the Arun yielded a Roman hoard along with gold and silver Celtic coins. The Romano-Belgic Villa at Bognor and another trade centre at Tortington also produced gold and silver Celtic numismatics. Arundel served as a large Iron Age population centre, with substantial enclosures at Rewell Wood nearby, which during the late Bronze Age, was one of the largest settlements in Europe. There was a Romano-Belgic Villa at Bignor, and at Coldharbour, south of Stoke, a small quantity of silver Celtic coins was found.

Various settlement enclosures at Warningcamp may be linked to the Rewell Wood tribes, while the Burpham vicinity yielded Iron Age artefacts along with bone fragments from burials and signs of earthworks. The trade inlet at Nutbourne and Bosham, located at Chichester Harbour, also produced gold and silver Celtic coins. Wittering, which is now submerged, served as another trade centre at Chichester Harbour inlet, while Tournerbury hill fort is positioned approximately 100 metres from the Solent shoreline on nearby Hayling Island, just over the modern border with Hampshire, where Iron Age and Roman pottery have been discovered.

Rowlands Castle has shown evidence of Romano-British pottery, bricks, and tiles, benefiting from the nearby availability of suitable clay. Goosehill Camp features multiple enclosure hillforts situated on sloping grounds just below the ridge summit of the Sussex Downs. The Apple Down/Kingley Vale Ancient Forest is known as one of the oldest forests in Europe, containing yew trees that are up to 2,000 years old—some of the oldest living organisms in Great Britain.

The Trundle hillfort is found on the notable St. Roche's Hill, recognised as one of the prominent hills along the southern edge of the Sussex Downs. In Chilgrove, Bronze Age and Roman earthworks, cross dykes, and an ancient field system were established. Funtington features Coldharbour trade activities along the River Lavant, along with earthworks, cross dykes, a camp, and a field system, while a small quantity of gold and silver Celtic coins was discovered. Keynor was identified as an inland trade point that has since become silted.

The Regni expanded into the Weald, engaging not only in agriculture but also in exploiting iron resources crucial for their weaponry and tools. Archaeological remains of these industrial sites indicate a growing division of labour before the Roman period, alongside a developing hierarchy among tribal leaders who adopted somewhat Roman lifestyles while establishing a relative peace in their territories. Textile production preceded leatherwork as the primary industry, supported by the presence of salt producers along the Selsey coast, indicating a thriving trading economy that raised the standard of living for the ruling elite. They introduced cremation practices and organised burial sites to replace earlier native burial customs, though their involvement with the powerful Druidic cults of the late Iron Age remains uncertain. Information on the social customs of the Atrebates is limited and subject to potential biases from certain Roman chroniclers.[15]

Descriptions by Tacitus portray the south-eastern Britons as having similarities with their Gaulish counterparts: valiant yet hesitant in battle, fond of adorning themselves with woad, and possibly open to polyandry, though the accuracy of this claim is ambiguous. Julius Caesar's depiction of the Britons aligns well with the idea of the Regini tribe influenced by Belgic culture. The inland areas of Britain were inhabited by people claiming native heritage, while coastal regions were populated by migrants from Belgium who arrived to engage in warfare. These individuals often took names from their states of origin and settled after conflicts, integrating into agricultural practices. The island sustained a substantial population, featuring structures reminiscent of Gaul, and abundant livestock. The coastal territories of the Manhood Peninsula fit this description well, supported by Numismatics and Belgic influences.[16][17]

This central area likely served as the heart of the Belgic-influenced Regni tribe, stretching from the boundaries of Hampshire to the Trisantona Fluvius (the River Arun), meeting the English Channel at Littlehampton. The tribes outside this core area in the Sussex Weald were likely predominantly indigenous Brythonic communities who interacted with the Belgic-influenced Britons along the West Sussex coast. Regini, appearing to have been predominantly influenced by the Atrebates, could have been either a branch of the Belgic Atrebates or part of a confederation of smaller tribes predating the Atrebates' presence in Sussex and Hampshire. Despite seemingly avoiding complete submission to the Atrebates and maintaining some autonomy, their close ties to them were apparent, with Noviomagus serving as an early capital for the Atrebates, strategically positioned near a coastal area convenient for Celtic migrations from the mainland.[18][19]

Situated geographically along the southern coast of Britain, they likely assimilated more advanced practices and traded with Continental tribes until the Roman conquest of Gaul. The Regni, in conjunction with the Atrebates, seemingly saw Rome as a chance to enhance their commerce in opulent textiles, hunting dogs, and Iron goods, thus encouraging a reciprocal exchange of concepts that enriched their culture and technology, potentially giving them an advantage over less developed neighbouring tribes. It is likely that the Regni were among the most assimilated British tribes to Roman culture. They had already developed trade relationships with Rome, maintaining a Roman trading post and a small Roman influence even prior to the Roman conquest in AD 43. The Romans' significant utilization of Chichester Harbour within the Regni's lands right after AD 43 indicates that the Regni's supportive ties with Rome allowed the Romans an avenue to provide resources to the Roman legions operating in the south-west of Britain.[20][21][22]

Excavations in North Bersted, Oldplace Farm, and Copse Farm uncovered remnants of late Iron Age farmsteads and complex field systems, indicating widespread agricultural activities along the coastal plains. Archaeological investigations on Selsey Island revealed minimal late Iron Age or Roman remains, suggesting that while the area may have been inundated during that period, it was not a main settlement area. The presence of numerous Iron Age gold coins at Selsey Bill may suggest ritual offerings in the marshlands and even into the sea.[23]

Client kingdom (early-late 1st century)

[edit]

It has been suggested that, after the first phase of the conquest, the Romans maintained a nominally independent client kingdom, perhaps acting as a buffer between the Roman province in the east and the unconquered tribes to the west. There has been some debate about the extent of this territory, whose ruler was Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus or Cogidumnus.

