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Wild boar
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene–Holocene
Male Central European boar (S. s. scrofa)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Suidae
Genus: Sus
Species:
S. scrofa
Binomial name
Sus scrofa
Reconstructed native range of wild boar (green) and introduced populations (blue) except in the Caribbean, New Zealand, sub-Saharan Africa, and elsewhere in Bermuda, Northern Canada and Alaska.[1]
Synonyms
List
Boar growls

The wild boar (Sus scrofa), also known as the wild swine,[4] common wild pig,[5] Eurasian wild pig,[6] or simply wild pig,[7] is a suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The species is now one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world, as well as the most widespread suiform.[5] It has been assessed as least concern on the IUCN Red List due to its wide range, high numbers, and adaptability to a diversity of habitats.[1] It has become an invasive species in part of its introduced range. Wild boars probably originated in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene[8] and outcompeted other suid species as they spread throughout the Old World.[9]

As of 2005, up to 16 subspecies are recognized, which are divided into four regional groupings based on skull height and lacrimal bone length.[2] The species lives in matriarchal societies consisting of interrelated females and their young (both male and female). Fully grown males are usually solitary outside the breeding season.[10] The wolf is the wild boar's main predator in most of its natural range except in the Far East and the Lesser Sunda Islands, where it is replaced by the tiger and Komodo dragon respectively.[11][12] The wild boar has a long history of association with humans, having been the ancestor of most domestic pig breeds and a big-game animal for millennia. Boars have also re-hybridized in recent decades with feral pigs; these boar–pig hybrids have become a serious pest wild animal in the Americas and Australia.

Terminology

[edit]

As true wild boars became extinct in Great Britain before the development of Modern English, the same terms are often used for both true wild boar and pigs, especially large or semi-wild ones. The English boar stems from the Old English bār, which is thought to be derived from the West Germanic bair, of unknown origin.[13] Boar is sometimes used specifically to refer to males, and may also be used to refer to male domesticated pigs, especially breeding males that have not been castrated.[14][15]

Sow, the traditional name for a female, again comes from Old English and Germanic; it stems from Proto-Indo-European, and is related to the Latin sus and Ancient Greek hus, and more closely to the New High German Sau. The young may be called piglets or boarlets.[16]

The animals' specific name scrofa is Latin for 'sow'.[17]

Hunting

[edit]

In hunting terminology, boars are given different designations according to their age:[18]

Taxonomy and evolution

[edit]
Skull of Sus strozzii (Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze), a Pleistocene suid that was outcompeted by S. scrofa

MtDNA studies indicate that the wild boar originated from islands in Southeast Asia such as Indonesia and the Philippines, and subsequently spread onto mainland Eurasia and North Africa.[8] The earliest fossil finds of the species come from both Europe and Asia, and date back to the Early Pleistocene.[19] By the late Villafranchian, S. scrofa largely displaced the related S. strozzii, a large, possibly swamp-adapted suid ancestral to the modern S. verrucosus throughout the Eurasian mainland, restricting it to insular Asia.[9] Its closest wild relative is the bearded pig of Malacca and surrounding islands.[4]

Subspecies

[edit]
Wild boar (left) and domestic pig (right) skulls: Note the greatly shortened facial region of the latter.[20]

As of 2005, 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings:[2]

  • Western: Includes S. s. scrofa, S. s. meridionalis, S. s. algira, S. s. attila, S. s. lybicus, S. s. majori and S. s. nigripes. These subspecies are typically high-skulled (though lybicus and some scrofa are low-skulled), with thick underwool and (excepting scrofa and attila) poorly developed manes.[21]
  • Indian: Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout and mouth. While S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled.[21]
  • Eastern: Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a whitish streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled. The underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent.[21]
  • Indonesian: Represented solely by S. s. vittatus, it is characterised by its sparse body hair, lack of underwool, fairly long mane, a broad reddish band extending from the muzzle to the sides of the neck.[21] It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition and unspecialised cranial structure.[22]

Domestication

[edit]
Male wild boar-domestic pig hybrid

With the exception of domestic pigs in Timor and Papua New Guinea (which appear to be of Sulawesi warty pig stock), the wild boar is the ancestor of most pig breeds.[22][43] Archaeological evidence suggests that pigs were domesticated from wild boar as early as 13,000–12,700 BCE in the Near East in the Tigris Basin,[44] being managed in the wild in a way similar to the way they are managed by some modern New Guineans.[45] Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BCE in Cyprus. Those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then.[46] There was also a separate domestication in China, which took place about 8,000 years ago.[47][48]

DNA evidence from sub-fossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near East. This stimulated the domestication of local European wild boars, resulting in a third domestication event with the Near Eastern genes dying out in European pig stock. Modern domesticated pigs have involved complex exchanges, with European domesticated lines being exported in turn to the ancient Near East.[49][50] Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries.[47] Domestic pigs tend to have much more developed hindquarters than their wild boar ancestors, to the point where 70% of their body weight is concentrated in the posterior, which is the opposite of wild boar, where most of the muscles are concentrated on the head and shoulders.[51]

Synonymous species

[edit]

The Heude's pig (Sus bucculentus), also known as the Indochinese warty pig or Vietnam warty pig, was an alleged pig species found in Laos and Vietnam. It was virtually unknown and was feared extinct, until the discovery of a skull from a recently killed individual in the Annamite Range, Laos, in 1995.[52] Subsequent studies indicated that Sus bucculentus was not a valid taxon.[53][54][55] As of 2022 the Mammal Diversity Database included it in Sus scrofa.[6]

Description

[edit]
The skull of a wild boar
Dentition, as illustrated by Charles Knight

The wild boar is a bulky, massively built suid with short and relatively thin legs. The trunk is short and robust, while the hindquarters are comparatively underdeveloped. The region behind the shoulder blades rises into a hump and the neck is short and thick to the point of being nearly immobile. The animal's head is very large, taking up to one-third of the body's entire length.[4] The structure of the head is well suited for digging. The head acts as a plough, while the powerful neck muscles allow the animal to upturn considerable amounts of soil:[56] it is capable of digging 8–10 cm (3–4 in) into frozen ground and can upturn rocks weighing 40–50 kg (88–110 lb).[11] The eyes are small and deep-set and the ears long and broad. The species has well developed canine teeth, which protrude from the mouths of adult males. The medial hooves are larger and more elongated than the lateral ones and are capable of quick movements.[4] The animal can run at a maximum speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) and jump at a height of 140–150 cm (55–59 in).[11]

Sexual dimorphism is very pronounced in the species, with males being typically 5–10% larger and 20–30% heavier than females. Males also sport a mane running down the back, which is particularly apparent during autumn and winter.[57] The canine teeth are also much more prominent in males and grow throughout life. The upper canines are relatively short and grow sideways early in life, though they gradually curve upwards. The lower canines are much sharper and longer, with the exposed parts measuring 10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in) in length. In the breeding period, males develop a coating of subcutaneous tissue, which may be 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) thick, extending from the shoulder blades to the rump, thus protecting vital organs during fights. Males sport a roughly chicken egg–sized sac of unclear function near the opening of the penis that collects urine and emits a sharp odour.[4]

Skeleton, as illustrated by Richard Lydekker.
A European wild boar piglet, painted by Hans Hoffman in 1578. Note the stripes, a characteristic feature of piglets.

Adult size and weight is largely determined by environmental factors; boars living in arid areas with little productivity tend to attain smaller sizes than their counterparts inhabiting areas with abundant food and water. In most of Europe, males average 75–100 kg (165–220 lb) in weight, 75–80 cm (30–31 in) in shoulder height and 150 cm (59 in) in body length, whereas females average 60–80 kg (130–180 lb) in weight, 70 cm (28 in) in shoulder height and 140 cm (55 in) in body length. In Europe's Mediterranean regions, males may reach average weights as low as 50 kg (110 lb) and females 45 kg (99 lb), with shoulder heights of 63–65 cm (25–26 in). In the more productive areas of Eastern Europe, males average 110–130 kg (240–290 lb) in weight, 95 cm (37 in) in shoulder height and 160 cm (63 in) in body length, while females weigh 95 kg (209 lb), reach 85–90 cm (33–35 in) in shoulder height, and reach 145 cm (57 in) in body length. In Western and Central Europe, the largest males weigh 200 kg (440 lb) and females 120 kg (260 lb). In Northeastern Asia, large males can reach brown bear-like sizes, weighing 270 kg (600 lb) and measuring 110–118 cm (43–46 in) in shoulder height. Some adult males in Primorsky Krai and Manchuria have been recorded to weigh 300–350 kg (660–770 lb) and measure 125 cm (49 in) in shoulder height. Adults of this size are generally immune from wolf predation.[58] Such giants are rare in modern times, as past overhunting has prevented animals from attaining their full growth.[4]

The winter coat consists of long, coarse bristles underlaid with short brown downy fur. The length of these bristles varies along the body, with the shortest being around the face and limbs and the longest running along the back. These back bristles form the aforementioned mane prominent in males and stand erect when the animal is agitated. Colour is highly variable; specimens around Lake Balkhash are very lightly coloured, and can even be white, while some boars from Belarus and Ussuriland can be black. Some subspecies sport a light-coloured patch running backward from the corners of the mouth. Coat colour also varies with age, with piglets having light brown or rusty-brown fur with pale bands extending from the flanks and back.[4]

The wild boar produces a number of different sounds which are divided into three categories:

  • Contact calls: Grunting noises which differ in intensity according to the situation.[59] Adult males are usually silent, while females frequently grunt and piglets whine.[4] When feeding, boars express their contentment through purring. Studies have shown that piglets imitate the sounds of their mother, thus different litters may have unique vocalisations.[59]
  • Alarm calls: Warning cries emitted in response to threats.[59] When frightened, boars make loud huffing ukh! ukh! sounds or emit screeches transcribed as gu-gu-gu.[4]
  • Combat calls: High-pitched, piercing cries.[59]

Its sense of smell is very well developed to the point that the animal is used for drug detection in Germany.[60] Its hearing is also acute, though its eyesight is comparatively weak,[4] lacking color vision[60] and being unable to recognise a standing human 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) away.[11]

Pigs are one of four known mammalian taxa which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations.[61]

Social behaviour and life cycle

[edit]

Boars are typically social animals, living in female-dominated sounders consisting of barren sows and mothers with young led by an old matriarch. Male boars leave their sounder at the age of 8–15 months, while females either remain with their mothers or establish new territories nearby. Subadult males may live in loosely knit groups, while adult and elderly males tend to be solitary outside the breeding season.[10][a]

Central European wild boar (S. s. scrofa) piglets suckling

The breeding period in most areas lasts from November to January, though most mating only lasts a month and a half. Prior to mating, the males develop their subcutaneous armour in preparation for confronting rivals. The testicles double in size and the glands secrete a foamy yellowish liquid. Once ready to reproduce, males travel long distances in search of a sounder of sows, eating little on the way. Once a sounder has been located, the male drives off all young animals and persistently chases the sows. At this point, the male fiercely fights potential rivals.[4] A single male can mate with 5–10 sows.[11] By the end of the rut, males are often badly mauled and have lost 20% of their body weight,[4] with bite-induced injuries to the penis being common.[63] The gestation period varies according to the age of the expecting mother. For first-time breeders, it lasts 114–130 days, while it lasts 133–140 days in older sows. Farrowing occurs between March and May, with litter sizes depending on the age and nutrition of the mother. The average litter consists of 4–6 piglets, with the maximum being 10–12.[4][b] The piglets are whelped in a nest constructed from twigs, grasses and leaves. Should the mother die prematurely, the piglets are adopted by the other sows in the sounder.[65]

Piglet standing in grass. All wild boar piglets are dark brown with pale longitudinal stripes. After three to four months, these stripes disappear completely.

Newborn piglets weigh around 600–1,000 grams, lacking underfur and bearing a single milk incisor and canine on each half of the jaw.[4] There is intense competition between the piglets over the most milk-rich nipples, as the best-fed young grow faster and have stronger constitutions.[65] The piglets do not leave the lair for their first week of life. Should the mother be absent, the piglets lie closely pressed to each other. By two weeks of age, the piglets begin accompanying their mother on her journeys. Should danger be detected, the piglets take cover or stand immobile, relying on their camouflage to keep them hidden. The neonatal coat fades after three months, with adult colouration being attained at eight months. Although the lactation period lasts 2.5–3.5 months, the piglets begin displaying adult feeding behaviours at the age of 2–3 weeks. The permanent dentition is fully formed by 1–2 years. With the exception of the canines in males, the teeth stop growing during the middle of the fourth year. The canines in old males continue to grow throughout their lives, curving strongly as they age. Sows attain sexual maturity at the age of one year, with males attaining it a year later. However, estrus usually first occurs after two years in sows, while males begin participating in the rut after 4–5 years, as they are not permitted to mate by the older males.[4] The maximum lifespan in the wild is 10–14 years, though few specimens survive past 4–5 years.[66] Boars in captivity have lived for 20 years.[11]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

Habitat and sheltering

[edit]
An individual from higher ridges of Himalayas at 2,900 m (9,600 ft) in Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, Sikkim, India
Wild boars frequently wallow in mud, possibly to regulate temperature or remove parasites

The wild boar inhabits a diverse array of habitats from boreal taigas to deserts.[4] In mountainous regions, it can even occupy alpine zones, occurring up to 1,900 m (6,200 ft) in the Carpathians, 2,600 m (8,500 ft) in the Caucasus and up to 3,600–4,000 m (11,800–13,100 ft) in the mountains in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.[4] In order to survive in a given area, wild boars require a habitat fulfilling three conditions: heavily brushed areas providing shelter from predators, water for drinking and bathing purposes and an absence of regular snowfall.[67]

The main habitats favored by boars in Europe are deciduous and mixed forests, with the most favorable areas consisting of forest composed of oak and beech enclosing marshes and meadows. In the Białowieża Forest, the animal's primary habitat consists of well-developed broad-leaved and mixed forests, along with marshy mixed forests, with coniferous forests and undergrowths being of secondary importance. Forests made up entirely of oak groves and beeches are used only during the fruit-bearing season. This is in contrast to the Caucasian and Transcaucasian mountain areas, where boars will occupy such fruit-bearing forests year-round. In the mountainous areas of the Russian Far East, the species inhabits nutpine groves, hilly mixed forests where Mongolian oak and Korean pine are present, swampy mixed taiga and coastal oak forests. In Transbaikalia, boars are restricted to river valleys with nut pine and shrubs. Boars are regularly encountered in pistachio groves in winter in some areas of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, while in spring they migrate to open deserts; boar have also colonized deserts in several areas they have been introduced to.[4][67][68]

On the islands of Komodo and Rinca, the boar mostly inhabits savanna or open monsoon forests, avoiding heavily forested areas unless pursued by humans.[12] Wild boar are known to be competent swimmers, capable of covering long distances. In 2013, one boar was reported to have completed the 11-kilometre (7 mi) swim from France to Alderney in the Channel Islands. Due to concerns about disease, it was shot and incinerated.[69]

Wild boar rest in shelters, which contain insulating material like spruce branches and dry hay. These resting places are occupied by whole families (though males lie separately) and are often located in the vicinity of streams, in swamp forests and in tall grass or shrub thickets. Boars never defecate in their shelters and will cover themselves with soil and pine needles when irritated by insects.[11]

Diet

[edit]
Male Indian wild boar feeding on a chital (Axis axis) carcass

The wild boar is a highly versatile omnivore, whose diversity in choice of food is comparable to that of humans.[56] Its foods can be divided into four categories:

A 50 kg (110 lb) boar needs around 4,000–4,500 calories of food per day, though this required amount increases during winter and pregnancy,[56] with the majority of its diet consisting of food items dug from the ground, like underground plant material and burrowing animals.[4] Acorns and beechnuts are invariably its most important food items in temperate zones,[70] as they are rich in the carbohydrates necessary for the buildup of fat reserves needed to survive lean periods.[56] In Western Europe, underground plant material favoured by boars includes bracken, willow herb, bulbs, meadow herb roots and bulbs and the bulbs of cultivated crops. Such food is favoured in early spring and summer, but may also be eaten in autumn and winter during beechnut and acorn crop failures. Should regular wild foods become scarce, boars will eat tree bark and fungi, as well as visit cultivated potato and artichoke fields.[4] Boar soil disturbance and foraging have been shown to facilitate invasive plants.[71][72] Boars of the vittatus subspecies in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java differ from most other populations by their primarily frugivorous diet, which consists of 50 different fruit species, especially figs, thus making them important seed dispersers.[5] The wild boar can consume numerous genera of poisonous plants without ill effect, including Aconitum, Anemone, Calla, Caltha, Ferula and Pteridium.[11]

Boars may occasionally prey on small vertebrates like newborn deer fawns, leporids and galliform chicks, as well as small calves, lambs and other livestock.[56] Boars inhabiting the Volga Delta and near some lakes and rivers of Kazakhstan have been recorded to feed extensively on fish like carp and Caspian roach. Boars in the former area also feed on cormorant and heron chicks, bivalved molluscs, trapped muskrats and mice.[4] There is at least one record of a wild boar killing and eating a bonnet macaque in southern India's Bandipur National Park, though this may have been a case of intraguild predation, brought on by interspecific competition for human handouts.[73] There is also at least one recorded case of a group of wild boar attacking, killing, and eating an adult, healthy female axis deer (Axis axis) as a pack.[74]

Stable isotope analysis of fossil wild boar tooth enamel from the late Middle Pleistocene found in Thailand indicate that it fed on a versatile mixed vegetation.[75]

Predators

[edit]
Tigers killing a wild boar in Kanha Tiger Reserve

Piglets are vulnerable to attack from medium-sized felids like Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), jungle cats (Felis chaus), and snow leopards (Panthera uncia), as well as other carnivorans like brown bears (Ursus arctos) and yellow-throated martens (Martes flavigula).[4]

The wolf (Canis lupus) is the main predator of wild boar throughout most of its range. A single wolf can kill around 50 to 80 boars of differing ages in one year.[4] In Italy[76] and Belarus' Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, boars are the wolf's primary prey, despite an abundance of alternative, less powerful ungulates.[76] Wolves are particularly threatening during the winter, when deep snow impedes the boars' movements. In the Baltic regions, heavy snowfall can allow wolves to eliminate boars from an area almost completely. Wolves primarily target piglets and subadults and only rarely attack adult sows. Adult males are usually avoided entirely.[4] Dholes (Cuon alpinus) may also prey on boars, to the point of keeping their numbers down in northwestern Bhutan, despite there being many more cattle in the area.[77]

Banded pig (S. s. vittatus) being eaten by Komodo dragons

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are predators of wild boar in the Caucasus (particularly Transcaucasia), the Russian Far East, India, China[78] and Iran. In most areas, boars constitute only a small part of the leopard's diet. However, in Iran's Sarigol National Park, boars are the second most frequently targeted prey species after mouflon (Ovis gmelini), though adult individuals are generally avoided, as they are above the leopard's preferred weight range of 10–40 kg (22–88 lb).[79] This dependence on wild boar is largely due in part to the local leopard subspecies' large size.[80]

Boars of all ages were once the primary prey of the tiger (Panthera tigris) in Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia and the Far East up until the late 19th century. In modern times, tiger numbers are too low to have a limiting effect on boar populations. A single tiger can systematically destroy an entire sounder by preying on its members one by one, before moving on to another sounder. Tigers have been noted to chase boars for longer distances than with other prey. In two rare cases, boars were reported to gore a small tiger and a tigress to death in self-defense.[81] A "large male tiger" died of wounds inflicted by an old wild boar it had killed in "a battle royal" between the two animals.[82]: 500 

In the Amur region, wild boars are one of the two most important prey species for Siberian tigers, alongside the Manchurian wapiti (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus), with the two species collectively comprising roughly 80% of the felid's prey.[83] In Sikhote Alin, a tiger can kill 30–34 boars a year.[11] Studies of tigers in India indicate that boars are usually secondary in preference to various cervids and bovids,[citation needed] though when boars are targeted, healthy adults are caught more frequently than young and sick specimens.[84]