The only tribal area Cogidubnus definitely ruled was the Regni.[24] Tacitus says "quaedam civitates Cogidumno regi donatae" ('certain civitates were given to King Cogidumnus')[25] and remarks on his loyalty. Some have assumed that Cogidubnus must also have ruled over the civitates of the Belgae and the Atrebates, while Miles Russell has suggested that the kingdom could have extended northwards to the south and east Midlands, and westwards to Bath. John Creighton not only takes the view that the kingdom extended to the Midlands, he also argues that Cogidubdus' predecessors, formed a Southern dynasty of kings, ruling what was a Roman client kingdom from the early 1st century.[26]

A first century inscription found in Chichester supplies his Latin names, indicating he was given Roman citizenship by Claudius or Nero. Cogidubnus may have been a relative of Verica, the Atrebatian king whose overthrow was the excuse for the conquest. After Cogidubnus's death, the kingdom would have been incorporated into the directly ruled Roman province and divided into its constituent civitates, such as the Regni, Atrebates and Belgae.

Controversies

[edit]

Likewise, the theory that Cogidubnus was created legatus, a rank only ever given to senators, is based on reconstructing the damaged Chichester inscription to read as Cogidubni regis legati Augusti in Britannia ('king and imperial legate in Britain'). It more probably reads Cogidubni regis magni Britanniae ('great king of Britain').[27]

Roman civitas (late 1st century—c.410 AD)

[edit]
See also: Roman Britain

After the death of Cogidubnus around 80 AD, the region became part of the Roman Empire proper. Governed as a Roman civitas, with its capital at Noviomagus, the region had several ports, Roman roads and villas. The key roads include the route north-east from Noviomagus which crossed the Thames at what became Londinium (modern-day London), known to the Saxons as Stane Street. Running east from Noviomagus was a route to Novus Portus (probably modern-day Portslade) and to the north-west ran a route to Calleva Atrebatum (modern Silchester), the capital of the neighbouring civitas of the Atrebates. Another route connected modern-day Lewes to Londinium. The Sussex Greensand Way connected the Chichester-London and Lewes-London routes.

Following raids across both sides of the English Channel in the late 3rd century, the Romans established the a series of forts across both sides of the Channel, including the fort of Anderitum (modern Pevensey) in the civitas of the Regni.

There was a large iron-producing industry in the vast forest known as the Sylva Anderida (the modern Weald). This included the 3rd -largest works in the entire Roman Empire, at Beauport Park near Hastings.

Post-Roman era (c. 410 AD - 7th century)

[edit]
See also: Sub-Roman Britain

Following the departure of Roman troops to Gaul in 407, Roman rule in Britain came to an end. In the former civitas of the Regni, the Kingdom of Sussex began its formation over the next half-century, traditionally with the arrival over the sea of King Aelle and his three sons in 477 AD, although Aelle's existence is debated and the South Saxon arrivals probably closer to 450 AD. A hoard of Roman coins, now known as the Patching Hoard, was deposited around 475 AD, the latest in Britain.

According to Michael Shapland, it is likely that the western area of the Regni canton, lying to the west of the River Arun, continued to have a Celtic British culture for many decades, even after the establishment of the Kingdom of Sussex, perhaps as a related kingdom or sub-kingdom. Some of the kings of Sussex have Celtic names, such as Æthelwealh. The choice of Selsey Abbey, on what was at the time the island of Selsey, had more in common with the ancient Christian centres of Lindisfarne, Glastonbury and Iona, all in areas where post-Roman Celtic kingdoms continued. Sussex's cathedral would appear to have more in common with the Celtic British Church and indicate Celtic origins.

Religion

[edit]
See also: Prehistoric religion, Celtic polytheism, and Religion in Sussex

Paganism

[edit]

There is a notable concentration of shrines in the region, notably at Hayling Island, Lancing Down and Westhampnett.[9] There was also a temple at Chanctonbury Ring which may have been part of a cult of the wild boar.

Cremation was established in the Regni tribal area by the 70s BC, even earlier in the major cemetery at Westhampnett.[9]

Goddesses of the Regni

[edit]

In south-eastern Britain, original coin designs have been found that skillfully combine Roman official symbols, featuring the likeness of the goddess Roma on the coins issued by the Regni tribe in West Sussex. These symbols reveal the self-perception of the Regni rulers, shedding light on historical political occurrences of the past. The representation of Roma we are examining is a blend influenced by Hellenistic artistic styles, crafted for the Roman denarius in 211 BC. It encapsulates Rome as a political entity, comprising the city, state, citizenship, origin, and the essence of Roman expansion. Categorised differently from conventional goddesses such as Diana or Minerva, Roma was not associated with sacred tales or ancient Indo-European gods. The helmeted Roman figure of Roma was inspired by Diana and Minerva but stands out due to its distinctive attributes like the Attic helmet adorned with a gryphon crest and tendrils extending to wings.

Engravers in Gaul and Britain selectively integrated these specific features. The depiction of "Roma" by the Regni tribe in Britain incorporates regional elements, akin to the similarity observed between Roma in Rome and the goddesses Diana and Minerva.