On the islands of Komodo, Rinca and Flores, the boar's main predator is the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).[12]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Reconstructed range

[edit]

The species originally occurred in North Africa and much of Eurasia; from the British Isles to Korea and the Sunda Islands. The northern limit of its range extended from southern Scandinavia to southern Siberia and Japan. Within this range, it was only absent in extremely dry deserts and alpine zones. It was once found in North Africa along the Nile valley up to Khartoum and north of the Sahara. The species occurs on a few Ionian and Aegean Islands, sometimes swimming between islands.[85] The reconstructed northern boundary of the animal's Asian range ran from Lake Ladoga (at 60°N) through the area of Novgorod and Moscow into the southern Urals, where it reached 52°N. From there, the boundary passed Ishim and farther east the Irtysh at 56°N. In the eastern Baraba steppe (near Novosibirsk) the boundary turned steep south, encircled the Altai Mountains and went again eastward including the Tannu-Ola Mountains and Lake Baikal. From here, the boundary went slightly north of the Amur River eastward to its lower reaches at the Sea of Okhotsk. On Sakhalin, there are only fossil reports of wild boar. The southern boundaries in Europe and Asia were almost invariably identical to the seashores of these continents. It is absent in the dry regions of Mongolia from 44 to 46°N southward, in China westward of Sichuan and in India north of the Himalayas. It is absent in the higher elevations of the Pamir and the Tian Shan, though they do occur in the Tarim Basin and on the lower slopes of the Tian Shan.[4]

Present range

[edit]

In recent centuries, the range of wild boar has changed dramatically, largely due to hunting by humans and more recently because of captive wild boar escaping into the wild. Prior to the 20th century, boar populations had declined in numerous areas, with British populations probably becoming extinct during the 13th century.[86] In the warm period after the ice age, wild boar lived in the southern parts of Sweden and Norway and north of Lake Ladoga in Karelia.[87] It was previously thought that the species did not live in Finland during prehistory because no prehistoric wild boar bones had been found within the borders of the country.[88][89] It was not until 2013, when a wild boar bone was found in Askola, that the species was found to have lived in Finland more than 8,000 years ago. It is believed, however, that man prevented its establishment by hunting.[90][91] In Denmark, the last boar was shot at the beginning of the 19th century, and by 1900 they were absent in Tunisia and Sudan and large areas of Germany, Austria and Italy. In Russia, they were extirpated in wide areas by the 1930s.[4] The last boar in Egypt reportedly died on 20 December 1912 in the Giza Zoo, with wild populations having disappeared by 1894–1902. Prince Kamal el Dine Hussein attempted to repopulate Wadi El Natrun with boars of Hungarian stock, but they were quickly exterminated by poachers.[92]

A revival of boar populations began in the middle of the 20th century. By 1950, wild boar had once again reached their original northern boundary in many parts of their Asiatic range. By 1960, they reached Leningrad and Moscow and by 1975, they were to be found in Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan. In the 1970s they again occurred in Denmark and Sweden, where captive animals escaped and now survive in the wild. In England, wild boar populations re-established themselves in the 1990s, after escaping from specialist farms that had imported European stock.[86]

Status in Great Britain

[edit]
Mixed sounder of wild boar and domestic pigs at Culzie, Scotland

By the 11th century, wild boars were apparently already becoming rare in Britain. A 1087 forestry law enacted by William the Conqueror punished through blinding the unlawful killing of a boar. Charles I attempted to reintroduce the species into the New Forest, but this population was exterminated in the 17th century during the English Civil War. Between their medieval extinction and the 1980s, when wild boar farming began, only a handful of captive wild boar, imported from the continent, were present in Britain. Occasional escapes of wild boar from wildlife parks have occurred as early as the 1970s, but since the early 1990s significant populations have re-established themselves after escapes from farms, the number of which has increased as the demand for meat from the species has grown. A 1998 MAFF (now DEFRA) study on wild boar living wild in Britain confirmed the presence of two populations of wild boar living in Britain; one in Kent/East Sussex and another in Dorset.[86]

Another DEFRA report, in February 2008,[93] confirmed the existence of these two sites as 'established breeding areas' and identified a third in Gloucestershire/Herefordshire; in the Forest of Dean/Ross on Wye area. A 'new breeding population' was also identified in Devon. There is another significant population in Dumfries and Galloway. Populations estimates were as follows:

  • The largest population, in Kent/East Sussex, was then estimated at 200 animals in the core distribution area.
  • The smallest, in west Dorset, was estimated to be fewer than 50 animals.
  • Since winter 2005–2006 significant escapes/releases have also resulted in animals colonizing areas around the fringes of Dartmoor, in Devon. These are considered as an additional single 'new breeding population' and currently estimated to be up to 100 animals.

Population estimates for the Forest of Dean are disputed as, at the time that the DEFRA population estimate was 100, a photo of a boar sounder in the forest near Staunton with over 33 animals visible was published and at about the same time over 30 boar were seen in a field near the original escape location of Weston under Penyard many kilometres or miles away. In early 2010 the Forestry Commission embarked on a cull,[94] with the aim of reducing the boar population from an estimated 150 animals to 100. By August it was stated that efforts were being made to reduce the population from 200 to 90, but that only 25 had been killed.[95] The failure to meet cull targets was confirmed in February 2011.[96]

Wild boars have crossed the River Wye into Monmouthshire, Wales. Iolo Williams, the BBC Wales wildlife expert, attempted to film Welsh boar in late 2012.[97] Many other sightings, across the UK, have also been reported.[98] The effects of wild boar on the U.K.'s woodlands were discussed with Ralph Harmer of the Forestry Commission on the BBC Radio's Farming Today radio programme in 2011. The programme prompted activist writer George Monbiot to propose a thorough population study, followed by the introduction of permit-controlled culling.[99]

In Scotland, wild boar are professionally referred to as 'feral pigs' as the genetics of the established feral populations may come from a mix of both wild boar and domestic pigs.[100] They are now known to be present in Dumfries and Galloway and a number of sites in the Highlands, mainly centred around the Loch Ness area.[101] They can be killed there legally without a license and are culled by land managers as wild populations appear occasionally.[102] As of 2024, an agency that advises the Scottish government estimates that Scotland is home to a few thousand wild boars. Locals around Loch Ness that were interviewed by The New York Times believed that the boars were becoming an increasingly worse problem, and farmers noted that they had killed and eaten several lambs.[103]

Introduction to North America

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"Razorbacks" confronting an American alligator in Florida

Wild boars are an invasive species in the Americas, having been introduced by European explorers and settlers in the 16th century to serve as a source of food. Wild boars now cause problems including out-competing native species for food, destroying the nests of ground-nesting species, killing fawns and young domestic livestock, destroying agricultural crops, eating tree seeds and seedlings, destroying native vegetation and wetlands through wallowing, damaging water quality, coming into violent conflict with humans and pets and carrying pig and human diseases including brucellosis, trichinosis and pseudorabies. In some jurisdictions, it is illegal to import, breed, release, possess, sell, distribute, trade, transport, hunt, or trap Eurasian boars. Hunting and trapping is done systematically, to increase the chance of eradication and to remove the incentive to illegally release boars, which have mostly been spread deliberately by sport hunters.[104]

History

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While domestic pigs, both captive and feral (popularly termed "razorbacks"), have been in North America since the earliest days of European colonization, pure wild boars were not introduced into the New World until the 19th century. The suids were released into the wild by wealthy landowners as big game animals. The initial introductions took place in fenced enclosures, though several escapes occurred, with the escapees sometimes intermixing with already established feral pig populations.

The first of these introductions occurred in New Hampshire in 1890. Thirteen wild boars from Germany were purchased by Austin Corbin from Carl Hagenbeck and released into a 9,500-hectare (23,000-acre) game preserve in Sullivan County. Several of these boars escaped, though they were quickly hunted down by locals. Two further introductions were made from the original stocking, with several escapes taking place due to breaches in the game preserve's fencing. These escapees have ranged widely, with some specimens having been observed crossing into Vermont.[105]

In 1902, 15–20 wild boar from Germany were released into a 3,200-hectare (7,900-acre) estate in Hamilton County, New York. Several specimens escaped six years later, dispersing into the William C. Whitney Wilderness Area, with their descendants surviving for at least 20 years.[105]

The most extensive boar introduction in the US took place in western North Carolina in 1912, when 13 boars of undetermined European origin were released into two fenced enclosures in a game preserve in Hooper Bald, Graham County. Most of the specimens remained in the preserve for the next decade, until a large-scale hunt caused the remaining animals to break through their confines and escape. Some of the boars migrated to Tennessee, where they intermixed with both free-ranging and feral pigs in the area. In 1924, a dozen Hooper Bald wild pigs were shipped to California and released in a property between Carmel Valley and the Los Padres National Forest. These hybrid boar were later used as breeding stock on various private and public lands throughout the state, as well as in other states like Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, West Virginia and Mississippi.[105]

Several wild boars from Leon Springs and the San Antonio, Saint Louis and San Diego Zoos were released in the Powder Horn Ranch in Calhoun County, Texas, in 1939. These specimens escaped and established themselves in surrounding ranchlands and coastal areas, with some crossing the Espiritu Santo Bay and colonizing Matagorda Island. Descendants of the Powder Horn Ranch boars were later released onto San José Island and the coast of Chalmette, Louisiana.[105]

Wild boar of unknown origin were stocked in a ranch in the Edwards Plateau in the 1940s, only to escape during a storm and hybridize with local feral pig populations, later spreading into neighboring counties.[105]

Starting in the mid-1980s, several boars purchased from the San Diego Zoo and Tierpark Berlin were released into the United States. A decade later, more specimens from farms in Canada and Białowieża Forest were let loose. In recent years, wild pig populations have been reported in 44 states within the US, most of which are likely wild boar–feral hog hybrids. Pure wild boar populations may still be present, but are extremely localized.[105]

Introduction and lack of control in South America

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Distribution of wild boar and "javaporco" in Brazil as of 2022. In red: States with registered sightings.

In South America, the European boar is believed to have been introduced for the first time in Argentina and Uruguay around the 20th century for breeding purposes.[106] In Brazil, the creation of wild boar and hybrids started on a large scale in the mid-1990s. With the invasion of wild boar that crossed the border and entered Rio Grande do Sul around 1989, and the escape and intentional release by several Brazilian breeders in the late 1990s – in response to a IBAMA decision against the import and breeding of wild boar in 1998 – numerous feral species formed a growing population, which progressively advances in Brazilian territory.[107][108]

Pest control in Brazil

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As a form of control for the wild boar population, hunting and killing are allowed for Collectors, Shooters and Hunters (CACs)[109] duly registered by the environmental control agency, IBAMA, which, on the other hand, seeks to encourage the preservation of similar species of native peccaries, such as the "queixada" and the "caititu".[110][111][112]

Effect on other habitats

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Wild boars negatively impact other habitats through the destruction of the environment, or homes of wildlife. When wild boars invade new areas, they adapt to the new area by trampling and rooting, as well as displacing many saplings/nutrients. This causes a decrease in growing of many plants and trees. Water is also affected negatively by wild boars. When wild boars are active in streams, or small pools of water, it causes increased turbidity (excessive silt and particle suspension).[113] In some cases, the fecal coliform concentration increases to dangerous levels because of wild boars. Aquatic wildlife is affected, more prominently fish, and amphibians. Wild boars have caused a great decrease in over 300 animal or plant species, 250 being endangered or threatened.[114]

The boars cause many habitats to become less diverse because of their feeding behaviors and predation. Wild boars will dig up eggs of species and eat them, as well as killing other wildlife for food. When these boars compete with other species for resources, they usually come out successful.[115] A study published in the Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology was conducted on the results of Feral Swine control. Only two years after the control started, the amount of turtle nests jumped from 57 to 143, and the turtle nest predation percent dropped from 74 to 15.[116] They kill and eat deers, lizards, birds, snakes, and more. These boars are called "opportunist omnivores", which means they eat almost anything. This means they can survive almost anywhere. A big surplus of food and the ability to adapt to any new place causes lots of breeding. All of these factors make it difficult to get rid of wild boars.[117]

Diseases and parasites

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Lesions consistent with bovine tuberculosis on the lower jaw and lung of a wild boar

Wild boars are known to host at least 20 different parasitic worm species, with maximum infections occurring in summer. Young animals are vulnerable to helminths like Metastrongylus, which are consumed by boars through earthworms and cause death by parasitising the lungs. Wild boar also carry parasites known to infect humans, including Gastrodiscoides, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia solium, Balantidium coli and Toxoplasma gondii.[118] Wild boar in southern regions are frequently infested with ticks (Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, and Hyalomma) and hog lice. The species also suffers from blood-sucking flies, which it escapes by bathing frequently or hiding in dense shrubs.[4]

Swine plague spreads very quickly in wild boar, with epizootics being recorded in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Belarus, the Caucasus, the Far East, Kazakhstan and other regions. Foot-and-mouth disease can also take on epidemic proportions in boar populations. The species occasionally, but rarely contracts Pasteurellosis, hemorrhagic sepsis, tularemia, and anthrax. Wild boar may on occasion contract swine erysipelas through rodents or hog lice and ticks.[4]

Relationships with humans

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In culture

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Upper Paleolithic cave painting, Altamira, Spain. This is a modern interpretation of one of the earliest known depictions of the species.[119]
Depiction of wild boars at Lake Balaton on silver dish (part of the 4th century Sevso Treasure)
The head of a wild boar on the left side of the coat of arms of Luumäki, Finland. A wild boar refers to the family of President P. E. Svinhufvud from Luumäki (Svinhufvud literally means the "swine head").[120][121]

The wild boar features prominently in the cultures of Indo-European people, many of which saw the animal as embodying warrior virtues.[122] Cultures throughout Europe and Asia Minor saw the killing of a boar as proof of one's valor and strength. Neolithic hunter gatherers depicted reliefs of ferocious wild boars on their temple pillars at Göbekli Tepe some 11,600 years ago.[123][124] Virtually all heroes in Greek mythology fight or kill a boar at one point. The demigod Herakles' third labour involves the capture of the Erymanthian Boar, Theseus slays the wild sow Phaea, and a disguised Odysseus is recognised by his handmaiden Eurycleia by the scars inflicted on him by a boar during a hunt in his youth.[125] To the mythical Hyperboreans, the boar represented spiritual authority.[119] Several Greek myths use the boar as a symbol of darkness, death and winter.[126] One example is the story of the youthful Adonis, who is killed by a boar and is permitted by Zeus to depart from Hades only during the spring and summer period. This theme also occurs in Irish and Egyptian mythology, where the animal is explicitly linked to the month of October, therefore autumn. This association likely arose from aspects of the boar's actual nature. Its dark colour was linked to the night, while its solitary habits, proclivity to consume crops and nocturnal nature were associated with evil.[127] The foundation myth of Ephesus has the city being built over the site where Prince Androklos of Athens killed a boar.[128] Boars were frequently depicted on Greek funerary monuments alongside lions, representing gallant losers who have finally met their match, as opposed to victorious hunters as lions are. The theme of the doomed, yet valorous boar warrior also occurred in Hittite culture, where it was traditional to sacrifice a boar alongside a dog and a prisoner of war after a military defeat.[125]

The head of wild boar is prominent in the crest of the Scottish Clan Campbell.
3rd century sandstone Varaha sculpture from Mathura, depicting the Hindu boar god Varaha rescuing the earth, depicted as a goddess dangling from his tusks.

The boar as a warrior also appears in Germanic cultures, with its image having been frequently engraved on shields and swords. They also feature on Germanic boar helmets, such as the Benty Grange helmet, where it was believed to offer protection to the wearer and has been theorised to have been used in spiritual transformations into swine, similar to berserkers. The boar features heavily in religious practice in Germanic paganism where it is closely associated with Freyr and has also been suggested to have been a totemic animal to the Swedes, especially to the Yngling royal dynasty who claimed descent from the god.[129]

According to Tacitus, the Baltic Aesti featured boars on their helmets and may have also worn boar masks. The boar and pig were held in particularly high esteem by the Celts, who considered them to be their most important sacred animal. Some Celtic deities linked to boars include Moccus and Veteris. It has been suggested that some early myths surrounding the Welsh hero Culhwch involved the character being the son of a boar god.[125] Nevertheless, the importance of the boar as a culinary item among Celtic tribes may have been exaggerated in popular culture by the Asterix series, as wild boar bones are rare among Celtic archaeological sites and the few that do occur show no signs of butchery, having probably been used in sacrificial rituals.[130]

The boar also appears in Vedic mythology and Hindu mythology. A story present in the Brahmanas has the god Indra slaying an avaricious boar, who has stolen the treasure of the asuras, then giving its carcass to the god Vishnu, who offered it as a sacrifice to the gods. In the story's retelling in the Charaka Samhita, the boar is described as a form of Prajapati and is credited with having raised the Earth from the primeval waters. In the Ramayana and the Puranas, the same boar is portrayed as Varaha, an avatar of Vishnu.[131]

Herakles brings Eurystheus the Erymanthian boar, as depicted on a black-figure amphora (c. 550 BC) from Vulci.

In Japanese culture, the boar is widely seen as a fearsome and reckless animal, to the point that several words and expressions in Japanese referring to recklessness include references to boars. The boar is the last animal of the Oriental zodiac, with people born during the year of the Pig being said to embody the boar-like traits of determination and impetuosity. Among Japanese hunters, the boar's courage and defiance is a source of admiration and it is not uncommon for hunters and mountain people to name their sons after the animal inoshishi (猪). Boars are also seen as symbols of fertility and prosperity; in some regions, it is thought that boars are drawn to fields owned by families including pregnant women, and hunters with pregnant wives are thought to have greater chances of success when boar hunting. The animal's link to prosperity was illustrated by its inclusion on the ¥10 note during the Meiji period and it was once believed that a man could become wealthy by keeping a clump of boar hair in his wallet.[132]

In the folklore of the Mongol Altai Uriankhai tribe, the wild boar was associated with the watery underworld, as it was thought that the spirits of the dead entered the animal's head, to be ultimately transported to the water.[133] Prior to the conversion to Islam, the Kyrgyz people believed that they were descended from boars and thus did not eat pork. In Buryat mythology, the forefathers of the Buryats descended from heaven and were nourished by a boar.[134] In China, the boar is the emblem of the Miao people.[119]

The boar (sanglier) is frequently displayed in English, Scottish and Welsh heraldry. As with the lion, the boar is often shown as armed and langued. As with the bear, Scottish and Welsh heraldry displays the boar's head with the neck cropped, unlike the English version, which retains the neck.[135] The white boar served as the badge of King Richard III of England, who distributed it among his northern retainers during his tenure as Duke of Gloucester.[136]

As a game animal and food source

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Main article: Boar hunting
Wild boar haunches and trophy, Umbria, Italy
A wild boar dish served in Helsinki, Finland

Humans have been hunting boar for millennia, the earliest artistic depictions of such activities dating back to the Upper Paleolithic.[125] At some archaeological sites in China dating back to the Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO), boar composed up to 73% of all medium and large mammal remains, indicating heavy reliance on these suids as a food source.[137] The animal was seen as a source of food among the Ancient Greeks, as well as a sporting challenge and source of epic narratives. The Romans inherited this tradition, with one of its first practitioners being Scipio Aemilianus. Boar hunting became particularly popular among the young nobility during the 3rd century BC as preparation for manhood and battle. A typical Roman boar hunting tactic involved surrounding a given area with large nets, then flushing the boar with dogs and immobilizing it with smaller nets. The animal would then be dispatched with a venabulum, a short spear with a crossguard at the base of the blade. More than their Greek predecessors, the Romans extensively took inspiration from boar hunting in their art and sculpture. With the ascension of Constantine the Great, boar hunting took on Christian allegorical themes, with the animal being portrayed as a "black beast" analogous to the dragon of Saint George.[138]