The Commios Ladder head silver units (30 - 45 BC) depict a Celtic fertility Goddess with unique features like a lentoid eye, swollen cheeks, and a bulbous chin. Her long flowing hair resembles moons, possibly representing a Luna deity. Circular Goat Horns hover above her head, and a flower is positioned in front of her, as though she is either smelling it or whispering to it. The symbols surrounding the goddess hold unknown meanings. Rotating the coin reveals a clear image of a Snake. This intricate design combines a lunar goddess with a horned serpent, likely Cernunnos, depicting the Great Queen of the Atrebates and Regni alongside the horned serpent. This fusion symbolises her diverse identity and authoritative position.

The Selsey Diadem gold quarter stater (55-50 BC) features a goddess with a diadem adorned with a moon symbol and two twisted locks of hair by her ears. The coin also depicts a horse and foal, along with a wheel and quatrefoil flower on the front. Moon-crowns were not exclusive to the Regini tribe. Roman Republican denarii depict female heads with crescent diadems, similar to modern tiaras. A denarius from 56BC with a diadem and a small moon above it may have inspired the Regini Selsey Diadem. Epona, a Gallo-Roman deity associated with horses, was believed to guide souls in the afterlife, resembling the depiction of Rhiannon in the Mabinogion. Rhiannon, like Epona, is often shown with her son Pryderi as a mare and foal, linking her to the Gaulish horse deity Epona.

The Sussex Helmet silver unit dating from 60-20 BC shows a Goddess with a helmet, possibly a prototype Roma due to the rarity of such portrayals. Within the British setting, depictions of Roma likely combined with local religious symbols, highlighting distinct characteristics. The god worshipped by the Regini community might be tied to the Roman goddess Minerva, as hinted by an inscription on a stone found at a shrine dedicated to Neptune and Minerva in Noviomagus Reginorum, now Chichester.

The Ashdown Forest Helmet Silver unit (50-40 BC) shows a goddess in a helmet with horns and boar-bristled crest, along with a large lentoid eye similar to the bronze helmet discovered near Waterloo Bridge in the Thames. It seems that the Romas Greco-Roman Attic helmet, which had a gryphon crest, has been replaced by a local style helmet. The delicate bronze Waterloo Bridge helmet was probably not suited for combat but rather for ceremonial purposes, much like ancient bronze shields mainly used for display rather than protection. Some believe its small size indicates it may have decorated a wooden statue of a Celtic deity.

Dating back to 55-45 BC, the Sussex Lyre silver unit features a portrayal of a Diademed goddess head with a distinctive pointed nose, wearing a neck torc and curly hair, possibly representing Trisantona, linked to the River Arun. On the reverse side, a horse with a zigzag tail, spoked wheel, and a unique lyre is depicted. While ancient Celtic lyre details are limited, it was used by Celtic bards from the 8th century BC and was later called the lyra during the Roman period. Made largely of wood with bone elements, the lyre had animal intestine strings in its resonator. Despite probably adopting it from the Greeks, the Gauls and other Celtic groups valued the crwth (Lyra) as a symbol of their musical heritage. The Gauls and Britons associated the instrument with their religious customs, using it in rituals and hymns for their tribal deities.

The Chichester Goddess Silver unit (50-30 BC) depicts a unique Goddess with distinct features including an oval eye, long pointed nose, thin lips, round prominent chin, slender curved neck, and flowing hair locks. She wears a honeycomb diadem and a duck visor helmet with a duck head and serpent-like creature. Ducks in Celtic mythology symbolise femininity, divinity, and otherworldly powers, linked to the goddess Sequana and the River Seine. The obverse side portrays a triple-tailed horse with a linear mane galloping with a boar below, associated with Moccus, the boar god of the Lingones tribe. Boar meat was sacred to the ancient Celts, reflecting in Celtic feasts. Lingones were a Gaulish tribe based near the Seine and Marne rivers in northeastern France, neighboring the Celto-Germanic Treveri tribe. Another Lingones tribe in north eastern Italy specialized in agriculture, weaving, and metalworking.

The Regini transformed the abstraction of a civitas personification into a concrete and symbolic entity. This transition highlights how a personified civitas could take on ceremonial and narrative significance. British Brigantia represents one instance of this type of development, while the Icenian personification could be another. In a parallel vein, even the Romans sanctioned a similar evolution by erecting an altar to Roma and Augustus in Lugdunum (Lyon) in 10 BC during Augustus’ reign to act as the focal point of the imperial cult for the three Gallic provinces.

Throughout the 1st century BC, several Gaulish authorities minted silver quinarius coins featuring the head of Roma. Subtle variations differentiate these local depictions from the original image, suggesting their adoption to convey regional significance. For instance, a Gallic torc necklace might be added, the gryphon crest on Roma's helm could be altered or removed entirely, such as in the case of replacing it with a horsehair or boar-bristle crest in Britain. Additionally, explicit wings might be absent or substituted with a different linear design. In the 1st century BC, various Gallic leaders minted silver quinarius coins featuring a depiction of Roma. These local adaptations of Roma's image included unique elements such as the addition of a Gallic torc necklace and the replacement of Romas gryphon crest with symbols like a horsehair or boar-bristle crest. Some coins also omitted the wings or substituted them with different designs.

It is important to note that all the coins shown were produced prior to 50 BC by affluent and well-organized allies of the Roman state. The Aedui, Sequani, and Lingones underwent political transformations early in the 1st century BC, implementing oligarchic structures similar to those of the Roman administration. Julius Caesar and his successors referred to the Gallic tribes as civitates, the Latin term for organized political entities or states. Similarly, the helmeted head on Roman coins symbolized the civitas Romana, the Roman state. Like the Gauls, the creators of British coin images made a clear distinction between abstract state symbols and depictions of powerful protective goddesses. The depiction of the Roma goddess by the Regini and Iceni resembles a cult image, possibly representing a British equivalent to deities like Diana/Artemis or Minerva/Pallas Athene.