Boar hunting continued after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, though the Germanic tribes considered the red deer to be a more noble and worthy quarry. The post-Roman nobility hunted boar as their predecessors did, but primarily as training for battle rather than sport. It was not uncommon for medieval hunters to deliberately hunt boars during the breeding season when the animals were more aggressive. During the Renaissance, when deforestation and the introduction of firearms reduced boar numbers, boar hunting became the sole prerogative of the nobility, one of many charges brought up against the rich during the German Peasants' War and the French Revolution.[138]

During the mid-20th century, 7,000–8,000 boars were caught in the Caucasus, 6,000–7,000 in Kazakhstan and about 5,000 in Central Asia during the Soviet period, primarily through the use of dogs and beats.[4] In Nepal, farmers and poachers eliminate boars by baiting balls of wheat flour containing explosives with kerosene oil, with the animals' chewing motions triggering the devices.[139]

Wild boar can thrive in captivity, though piglets grow slowly and poorly without their mothers. Products derived from wild boar include meat, hide and bristles.[4] Apicius devotes a whole chapter to the cooking of boar meat, providing 10 recipes involving roasting, boiling and what sauces to use. The Romans usually served boar meat with garum.[140] Boar's head was the centrepiece of most medieval Christmas celebrations among the nobility.[141] Although growing in popularity as a captive-bred source of food, the wild boar takes longer to mature than most domestic pigs and it is usually smaller and produces less meat. Nevertheless, wild boar meat is leaner and healthier than pork,[142] being of higher nutritional value and having a much higher concentration of essential amino acids.[143] Most meat-dressing organizations agree that a boar carcass should yield 50 kg (110 lb) of meat on average. Large specimens can yield 15–20 kg (33–44 lb) of fat, with some giants yielding 30 kg (66 lb) or more. A boar hide can measure 3 m2 (4,700 sq in) and can yield 350–1,000 grams (12–35 oz) of bristle and 400 grams (14 oz) of underwool.[4]

Crop and garbage raiding

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An adult sow and young that have broken open a litter bag in Berlin seeking food

Boars can be damaging to agriculture in situations where their natural habitat is sparse. Populations living on the outskirts of towns or farms can dig up potatoes and damage melons, watermelons and maize. However, they generally only encroach upon farms when natural food is scarce. In the Belovezh forest for example, 34–47% of the local boar population will enter fields in years of moderate availability of natural foods. While the role of boars in damaging crops is often exaggerated,[4] cases are known of boar depredations causing famines, as was the case in Hachinohe, Japan in 1749, where 3,000 people died of what became known as the "wild boar famine". Still, within Japanese culture, the boar's status as vermin is expressed through its title as "king of pests" and the popular saying (addressed to young men in rural areas) "When you get married, choose a place with no wild boar."[132][144]

In Central Europe, farmers typically repel boars through distraction or fright, while in Kazakhstan it is usual to employ guard dogs in plantations. However, research shows that when compared with other mitigation tactics, hunting is the only strategy to significantly reduce crop damage by boars.[145] Although large boar populations can play an important role in limiting forest growth, they are also useful in keeping pest populations such as June bugs under control.[4] The growth of urban areas and the corresponding decline in natural boar habitats has led to some sounders entering human habitations in search of food. As in natural conditions, sounders in peri-urban areas are matriarchal, though males tend to be much less represented and adults of both sexes can be up to 35% heavier than their forest-dwelling counterparts. As of 2010, at least 44 cities in 15 countries have experienced problems of some kind relating to the presence of habituated wild boar.[146]

A 2023 study found that allowing wild pigs to forage on edible garbage in large regional landfills results in those animals getting physically large/heavier, having larger litters of piglets, and causing more wild pig-vehicle collisions in the vicinity of the landfill. The effects of letting these pigs scavenge in these landfills can present unique challenges to population management, control, public safety, and disease transmission. Wild pigs foraging on edible food waste in landfills has also been identified as a vector that facilitates the spread of African swine fever virus.[147]

Attacks on humans

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Actual attacks on humans are rare, but can be serious, resulting in penetrating injuries to the lower part of the body. They generally occur during the boars' rutting season from November to January, in agricultural areas bordering forests or on paths leading through forests. The animal typically attacks by charging and pointing its tusks towards the intended victim, with most injuries occurring on the thigh region. Once the initial attack is over, the boar steps back, takes position and attacks again if the victim is still moving, only ending once the victim is completely incapacitated.[148][149]

Boar attacks on humans have been documented throughout history. The Romans and Ancient Greeks wrote of these attacks (Odysseus was wounded by a boar and Adonis was killed by one). A 2012 study compiling recorded attacks from 1825 to 2012 found accounts of 665 human victims of both wild boars and feral pigs: the highest number of those attacks (24%) occurred in the United States, though the next-highest (19%), in India, was also the greatest percentage of attacks occurring in the animal's native range. Most of the attacks occurred in rural areas during the winter months in non-hunting contexts and were committed by solitary males.[150]

Management

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Managing wild boar is a pressing task in both native and invasive contexts as they can be disruptive to other systems when not addressed. Wild boar find their success through adaptation of daily patterns to circumvent threats. They avoid human contact through nocturnal lifestyles, despite the fact that they are not evolutionarily predisposed, and alter their diets substantially based on what is available.[151] These "adaptive generalists", can survive in a variety of landscapes, making the prediction of their movement patterns and any potential close contact areas crucial to limiting damage.[152] All of these qualities make them equally difficult to manage or limit.

Within Central Europe, the native habitat of the wild boar, there has been a push to re-evaluate interactions between wild boar and humans, with the priority of fostering positive engagement. Negative media and public perception of wild boar as "crop raiders" have made those living alongside them less willing to accept the economic damages of their behaviors, as wild boar are seen as pests. This media tone impacts management policy, with every 10 negative articles increasing wild boar policy activity by 6.7%.[153] Contrary to this portrayal, wild boar, when managed well within their natural environments, can be a crucial part of forest ecosystems.

Recreational wild boar hunting

Defining the limits of proper management is difficult, but the exclusion of wild boar from rare environments is generally agreed upon, as when not properly managed, they can damage agricultural ventures and harm vulnerable plant life.[154] These damages are estimated at $800 million yearly in environmental and financial costs for the United States alone.[154] The breadth of this damage is due to prior inattention and lack of management tactics for extended lengths of time.[153] Managing wild boar is a complex task, as it involves coordinating a combination of crop harvest techniques, fencing, toxic bait, corrals, and hunting. The most common tactic employed by private land owners in the United States is recreational hunting; however, this is generally not as effective on its own.[155] Management strategies are most successful when they take into account reproduction, dispersion, and the differences between ideal resources for males and females.[152]

Wild boars are causing soil disturbance that, among other problems, globally results in annual carbon dioxide emissions equivalent to that of ~1.1 million passenger vehicles (4.9 Mt, 0.01% of all GHG emissions as of 2022), implying that as of 2021, hunted boar meat – unlike other meat products – has beneficial effects on the environment[156][157] even though the effect would diminish if boars are introduced for meat production, so consistently retaining small populations of boars may be preferable.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Wild boar

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The wild boar (Sus scrofa), also known as the Eurasian wild pig, is a of suid in the family , native to diverse habitats including forests, woodlands, and grasslands across and , where it exhibits a stocky build with a coarse, bristly , a prominent elongated adapted for rooting, and in adult males, continuously growing tusks emerging from the lower that serve for , defense, and intra-male . Adults typically measure 0.6 to 1.9 meters in length, stand 55 to 100 cm at the shoulder, and weigh 50 to 200 kg, with males generally larger and more robust than females, which lack tusks or have smaller ones. As an omnivorous opportunist, it consumes a varied diet of roots, tubers, fruits, , small vertebrates, and carrion, facilitated by its acute sense of smell and physical strength for excavating soil. Native populations span from the and to and , with over 16 recognized varying in size, coloration, and skull morphology adapted to local environments, such as the smaller (S. s. leucomystax) or the larger Central European form. Human-mediated introductions since the have established feral populations in the , , and , where they hybridize with domestic pigs (S. s. domesticus)—descended from wild boar—and often become invasive, lacking natural predators and exploiting anthropogenic food sources. The species is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its extensive range exceeding 10 million km² and stable or increasing global numbers estimated in the tens of millions, though certain insular face localized threats from habitat loss and hunting. Wild boars form matriarchal sounders of females and , with males largely solitary outside breeding seasons, displaying high , adaptability, and aggression when cornered, which contributes to their ecological success but also conflicts with humans through crop raiding, soil disturbance, and transmission of diseases like African swine fever and . As the progenitor of domestic swine, they have been hunted for for meat, hides, and tusks, influencing prehistoric economies and modern management challenges in agriculture and conservation, where control measures such as trapping and culling target expanding populations to mitigate impacts from excessive rooting and predation on ground-nesting species.

Taxonomy and Evolution

Etymology and Terminology

The scientific binomial name Sus scrofa for the wild boar derives from Latin, with Sus denoting "" and scrofa referring to a sow or breeding female pig, reflecting classical Roman descriptions of the animal's form and reproductive habits. This nomenclature was formalized in the by , drawing on earlier texts that distinguished the species from domesticated variants based on morphology and . The English common name "boar" traces to bār, signifying an uncastrated male , from Proto-Germanic bairaz of uncertain deeper origin but consistently applied to wild or undomesticated suids in . Prefixed with "wild" since at least the period, it emphasizes the species' native, non-domesticated status in , contrasting with terms like "hog" or "" often reserved for managed or domestic descendants. Although domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) originated via from Eurasian wild boar populations around 9,000–10,000 years ago, pigs—arising from escaped domestic stock—exhibit genetic distinctions from pure wild boar lineages. Empirical analyses of loci such as NR6A1 and MC1R reveal fixed polymorphisms, with wild boars typically homozygous for alleles (e.g., G at a key site) absent or rare in domestics, enabling forensic differentiation even in admixed populations. In invasive contexts like , approximately 97% of swine carry hybrid genomes blending domestic and introduced wild boar traits, underscoring the need for genetic assays to identify pure Sus scrofa versus hybrids. Regional vernaculars in reflect cultural roles in and , such as sanglier in French (evoking solitary forest dwellers pursued in medieval chases) and cinghiale in Italian (from Latin roots tied to boar tusks used in ), terms embedded in game laws dating to the Roman era. These designations prioritize the animal's status as a quarry species, differing from broader "pig" labels for domestics and highlighting ecological separation in native ranges.