The use of Roman symbolism on Gaulish and British coins reflects a desire to project themselves as autonomous political entities equal to the Roman state. Coin design often coincided with political transformations and administrative reforms, and the adoption of Roman imagery suggests the emergence of tribal leagues, larger kingdoms, and oligarchic states. The coins produced during this period indicate that groups like the Regini, Belgae, East Wiltshire groups, and Iceni may have viewed themselves as a confederation with shared ceremonial institutions, united by a collective identity and legal system. The word for a People or tribal state in Gaul and Britain at that time, Teuta or Touta, was a feminine noun, similar to the Latin Civitas, allowing for personification as a female deity. Just as Roma personified the Roman Civitas, the adapted image of Roma on Gallic and British coins likely represented the existence of a comparable citizen body, Civitas or Teuta.[28]

Christianity

[edit]

Following the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. At Wiggonholt, on a tributary of the River Arun, a large lead tank with repeated chi-rho motifs was discovered in 1943, the only Roman period artefact in Sussex found with a definite Christian association. It may represent a baptismal font or a container for holy water, or alternatively may have been used by pagans.[29]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Regni

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Regni, also known as the Regnenses or Regini, were a Celtic tribal group in , established as an amalgamation of Belgic peoples from the late inhabiting southern Britain, with their core territory encompassing modern , , eastern , southwestern , and the eastern edges of . Their tribal center was at Noviomagus Regnorum (present-day ), which served as a key Roman military and administrative hub. The name "Regnenses" likely derives from Latin influences meaning "people of the kingdom," though some scholars propose a Brythonic origin linked to "Regini" or associations with the deity Rigonemetis, "Lord of the Sacred Groves." Prior to the in AD 43, the Regni were likely vassals or a subgroup of the neighboring tribe, sharing Belgic cultural and linguistic ties from continental immigrants. Following the invasion led by , the Regni quickly aligned with Rome, establishing a pro-Roman client kingdom under , a ruler of probable Atrebatic descent who held titles such as "Great King of the Britons" and imperial legate. Cogidubnus governed from approximately AD 43 until around AD 80, fostering Roman integration through infrastructure like roads and villas, including the lavish near , which featured advanced mosaics and heating systems indicative of elite Romanized society. After Cogidubnus's death, the Regni territory was reorganized into a formal Roman , promoting local autonomy under imperial oversight while supporting industries such as Wealden iron production and coastal . Archaeological evidence from sites like the Hassocks cemetery, Chanctonbury Ring temple, and Hardham Roman station reveals a blend of Celtic traditions and Roman innovations, including , coinage, and fortifications that defended against later Saxon incursions around AD 477. The persisted until the late , contributing to the Roman province's economy before the withdrawal of Roman forces and subsequent Anglo-Saxon migrations fragmented the region.

Name and Territory

Etymology

The name of the Regni tribe derives from the Brythonic term *Regini, interpreted as "the proud ones" or "the stiff ones," stemming from the root *regin- meaning "stiff" or "stark." This etymology is supported by linguistic analysis linking it to related forms in Gaulish and Old Welsh, such as *regin, and is first attested in Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century AD), where the tribe is listed as the Regni (Greek: Ῥήγνοι) inhabiting southern Britain. Roman sources exhibit variations in the tribal name, including Regni in Ptolemy, Regnenses as a possible designation for their civitas (administrative district), and Regini appearing in inscriptions, such as those referencing tribal affiliations. Scholars debate whether these forms reflect an indigenous self-designation or a Roman adaptation, potentially influenced by Latin regnum ("kingdom") due to the tribe's association with a client ruler; some recent scholarship proposes a connection to the deity Rigonemetis, "Lord of the Sacred Groves," though the Brythonic origin predominates in etymological studies. The name connects to Roman place-names in the region, notably Noviomagus Reginorum (modern Chichester), recorded in the Antonine Itinerary as "a Regno" and in the Ravenna Cosmography as Navimago Regentium, suggesting an administrative usage tied to the tribe's territory without altering the core etymology. Scholarly discussions on the name's evolution emphasize epigraphic evidence from inscriptions, with analyses tracing phonetic shifts from *Regini to Regnenses and highlighting the influence of local Romano-British nomenclature. Key contributions include Kenneth Jackson's examination of the British regin- root in Journal of Roman Studies (1948) and Britannia (1970), alongside A.L.F. Rivet and Colin Smith's comprehensive treatment in The Place-Names of Roman Britain (1979, pp. 445–446), which favors the "proud ones" derivation over kingdom-related interpretations. R.S.O. Tomlin's 1994 analysis of epigraphic material further corroborates these variations through inscriptional attestations.

Geographical Extent

The territory of the Regni, also known as the Regnenses, primarily encompassed the modern counties of and , with extensions into eastern , northern , and southwestern . This region formed under Roman administration as a , centered on Noviomagus Regnorum (modern ), and represented an amalgamation of earlier Belgic groups adapted to the local landscape. According to Ptolemy's (Book II, Chapter 2), the Regnenses were positioned south of the and east of the Cantii, reflecting their placement in southeastern Britain. Natural boundaries defined much of the Regni domain, with the serving as the southern limit, providing coastal access, while the dense forest in the north acted as a barrier rich in deposits that supported early industry. To the west, the territory bordered , often marked by the River Arun flowing southward to the sea near , and to the east, it extended along the River Adur or Rother, separating it from Cantii lands. The and further delimited the northern reaches into . Key geographical features included the fertile coastal plains along the Channel, ideal for settlement and , and the elevated , which hosted hillforts and later estates such as those at Bignor. The Wealden forest, spanning the interior, provided resources like timber and iron, influencing the tribe's economic adaptation to the varied terrain of rolling downs, river valleys, and woodlands. During the Roman period, the territory saw adjustments to incorporate strategic coastal ports, notably around , which facilitated trade and maritime connections before the prominence of . This inclusion enhanced the civitas's role in regional exchange, leveraging the natural harbors formed by the coastline.

Historical Background

Pre-Roman Origins

The territory that would later form the core of the Regni was inhabited during the Middle , roughly between 400 and 100 BC, by indigenous Celtic populations in southeastern that merged with incoming Belgic migrants from northern . This process involved gradual cultural integration rather than abrupt , with archaeological evidence from styles and settlement layouts suggesting a blending of local traditions with continental influences from tribes like the Gaulish . The resulting population occupied territories in modern , , and adjacent areas as part of the broader tribe, sharing economic and social practices. A key feature of society in this region during this period was the construction of hillforts between approximately 300 and 100 BC, which served as communal centers for defense, ritual, and trade. Prominent examples in include Harting Beacon, with its substantial earthworks enclosing about 10 hectares, and , where excavations reveal Middle occupation layers including storage pits and roundhouses. These structures reflect a phase of increased and territorial control, possibly driven by and resource competition. However, by the latter part of this timeframe, many hillforts showed signs of decline, with reduced activity and a transition to dispersed open settlements, such as those at North Bersted, indicating evolving patterns of and . Cultural markers of the population in this era include La Tène-style artifacts, such as decorated brooches and sword fittings, which point to artistic and technological exchanges with continental Celtic groups. These items, found in burial and settlement contexts, highlight the adoption of intricate techniques originating from the La Tène heartland in around 450 BC onward. Early coinage, influenced by Gallic prototypes, also emerged sporadically, with uninscribed gold staters resembling those from the in , underscoring emerging elite networks. The inhabitants maintained interactions with the wider region through trade via coastal ports, facilitating the import of luxury goods like wine amphorae and metal ingots from , which bolstered local economies centered on and craft production. The area was integrated into the , with shared artifact distributions and settlement similarities suggesting close ties for mutual defense and resource sharing.

Late Iron Age Developments

During the late , from approximately 100 BC to the early AD, the territory experienced significant cultural transformations driven by waves of Belgic , primarily from northern , around 100–80 BC. These migrations introduced continental influences, including the distinctive Aylesford-Swarling wheel-thrown tradition, which featured pedestal urns and cordoned vessels used in rites and domestic contexts, marking a shift toward more standardized, Gaulish-inspired ceramics across southeastern Britain. Concurrently, the influx brought continental coinage, with fresh imports of Gallo-Belgic gold staters (types A, C, E, and F) indicating direct ties to Belgic tribes like the Suessiones, facilitating trade and elite exchanges. Coin production in the region evolved rapidly in response to these contacts, beginning with early uninscribed gold staters around 90–50 BC. These included British A2 and Q series (Q1-1 to Q1-8), derived from Gallo-Belgic prototypes like type C and F, featuring abstract designs such as disjointed motifs and wreaths, and serving as a medium for local wealth display and transactions. By the mid-1st century BC, Gallo-Belgic C coins circulated widely in the area around 90–60 BC. Under of the , who consolidated power over and adjacent areas after Julius Caesar's invasion of 51 BC, inscribed gold staters (COM1-5/6) appeared, bearing his name and centralized designs that symbolized emerging political authority within the kingdom, which encompassed the future Regni territory. This period saw political consolidation into a more defined kingdom under of the , leveraging his prior alliances and exile from to unify disparate groups in the region. Key settlements like the at emerged as central hubs, encompassing large enclosed areas with evidence of minting and deposits, including coin hoards that underscore its role in administration and ceremony. Economic expansion accompanied these changes, with the population leveraging the Weald's resources for iron production and export, as evidenced by late bloomery sites near Crowhurst and Sedlescombe that supplied tools, weapons, and goods to continental markets. Imports of luxury items, such as beads found in assemblages, highlight growing maritime networks via ports like . Settlement patterns shifted from defensible hillforts to more dispersed lowland farms, reflecting increased agricultural stability and in fertile coastal and riverine zones.

Roman Integration

Client Kingdom Phase

The alliance between the Regni (or Regnenses) and formed in the context of the late power struggles in southeastern Britain, where the kingdom, encompassing much of modern , faced expansionist pressure from the under Cunobelinus. Around 41 AD, King of the was ousted and sought refuge in , appealing to Emperor Claudius for support; this exile provided the pretext for the Claudian invasion of Britain in 43 AD, aimed at restoring Verica's line and securing Roman interests. Following the successful landing and initial campaigns, —likely a relative or heir of , possibly educated in —was installed as client king over the Regni, ruling from approximately 43 AD until his death around 75 AD, though the exact end of his reign remains debated. Cogidubnus maintained strong loyalty to , adopting and titles that reflected his elevated status, including the addition of imperial praenomina " Claudius." His reign saw the construction of the opulent near around 75 AD, interpreted as a reward for his allegiance and a symbol of Roman cultural integration within the client kingdom. An inscription from a temple dedication at (RIB 91), dated to the late AD, describes him as "king and legatus of the divine imperial house in Britain," suggesting he held quasi-provincial authority akin to a Roman legate, overseeing local governance while deferring to imperial policy. Scholars debate the precise extent of Cogidubnus' kingdom, with some arguing it covered all of as a reorganized territory, while others propose a more limited core around and western Sussex, excluding eastern areas influenced by other tribes. His loyalty has also been scrutinized in light of potential identification with "Togidubnus" in Cassius Dio's accounts of the , though most experts distinguish the two figures and affirm Cogidubnus' steadfast pro-Roman stance without evidence of . The timing of his death is similarly contested, with estimates ranging from the 60s AD (post-Boudican revolt) to the 70s AD, based on associations with late-Flavian infrastructure like the Fishbourne palace expansions. Under Cogidubnus' client rule, Roman engineering efforts enhanced territorial stability, including the construction of Stane Street—a major road linking to ()—and of supporting forts such as those at Hardham and Alfoldean to secure supply lines and deter unrest. These developments facilitated trade and military access while allowing the kingdom to function semi-autonomously. Verica's late coinage, featuring Roman-influenced designs like clasped hands symbolizing alliance, foreshadowed the Romanized issues possibly minted under Cogidubnus.