Evolutionary Origins

The genus Sus, to which the wild boar (Sus scrofa) belongs, originated near the Miocene-Pliocene boundary approximately 5 million years ago in , as inferred from analyses of sequences across suid species. Early evidence of the genus includes Sus arvernensis from deposits (circa 5-3 million years ago) in sites such as Pikermi in and Hungarian localities, marking an initial of suines into forested and woodland environments of and . These ancestors exhibited primitive dental and cranial features adapted to omnivorous foraging, with subsequent diversification linked to climatic shifts toward more seasonal habitats during the late . The S. scrofa lineage diverged within the genus during the transition (2-1 million years ago), with genomic evidence pointing to an East Asian origin followed by colonization of mainland and . Paleontological records from Chinese and European sites document the species' presence by the , characterized by increased body size and behavioral flexibility that facilitated exploitation of varied ecosystems amid fluctuating ice ages. Genetic studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA reveal a divergence from other Sus species, such as the , around 3-7 million years ago, underscoring the wild boar's deep phylogenetic roots within while highlighting low genetic bottlenecks compared to related taxa. Post-glacial expansions after the (circa 20,000 years ago) drove range recolonization, with phylogeographic patterns indicating northward and westward migrations from southern European refugia, consistent with a leading-edge model of dispersal supported by and whole-genome analyses. This radiation, accelerating around 12,000-10,000 years ago, was facilitated by warming climates and habitat connectivity, enabling S. scrofa to repopulate northern latitudes while maintaining through admixture from multiple refugial sources rather than severe contractions. Fossil tracks from upper Pleistocene Iberian sites further attest to the species' during these environmental transitions.

Subspecies and Genetic Variation

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) exhibits significant subspecific variation, with up to 16 subspecies traditionally recognized as of 2005, classified into four regional groups primarily on differences in skull height, lacrimal bone length, coat texture, body size, and tusk development. These distinctions reflect adaptations to diverse Eurasian environments, though taxonomic boundaries remain debated due to clinal variation and ongoing genetic studies suggesting some forms may warrant species status. The nominate subspecies S. s. scrofa, distributed across , features a stocky build with a coarse, bristly grey-brown coat, prominent tusks in males up to 10-15 long, and body weights reaching 100-200 kg in adults, adaptations suited to temperate forests and mixed habitats. In contrast, the Indian or banded subspecies S. s. vittatus in displays a short-faced morphology, sparse lacking underwool, a distinctive white muzzle band, a long mane, and a broad reddish dorsal stripe, with smaller overall size and more primitive indicative of basal phylogenetic position. The Japanese subspecies S. s. leucomystax is notably smaller, with reduced mane, yellowish-brown pelage, and lighter build optimized for insular mountainous terrain, though males retain functional tusks for defense and . Genetic analyses reveal deep phylogenetic between Asian and European lineages, with mitochondrial and nuclear markers indicating splits dating to the Pleistocene, alongside higher diversity in Asian populations—particularly Southeast Asian groups showing elevated heterozygosity (e.g., observed heterozygosity up to 0.75 in loci) compared to European counterparts (around 0.60-0.70). This pattern aligns with as the ' origin, where larger effective population sizes preserved variation, while European populations experienced bottlenecks during post-glacial recolonization. In regions of overlap with domestic pigs, admixture analyses using genome-wide SNPs detect into wild boar genomes, with European populations showing 1-10% domestic ancestry in some cases, potentially altering traits like coat color and disease resistance but risking in native gene pools. For instance, French wild boar exhibit monitored hybridization since the 1980s, confirmed via cytogenetic and SNP data, while Corsican samples display up to 9% inferred domestic admixture. Such events, driven by human-mediated escapes, underscore hybridization as a factor eroding subspecific genetic integrity in introduced or fragmented habitats.

Relationship to Domestic Pigs

The domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) originated from the wild boar (Sus scrofa) through domestication processes that began independently in multiple regions. Archaeological evidence indicates initial domestication around 8500 BCE in the Near East, with subsequent spread to Europe via agricultural migrations. In East Asia, particularly southern China, domestication occurred approximately 8000 years ago, as supported by zooarchaeological findings of managed pig populations near human settlements. These events reflect selective breeding for traits advantageous to human husbandry, including increased fecundity and tolerance of confined environments. Genetic analyses of (mtDNA) and nuclear genomes confirm at least two primary independent events from wild boar ancestors: one in the leading to European lineages and another in resulting in East Asian breeds. phylogenomic studies reveal distinct haplogroups in domestic pigs that trace back to regional wild boar populations, with evidence of admixture but clear signatures of separate origins around 9000–10,000 years ago. Further genomic sequencing has identified multiple additional localized episodes, particularly in island populations, underscoring the opportunistic nature of pig management across . Domestication exerted strong selective pressures, evidenced by genomic markers of reduced body size, altered coat coloration, and behavioral modifications favoring docility over . Comparative genomic studies show selection sweeps on genes associated with neural development and stress response, contributing to smaller sizes—approximately 18% reduction in domestic pigs relative to wild boars—and diminished flight responses. These changes, driven by preference for manageable animals, contrast with wild boar traits optimized for survival in natural habitats. Escaped domestic pigs demonstrate remarkable , rapidly reverting to wild boar-like morphologies within generations. Feral populations exhibit elongated snouts, coarser hair, tusk development, and increased wariness, attributable to environmental pressures rather than fixed genetic shifts. This reversion highlights the labile nature of traits, with density-dependent plasticity enabling adaptation to wild conditions without complete genetic reversal.

Physical Description

Morphology and Size Variation

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) possesses a robust, barrel-shaped body with relatively short, sturdy legs, an elongated , and a of coarse, bristly hairs interspersed with finer underfur that varies seasonally in . The , extended by a cartilaginous disc, is reinforced by a strong skeletal framework, including a pronounced posterior crest on the that enhances leverage for rooting activities. Upper and lower canines form tusks, which in adult males protrude prominently and can reach lengths of up to 10 cm, while females exhibit smaller, less developed versions. Sexual dimorphism is evident in body size and weaponry, with empirical measurements from field studies indicating adult males averaging 75-100 kg in weight and 75-80 cm at the shoulder in central European populations, compared to females at 50-70 kg and slightly lower heights. These differences correlate with male-male during the mating period, as documented through morphometric data on captured and weighed specimens. Shoulder heights generally range from 70-90 cm across sexes, with body lengths of 90-200 cm excluding the 15-40 cm tail. Size variation occurs regionally and among subspecies, influenced by habitat productivity and isolation; for instance, in Eastern European areas with abundant resources, males average 110 kg, exceeding central European norms. Insular populations, such as the Sardinian subspecies (S. s. meridionalis), display adaptations potentially linked to limited , though specific morphometric data highlight overall clinal trends rather than uniform . Extreme weights up to 200-270 kg have been recorded in large males from high-nutrient environments, reflecting verified by weigh-ins of hunted individuals.

Adaptations and Sensory Capabilities

Wild boars exhibit exceptional olfactory capabilities, underpinned by a large of olfactory (OR) genes. Genomic sequencing of Sus scrofa reveals approximately 1,113 OR sequences, enabling discrimination of a wide array of odors crucial for detecting food, predators, and mates. This exceeds the OR gene counts in humans (around 400 functional), mice, and even dogs, as identified in comparative pig genome analyses, reflecting evolutionary pressures for and survival in complex environments. In contrast, is limited; wild boars possess dichromatic vision, with retinal cone photopigments sensitive primarily to short-wavelength () and middle-wavelength (yellow-green) , as evidenced by electroretinogram flicker photometry in Sus scrofa. This configuration, shared across suids, prioritizes motion detection over color discrimination, aligning with crepuscular activity patterns where low-light conditions prevail. Hearing compensates for visual shortcomings, spanning 42 Hz to 40.5 kHz with optimal sensitivity from 250 Hz to 16 kHz, permitting detection of ultrasonic cues inaudible to humans. Thermoregulatory adaptations include a narrow —6–24 °C in summer and 0–7 °C in winter—prompting behavioral shifts like reduced activity above 15 °C to conserve energy, given the absence of functional sweat glands. Physiological reliance on diurnal rhythms further enables efficient heat dissipation without excessive metabolic cost, as measured via implanted loggers in free-ranging populations.

Behavior and Life Cycle

Social Organization

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) form stable social groups called sounders, typically consisting of related adult females and their dependent young, with group sizes ranging from 5 to 20 individuals in most populations. These matriarchal units are led by a dominant sow, usually the oldest or most aggressive female, who influences group decisions on movement, sites, and resting locations, thereby maintaining cohesion through learned spatial knowledge and priority access to resources. Subordinate females and juveniles adhere to a linear within the sounder, which emerges early in life and persists, fostering stability by minimizing conflicts over food and space. Juvenile males remain in the natal sounder until dispersal at approximately 12-24 months of age, after which they adopt a solitary or join small, transient groups of 2-5 unrelated individuals. These male groups exhibit looser affiliations, often centered around shared sites or areas, but lack the enduring bonds seen in sounders, with frequent fission-fusion dynamics driven by resource availability and individual tolerance. Dominance hierarchies in both sounders and bachelor groups are established via ritualized agonistic behaviors, including threat displays like upright stances, head-to-head pushing, and slashing with tusks, which resolve contests with minimal injury risk. Ethological studies document that these displays, rather than lethal , correlate with reduced intra-group mortality and enhanced survival, as winners gain priority without depleting group fitness through wounds or infections. Social organization undergoes seasonal shifts, particularly during the autumn rut, when mature males aggregate near sounders for opportunities, temporarily expanding group sizes and intensifying hierarchical challenges among boars through vocalizations and fights. Post-rut, males disperse again, restoring the core female-young structure, which underscores the adaptive flexibility of boar societies to reproductive cycles while prioritizing year-round female-led stability.