Civitas Administration

Following the death of the client king around 75 AD, the Regni territory transitioned into the Regnensium, a standard unit of Roman provincial administration integrated directly under imperial control. This artificial construct, likely encompassing parts of the former kingdom, was centered at (modern ), which served as the administrative capital with a forum and for civic functions. Governance was handled by an ordo decurionum, a of approximately 100 local elites drawn from Romanized landowners and former tribal leaders, responsible for local justice, , and liaison with the provincial governor. Key infrastructure developments supported administrative efficiency and economic output. The Stane Street, a major Roman road constructed in the late AD, linked Noviomagus directly to , enabling rapid troop movements and trade while asserting central authority over the . Water management included the diversion of the River Lavant into channels supplying the town, mimicking aqueduct systems to support public baths and urban needs. Bathhouses, such as those excavated in , featured heating and floors, symbolizing Roman civic life and . In the region, the state-run at Beauport Park operated from c. AD 140 to 250 under the Classis Britannica fleet, producing blooms on an industrial scale with stamped tiles indicating direct imperial oversight. Economic integration emphasized fiscal control and cultural assimilation. Periodic censuses, conducted every five to fourteen years by the ordo, assessed property and population for taxation, ensuring contributions to the annona militaris grain levy and other imperial dues. This system funded military protection while fostering , evident in elite like Bignor, a 4th-century complex with over 40 rooms, hypocausts, and fine mosaics depicting mythological scenes, reflecting agricultural surplus and villa estate management by decurions. The experienced gradual decline amid late Roman instability, with increased coastal raids from the mid-4th century disrupting trade and settlement. The Barbarian Conspiracy of 367 AD, involving coordinated attacks by , Scots, , and internal unrest, overwhelmed defenses across southern Britain, leading to the looting of urban centers like Noviomagus and a sharp reduction in centralized administration by the 370s. Coin hoards and abandoned villas from this period indicate economic contraction, though some rural continuity persisted until the final imperial withdrawal c. 410 AD.

Post-Roman Legacy

Early Medieval Transition

Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410 AD, the of the Regnenses, centered on (modern ), experienced a rapid decline in urban functions. The urban center at saw significant abandonment, with public buildings like the falling into disuse and disrepair by the early 3rd century AD, as evidenced by limited excavations revealing robbed-out structures and lack of maintenance. This shifted settlement patterns toward rural areas, where former Roman supported dispersed estates rather than centralized administration. Amid this transition, early Saxon incursions began impacting the Regnenses region, particularly in , around 450 AD. Archaeological evidence from sites like Beddingham near indicates initial Germanic settlements, marked by the appearance of Saxon-style burials and artifacts in formerly Romano-British territories. These newcomers blended with the local Romano-British population, as suggested by mixed artifact assemblages and settlement continuity in coastal and downland areas of . Despite the broader disruptions, some continuity of Regnenses elites is evident in sub-Roman villas through the . Excavations at the in Marden, north of , uncovered a large stone hall constructed in the AD atop earlier Roman structures, indicating sustained high-status occupation by local Romano-British families adapting to post-imperial conditions. Similar patterns at sites like Batten Hanger suggest elite survival in rural settings until at least the mid-5th century, with aisled buildings repurposed for domestic use. Archaeological evidence for this period remains sparse, highlighting significant gaps in understanding the Regnenses transition. Limited finds, such as hybrid styles combining Romano-British wheel-thrown techniques with Saxon handmade forms (e.g., coarse sandy wares with temper), point to cultural fusion but are rare and poorly stratified. This scarcity underscores the challenges in tracing daily life, with most data derived from isolated burials and outliers rather than widespread settlement surveys.

Influence on Later Kingdoms

Remnants of the Regni likely persisted as a Celtic enclave in western , particularly west of the River , where archaeological evidence suggests continuity of Romano-British settlement and resistance to early Saxon incursions. This area, centered around sites like (ancient ), may have formed a distinct British polity that endured into the , bridging the early medieval transition with limited Saxon penetration compared to eastern . Recent studies propose that comprised at least during this period—an East Saxon kingdom, a West British kingdom, and one around —challenging the traditional view of a unified . The emergence of the Kingdom of (c. 477–825 AD) is traditionally dated to the arrival of Saxon forces under Ælle around 477, who established control east of the Arun after conflicts with local British groups, including possible Regni successors. However, recent archaeological findings indicate that the western remained a resilient British enclave, with structures like a 5th-century stone hall at Marden pointing to organized indigenous authority rather than immediate Saxon dominance. This duality shaped the kingdom's formation, blending Regni cultural elements with incoming Saxon settlers by the late 5th to early 6th centuries. The Regni's remnants interacted with Jutish and Saxon migrants through prolonged conflicts, as established footholds in nearby and of around 450–455, while Saxon advances under leaders like Ælle culminated in the conquest of British strongholds by 491. further influenced South Saxon identity, with Bishop Wilfrid's mission in 681 converting King Æthelwealh and his province, incorporating pre-existing British Christian elements and fostering a unified religious framework that diluted distinct Regni traits. By the , the Regni's separate identity had been absorbed into the , with the western enclave destabilized after Æthelwealh's death in 685 and increasing influence. The last notable mentions of the South Saxons as a distinct group appear in Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (completed 731 AD), which chronicles their conversion but omits specific Regni references, signaling the end of their traceable legacy.