Reproduction and Development

Female wild boars (Sus scrofa) exhibit polyestrous reproduction, with estrous cycles lasting 21-23 days, enabling year-round breeding in tropical and subtropical regions where environmental conditions remain favorable. In temperate zones, breeding is more seasonal, peaking from November to February to align farrowing with spring resource availability, though mild winters can extend this period. Gestation typically spans 112-120 days, ranging from 100-140 days depending on nutritional status and population density, with sows capable of rebreeding shortly after weaning. Litter sizes average 5-6 piglets at birth, though fetal counts can reach 5.4-5.7 on average, varying with maternal age, weight, and quality; older, heavier sows produce larger litters up to 8 offspring. Piglets are born precocial but vulnerable, weighing 0.7-1.2 kg, with striped aiding evasion of predators. Juvenile development is rapid, with at 2-3 months and independence by 4-6 months, though high early mortality—often exceeding 50% in the first year—stems primarily from predation, , and , as documented in long-term radio-collared studies. Males attain between 12-24 months, with possible as early as 5-7 months but effective breeding dominance requiring larger body size achieved around 18 months; during rut, mature boars engage in polygynous , aggressively competing for access to multiple receptive sows over short, intense periods that elevate testosterone and reduce activity. This strategy maximizes in high-density populations but incurs energetic costs, contributing to post-rut weight loss observed in territorial males.

Daily Activity Patterns

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) display predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular activity patterns, with the majority of movement and foraging occurring between dusk and dawn to minimize exposure to diurnal predators and thermoregulatory stress from midday . Radio-telemetry studies using GPS collars on collared individuals in revealed that over 70% of activity fixes occurred at night across seasons, with bimodal peaks near sunrise (approximately 0600 hours) and sunset (approximately 1800 hours). data from European populations corroborate this, showing peak detections between 2200 and 0400 hours, comprising up to 59% of total records during nighttime hours. Seasonal shifts modulate these rhythms, with extended daily activity bouts in winter due to reduced heat constraints and longer photoperiods enabling more daylight movement. In temperate zones, telemetry data indicate that winter activity includes greater diurnal overlap, particularly midday (1000–1400 hours), when ambient temperatures rise above nocturnal lows, contrasting with stricter in summer. Camera trap analyses in confirm higher diurnal indices in cooler months, with up to 41% of winter detections during daylight versus near-zero in . These patterns align with physiological needs for energy conservation, as shorter summer nights compress nocturnal budgets while winter's milder days facilitate riskier exposure. Human disturbance intensifies , prompting wild boars to compress activity into darker hours and avoid peaks. In landscapes with high visitor density, such as suburban forests near , GPS-tracked boars shifted 20–30% of activity from crepuscular to strict midnight peaks (0000–0200 hours) during periods of elevated human presence, reducing overlap with daytime trails. Studies across human-dominated regions report a 1.36-fold average increase in index, with boars in hunted or urban-adjacent areas exhibiting 78–90% nighttime activity compared to 50–60% in remote sites. This behavioral plasticity, evident in both native Eurasian and invasive North American populations, reflects adaptive rather than fixed traits, as confirmed by multi-site comparisons.

Ecology

Habitat Utilization

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) exhibit a strong preference for forested habitats characterized by mixed woodlands with dense understory vegetation, which provides essential cover for concealment and facilitates activities such as rooting. Habitat suitability models derived from presence data and environmental variables consistently identify oak (Quercus) dominated forests, gentle slopes, and elevated terrains as optimal, with utilization rates exceeding 70% in such areas compared to open or coniferous stands. Occupancy surveys further confirm avoidance of habitats with high grass cover proportions, favoring instead structurally complex environments that support evasion from predators and environmental stressors. For shelter, wild boars select microhabitats including thickets, burrows excavated in soft soils, and dense vegetative cover, particularly during diurnal resting periods or farrowing seasons. These choices are influenced by thermoregulatory needs, with individuals prioritizing shaded, humid sites and proximity to water bodies to mitigate heat stress, as their limited evaporative cooling capacity—evident in thermoneutral zones of 6–24 °C in summer—drives selection for environments enabling wallowing and reduced activity during peak temperatures. In temperate regions, macrohabitat analyses reveal higher occupancy in broad-leaved mixed forests over monocultures, underscoring the role of understory density in providing buffering and protection. The species demonstrates remarkable adaptability to human-altered landscapes, routinely utilizing agricultural field edges, wetlands, and peri-urban fringes where natural cover interfaces with developed areas. In such settings, wild boars adjust spatial patterns to exploit fragmented forests and green corridors, with GPS data showing home ranges incorporating urban-adjacent thickets for while navigating disturbance gradients. This flexibility is evidenced by sustained occupancy in reserves and metropolitan outskirts, where has minimal impact on diel distribution, allowing persistence amid anthropogenic pressures.

Diet and Foraging Strategies

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) maintain an omnivorous diet dominated by matter, which constitutes 80-90% of consumed based on content analyses across various habitats. This includes roots, tubers, bulbs, and nuts such as acorns, supplemented by 10-20% animal material comprising (e.g., earthworms, ), small vertebrates (e.g., amphibians, reptiles, nestlings), and occasionally carrion. The precise composition varies by local availability, with items like underground storage organs accessed via rather than selective . Foraging primarily occurs through rooting, where boars use their muscular snouts and tusks to overturn , penetrating up to 25 cm deep to unearth buried resources. This disturbance enhances (e.g., increasing to 2.17 g/100 cm³ in the A horizon of heavily rooted sites) and while raising acidity (e.g., to 2.17 meq/100 cm³), mobilizing nutrients and accelerating but reducing base saturation (e.g., to 15.0% in rooted A horizons). Such bioturbation mimics natural , potentially benefiting microbial activity and nutrient turnover in forest soils, though intensity depends on food scarcity and group size. Seasonal dietary shifts emphasize high-energy mast crops like acorns, chestnuts, and beechnuts in autumn and winter, comprising up to 35% of intake in some analyses and exceeding crop reliance during peak availability. These pulses enable energy storage for , correlating with population irruptions as females leverage surplus calories for larger litters and higher survival rates in mast years. Invertebrate consumption peaks in spring-summer, filling gaps when plant growth resumes but mast depletes.

Predators and Natural Controls

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) face predation primarily from large carnivores in their native ranges, with gray wolves (Canis lupus) targeting both adults and juveniles across . In a study from central , wolf predation contributed to an overall wild boar mortality rate of 38%, with approximately 75% of consumed individuals being piglets, highlighting the vulnerability of young during early life stages. Similarly, (Lynx lynx) exert notable pressure on juveniles, with modeled impacts indicating stronger demographic effects compared to other predators like foxes in shared habitats. In Asian regions, tigers (Panthera tigris) prey on adults, while brown bears (Ursus arctos) opportunistically take juveniles in , though empirical predation rates vary by local carnivore density and boar group size, often remaining below 10-20% of annual mortality in wolf-present areas. Smaller carnivores, including red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and coyotes (Canis latrans) in introduced ranges, focus on neonates, where predation can account for high juvenile losses but rarely regulates overall populations due to compensatory reproduction. Documented kill rates by wolves on wild boars increase in spring and summer, correlating with piglet availability, yet total predation seldom exceeds hunting or density-dependent factors in human-modified landscapes. In low-predator environments, density-dependent factors such as food competition limit , with models identifying threshold densities beyond which body condition declines, leading to elevated during winter . Empirical analyses confirm minimal natural mortality independent of in intensively managed areas, where non-human causes contribute less than 10% to annual losses. Human dominates contemporary population regulation, mimicking natural predation by imposing high harvest rates that exceed 40-50% annually in , preventing overabundance and reducing density-related declines in condition. In regions like the , where native predators exert limited control, hunting remains essential for containment, though incomplete eradication underscores its role in stabilization rather than elimination.

Distribution and Population Dynamics

Native and Historical Range

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) originated in around 3–4 million years ago during the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition and expanded westward across , reaching and by the , as evidenced by records of suid remains in these regions. This prehistoric dispersal outcompeted other suid species, establishing a broad native range that spanned from the Atlantic fringes of , including , to eastern as far as and into in present-day , where island isolation fostered endemic such as S. s. vittatus. Genetic and data confirm continuous presence across temperate and forested zones of throughout much of the Pleistocene, with adaptations enabling exploitation of diverse habitats from Mediterranean woodlands to Siberian edges. During the (LGM), peaking around 21,000 years (), wild boar populations contracted to southern refugia in Iberia, , , and the , as indicated by and distributions from these areas. Post-LGM warming facilitated northward recolonization of starting approximately 14,000–12,000 (ca. 12,000–10,000 BCE), with haplotypes tracing expansion routes from Balkan and Italian refugia into central and northern , including Britain and via land bridges or coastal migrations before sea levels rose. In , across the maintained connectivity with Iberian populations as early as 90,000 , but the Desert posed a formidable arid barrier, restricting native distribution to Mediterranean coastal zones and preventing pre-human southward expansion into sub-Saharan regions. Archaeological evidence from kill sites across , such as those in and dating to 40,000–10,000 , reveals wild boar remains alongside , indicating prehistoric densities sufficient for opportunistic despite the species' aggressive nature limiting its frequency as prey compared to deer or . These sites suggest patchy but viable populations in post-glacial forests, with higher concentrations inferred in refugial areas where forested habitats persisted, supporting the species' role as a keystone in prehistoric ecosystems prior to human pressures.