Society and Religion

Social Structure and Economy

In pre-Roman times, the Regni society was structured around tribal hierarchies led by kings or , who held authority over kin-based clans comprising warriors, farmers, and craftsmen. These clans formed the core social units, with warriors playing a prominent role in defense and inter-tribal conflicts, while farmers sustained the community through . Evidence from burials across southern Britain, including areas associated with Belgic groups like the Regni, indicates matrilineal elements, where women remained in their natal communities, suggesting a matrilocal system that influenced and . During the Roman period, the Regni's underwent significant transformation as the class Romanized through the granting of and integration into the administration. Local leaders joined the ordo, the governing council of the Regnenses , adopting Roman customs such as living and participation in imperial to maintain their status. emerged as a new social element following the , with from provincial wars incorporated into households and estates, contributing to labor in and industry. The Regni economy centered on and resource extraction, evolving from pre-Roman subsistence practices to a more integrated imperial system. Farmers cultivated and reared on fertile lands, supporting both local needs and surplus production for markets. Iron production in the forest was a key industry, with furnaces yielding significant output—estimated at up to 1,500 tonnes annually during peak Roman operation—for export across the empire, facilitated by bloomeries and slag heaps documented in . flourished through workshops and minting, while ports like Fishbourne served as hubs for importing wine and in exchange for local products.

Pagan Practices

The Regni practiced a form of Celtic characterized by the of local deities associated with natural features and , reflecting broader traditions in southern Britain. Archaeological evidence suggests focused on gods and goddesses tied to the landscape, such as those linked to sacred groves and coastal domains, though specific names for Regni deities remain elusive beyond possible connections to figures like Rigonemetis, interpreted as "Lord of the Sacred Groves" and equated with in later contexts. Shrines and temples served as focal points for communal devotion, often built on liminal sites to honor these divine entities. Key sacred sites included hilltop and coastal locations, underscoring the Regni's integration of topography into their spiritual worldview. The temple complex, dating to the , features two successive timber shrines overlaid by a later Roman structure, indicating continuity in pre-Roman cult practices; votive offerings, predominantly plated coins (comprising 78% of finds), were ritually deposited here, likely by patrons connected to the Atrebates-Regni royal house. Similarly, Lancing Down hosted a late shrine from around the same period, situated on a prominent hilltop overlooking the coast, where ritual activity preceded construction. Westhampnett, near , revealed a religious with over 160 burials clustered around a circular ditched area, pointing to organized sacred spaces inland. Springs and natural water sources, common in Celtic veneration, likely received offerings, though direct Regni evidence is sparse. Rituals emphasized funerary customs and offerings to ensure prosperity and ancestral ties, often involving communal participation influenced by tribal social hierarchies. was prevalent from the late onward, as seen at Westhampnett, where pyre sites—the first such examples in Britain—facilitated elaborate ceremonies with unurned remains placed in graves alongside pottery and animal bones. The North Bersted Man burial, an inhumation from circa 50 BC, exemplifies high-status rites: a mature male interred in a wooden chamber with a , , , modified , and vessels, suggesting warrior-priest symbolism and cross-Channel influences amid invasions. Horse remains occasionally appear in deposits, hinting at sacrificial elements akin to continental Celtic practices, though Regni-specific examples are limited to broader faunal assemblages at sites. These acts reinforced social bonds, with elite oversight ensuring rituals aligned with communal needs like and .

Adoption of Christianity

The adoption of Christianity among the Regni, the Iron Age tribe integrated into the Roman civitas of the Regnenses centered on (modern ), occurred gradually during the late Roman period, primarily through elite adoption following imperial policy changes. Following the in 313 AD, issued by Emperors Constantine I and , which granted toleration to across the , the faith gained traction among Britain's urban and provincial elites, including in southern regions like . This shift is evidenced by increasing Christian artifacts and symbols in the 4th century, reflecting a blend of Roman promotion and local , where pagan temple sites were sometimes repurposed for . Archaeological evidence for early Christian practice among the Regni is sparse but significant, with the most direct indicator being a large lead tank discovered in 1943 near Wiggonholt, a site within the Regnenses territory along a tributary of the River Arun. Dated to circa 380 AD, the tank features repeated Chi-Rho monograms—the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ—arranged in panels, suggesting its use in baptismal or ritual contexts and marking it as the only definitively Christian artifact from Roman Sussex. Possible Christian structures, such as a modest church or , may have existed in by the late , inferred from urban patterns of Christian adaptation in other Roman British towns, though remains elusive due to later development and . After the Roman withdrawal around 410 AD, faced significant challenges in the Regnenses region, with archaeological showing a sharp decline in material evidence, likely due to the influx of pagan Anglo-Saxon and the disruption of Roman administrative networks. Pagan resistance persisted, confining any surviving Romano-British Christian communities to isolated pockets, primarily in rural or western areas, with little continuity in the southeast. This scarcity underscores a broader post-Roman religious vacuum in lowland Britain, where Christian practice waned until renewed efforts. The decisive reintroduction of Christianity to the South Saxons, successors to the Regni lands, came in 681 AD through the mission of Bishop Wilfrid of York, who, exiled from Northumbria, preached in Sussex for five years with the support of King Æthelwalh. Although Æthelwalh had been baptized earlier in Mercia, the province was largely pagan; Wilfrid's efforts led to widespread conversions, including mass baptisms, establishing churches and drawing on faint threads of pre-existing Romano-British Christian traditions for legitimacy. This 7th-century revival overcame entrenched paganism, integrating the region into the broader Anglo-Saxon Christian framework under Roman rites.

References

  1. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainRegninses.htm
  2. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/tribes/regnenses/
  3. https://www.academia.edu/67832119/New_etymology_of_the_Regnenses_tribe_God_Rigonemetis_Lord_of_the_Sacred_Groves_
  4. https://rqs.freeola.com/media/other/4247/BOOKLET-NB-IRONAGETRIBESINBRITAIN.pdf
  5. http://marikavel.org/personnes/regni-regini/accueil.htm
  6. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/classical-references/the-geography-of-ptolemy/
  7. https://www.academia.edu/6912051/The_Brythonic_Tribes_of_Roman_Britain_Short_Descriptions_of_the_Brythonic_Tribes_of_Roman_Britain
  8. https://www.routledge.com/Iron-Age-Communities-in-Britain-An-account-of-England-Scotland-and-Wales-from-the-Seventh-Century-BC-until-the-Roman-Conquest/Cunliffe/p/book/9780415562928
  9. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-journal-of-archaeology/article/hillforts-monumentality-and-place-a-chronological-and-topographic-review-of-first-millennium-bc-hillforts-of-southeast-england/B4D21EE1C0C0767F68402E15C797E371
  10. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf
  11. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/963/1/963_v1.pdf
  12. https://www.wealdeniron.org.uk/history/
  13. https://www.academia.edu/21493975/The_Romans_and_the_Belgae_tribes_in_Britain
  14. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/95C5095ABF1FC16AE92BA32D1CFD0D36/S0068113X23000016a.pdf/roman_grand_strategy_in_action_claudius_and_the_annexation_of_britain_and_thrace.pdf
  15. https://www.oxfordreference.com/viewbydoi/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.013.1620
  16. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/career-of-tiberius-claudius-cogidubnus/EC77FFB5438FA9B2FE94D3DEBDEAB967
  17. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1620
  18. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/37346
  19. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/king-cogidubnus-in-chichester-another-reading-of-rib-91/6883340C001A75B6A5250BF73EB50FC3
  20. https://www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_1994_num_30_1_2036
  21. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/the-military-situations-in-britain-between-ad-43-and-71/74DFFB104E7B616CD6AA606ED8B3BEB8
  22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30030569
  23. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/people/tiberius-claudius-cogidumnus/
  24. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100411125
  25. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1599
  26. https://www.thenovium.org.uk/article/27248/Bath-house
  27. https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=414576&resourceID=19191
  28. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/extreme-drought-contributed-to-barbarian-invasion-of-late-roman-britain-tree-ring-study-reveals
  29. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/romans/power-and-politics/
  30. https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue41/7/3.html
  31. https://www.britainexpress.com/counties/westsussex/roman/chichester-roman-amphitheatre.htm
  32. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352172404_The_development_of_Roman_villas_in_Sussex
  33. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/late-romans-and-saxons-in-sussex/08900060FAB0E358B5AED8FE973CAEDC
  34. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/social-historical-sciences/news/2024/jun/west-sussexs-lost-early-medieval-kingdom-rediscovered
  35. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/late-roman-hall-at-batten-hanger-west-sussex/436707483A0268BA90EFB45944E308FE
  36. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/f/frag/9772151.0005.001/--perils-of-periodization-roman-ceramics-in-britain-after-400?rgn=main%3Bview=fulltext%3Bq1=robin%2Bfleming
  37. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/06/study-reveals-west-sussexs-lost-kingdom/152440
  38. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.iv.xiii.html
  39. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/classics/warwickclassicsnetwork/romancoventry/resources/prehistoricbritain/ironage/tribes/
  40. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z8bkwmn
  41. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08409-6
  42. https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1112&context=hist_etds
  43. https://www.cambridge.org/core/blog/2021/06/07/reviewing-the-evidence-for-slavery-in-roman-britain/
  44. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryofBritain/Roman-Food-in-Britain/
  45. https://www.wealdeniron.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/HCleereThesis.pdf
  46. https://www.academia.edu/95839390/Excavations_at_Fishbourne_1961_1969_Volume_1_The_Site
  47. https://doi.org/10.5284/1000181
  48. https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/details.xhtml?recordId=3242208
  49. https://www.wessexarch.co.uk/our-work/archaeological-excavations-route-a27-westhampnett-bypass-west-sussex
  50. https://www.thenovium.org.uk/article/35440/Westhampnett-Iron-Age-Cemetery
  51. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309012475_The_Iron_Age_Warrior_Grave_from_North_Bersted_West_Sussex
  52. https://www.academia.edu/5591668/A_Sacred_Island_Iron_Age_Roman_Saxon_Temples_and_Ritual_on_Hayling_Island
  53. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edict-of-Milan
  54. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/romans/religion/
  55. https://www.kent.gov.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/99304/The-Roman-Period-Chapter.pdf
  56. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/religion/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.