Introduced Ranges and Invasions

Human-mediated introductions of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) to regions outside its native Eurasian and North African range began in the with domestic pigs brought by European explorers to the , many of which escaped and ized, forming foundational populations. Pure Eurasian wild boars were deliberately released in the late for sport hunting, starting in the 1890s in the , where they interbred with existing feral swine to produce hybrid offspring capable of exploiting diverse habitats. These releases, combined with ongoing escapes from farms and intentional stockings by hunters, facilitated establishment across non-native continents despite initial small founder numbers. In Australia, the first documented pig releases occurred in 1777 by Captain on , intended as a food source for future explorers, with subsequent feral populations arising from escaped domestic by the 1880s, adapting to arid and forested environments through . South American introductions followed a similar hunting-driven vector, with wild boars imported to around 1906 by landowner Pedro Luro from European stock, leading to self-sustaining populations that dispersed into neighboring countries like via natural migration and additional releases between 1938 and 1950. Introduced populations in have shown particularly rapid expansion; by the , feral swine incorporating wild boar genetics occupied at least 35 U.S. states, spreading from southeastern origins through human-assisted transport and natural dispersal at rates up to 8 km per generation. In , escaped hybrids dubbed "super pigs"—larger, more cold-tolerant crosses of wild boars and domestic pigs—have proliferated since the 1980s, with models predicting southward invasion into northern U.S. states like and by leveraging agricultural escape vectors and high mobility. Genetic bottlenecks from limited founders were mitigated by the species' high , with sows capable of two litters per year averaging 6-12 piglets each, enabling quick demographic recovery and admixture with local swine to bolster adaptive potential in novel ranges. This reproductive strategy, coupled with omnivorous opportunism, underpins successful invasions even from low-diversity introductions. In , wild boar populations have expanded markedly since the mid-20th century, with densities in many regions increasing due to enhanced from and efforts, alongside reduced hunting pressures in some areas. positively correlates with higher densities and rates, as boars thrive in wooded habitats providing cover and resources. This trend persisted into the , with populations rising across most European countries until modulated by outbreaks. In , feral swine populations—descended from wild boar and domestic hybrids—exceed 6 million individuals across at least 35 states, reflecting rapid 21st-century growth driven by high reproductive rates and habitat availability. Modeling projects continued northward expansion, with an estimated 1,036 additional watersheds potentially occupied by 2025, equating to a 2.17% annual increase in range occupancy. However, targeted programs have slowed this in select areas; for instance, the U.S. National Feral Swine Damage Management Program has reduced the number of affected states and curbed overall spread since 2014. Climate factors, including milder winters associated with warming trends, have supported higher survival and reproduction by lowering overwinter mortality, though may temporarily reduce activity levels without long-term population impacts. Conversely, African Swine Fever (ASF) has restrained growth in endemic zones; in , where populations were historically dense, ASF cases in wild boar surged to over 1,600 in 2025 from 123 in 2024 and 966 total in 2023, indicating substantial localized die-offs despite prior expansions. These dynamics highlight how can counteract habitat-driven booms, with projections suggesting persistent challenges in balancing expansion and containment.

Diseases and Parasites

Endemic Pathogens

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) serve as hosts for endemic nematodes such as Trichinella spp., with serological prevalences reaching 42.1% in hunted populations from Finland during 2012–2013, as detected via ELISA testing. Gastrointestinal helminths, including Metastrongylus spp., exhibit high infection rates, with 68% prevalence reported in wild boars from Iran's Bushehr Province based on postmortem examinations. Ectoparasites like Sarcoptes scabiei, causing sarcoptic mange, occur at rates of 1–14% across European ranges, confirmed through skin scrapings and serology in Sweden and Switzerland. These parasites persist in wild boar populations due to their foraging behaviors and intermediate host consumption, with overall helminth burdens exceeding 80% in some multi-species assessments. Bacterially, wild boars function as maintenance reservoirs for , the etiological agent of bovine , with culture-confirmed prevalences up to 92.3% in high-density Spanish populations absent domestic cattle, as documented in . Serological surveys in reveal variable but persistent positivity, often 10–20% in endemic zones, underscoring wild boars' role in sustaining transmission cycles independent of . These bacterial infections manifest chronically, with gross lesions in lymph nodes and lungs verified by and PCR. Endemic pathogens impair wild boar fitness, including reduced body condition and ; sarcoptic alters metabolomic profiles, correlating with lowered reproductive output and thermoregulatory stress in infested individuals. Helminth loads contribute to nutritional deficits, elevating partial resorption and decreasing rates, as inferred from comparative studies on protozoan and synergies. further exacerbates emaciation and juvenile mortality, with serological data linking infection intensity to diminished population-level viability in reservoir hotspots.

African Swine Fever Outbreaks

African swine fever (ASF), caused by a highly virulent in the Asfivirus , inflicts hemorrhagic fever on wild boars with case fatality rates nearing 100% in naive populations exposed to genotype II strains prevalent in . The disease emerged in European wild boar populations following its 2014 spillover from domestic pigs in , establishing endemic cycles sustained by direct animal-to-animal contact (approximately 58% of transmissions), indirect spread via infected carcasses (38%), and environmental contamination. Soft ticks (Ornithodoros spp.) facilitate mechanical transmission in some regions but play a minor role in 's primary epidemiology, where carcass persistence drives persistence. High mortality initially crashes local densities, yet subclinical or chronic infections in survivors enable low-level viral circulation, preventing eradication and maintaining reservoirs that threaten domestic herds via fence-line exposure or fomites. In affected areas, population rebounds occur post-epizootic due to high wild boar fecundity, but surveillance data from 2024-2025 underscore reservoirs' role in spillover risks, with wild boar cases correlating to 97% of persistent hotspots. Europe reported over 14,000 wild boar cases in 2024, reflecting entrenched endemicity despite control efforts like intensified and carcass removal. This escalated in 2025, with nearly 7,000 cases in the first half-year alone—doubling prior comparable periods—and a continental total exceeding 8,600 outbreaks by September, predominantly in wild boars. exemplified the surge, confirming 165 cases in by mid-September 2025 after initial detections in June, expanding from eastern states into denser western populations. accounted for 30% of wild boar outbreaks in the prior year, sustaining the virus's foothold. These trends, per updates, highlight surveillance gaps and cross-border movements as amplifiers, with winter seasonality exacerbating carcass-mediated spread.

Zoonotic and Transmission Risks

Wild boars serve as reservoirs for several pathogens that pose transmission risks primarily to , with spillover potential to domestic swine, , and other mammals through direct contact or shared environments. virus (PRV), also known as Aujeszky's disease, is prevalent in swine populations , where it spreads via nasal secretions, , venereal contact, and fomites, leading to and depopulation measures in affected herds. Infected hogs have been documented transmitting PRV to domestic pigs, causing respiratory distress, abortions, and high mortality in piglets, while also fatally affecting secondary hosts like , sheep, dogs, and cats, though transmission requires close contact or ingestion of infected tissues. Empirical data from U.S. indicate that PRV persists in populations despite eradication from commercial swine by 2014, necessitating ongoing monitoring to prevent economic losses estimated in billions for the industry. Human zoonotic risks from wild boar pathogens remain empirically low, with verified transmissions predominantly linked to consumption of undercooked or direct handling of infected carcasses rather than casual exposure. Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a major zoonotic agent in wild boars, has been associated with human cases through ingestion of raw or undercooked boar , as evidenced by cluster outbreaks in where seropositive hunters and consumers showed genetic matches between human and boar strains. In , HEV detection in wild boar livers underscores a foodborne transmission pathway, though population-level seroprevalence in exposed groups like forestry workers is variable and often below 10%, indicating limited spillover efficiency. Trichinella spp. parasites, including T. spiralis and T. britovi, represent another verified human risk via undercooked wild boar , with outbreaks documented globally; for instance, a 2023 case in an unspecified region involved 26 infections from homemade boar products, and U.S. incidents remain rare but tied to consumption, prompting CDC recommendations for thorough cooking. Brucella suis infections from boar tissues have caused sporadic human in hunters via cutaneous exposure or ingestion, but incidence is low compared to reservoirs, with no widespread epidemics reported. Swine influenza viruses are detectable in boar sera, yet empirical evidence of sustained human-to-boar or reverse zoonoses is scant, confined to occupational exposures without efficient adaptation. Overall, while wild boars carry over 30 potential pathogens, human cases hinge on behavioral factors like inadequate processing, with facing higher interspecies transmission due to proximity in farming systems.

Interactions with Humans

Economic Utilization and Hunting

Wild boars are pursued through trophy and subsistence hunting across Europe and parts of the United States, where regulated harvests help maintain population levels while yielding meat and generating revenue. In Europe, annual harvests exceed several million individuals, with France reporting approximately 600,000 culled in recent seasons and Germany leading with higher figures, supporting sustainable management amid expanding populations. Quotas often prioritize subadults (40-60% of the take) to preserve breeding stock and prevent overexploitation, allowing populations to rebound while providing hunters access to mature trophies. In the US, feral hog hunting—lacking strict quotas in many states—focuses on recreational pursuits year-round, as these swine are classified as invasive with no closed seasons in areas like Texas. The meat from hunted wild boars commands nutritional advantages over domestic , featuring higher protein density and lower fat. Roasted wild boar provides 28 grams of protein and 7.1 grams of fat per 100 grams, yielding about 160 calories with minimal carbohydrates, alongside elevated iron levels that enhance its appeal as a lean game meat. Culinary traditions leverage this profile in European cuisines, such as Italian alla —where boar shoulder is slow-cooked with tomatoes, wine, and herbs—or Polish kiełbasa z dziczyzny sausages blending boar with for preservation and flavor. Curing techniques, common in , transform boar into sought-after prosciutto-like products, mitigating the meat's gaminess through in wine or . Ground wild boar meat is particularly popular due to its leanness, gamey flavor, and versatility in preparations similar to those for ground beef. Because of its low fat content, it is frequently mixed with additional fat, such as pork or bacon, to improve moisture and texture. Common recipes include wild boar burgers, made by combining the ground meat with onions, garlic, and spices, forming into patties, and grilling; wild boar meatballs, prepared with breadcrumbs, eggs, Parmesan cheese, and herbs, then baked or simmered in sauce; wild boar chili, where the meat is browned with onions and then simmered with tomatoes, beans, and chili powder; wild boar meatloaf, mixed with eggs, breadcrumbs, and ketchup before baking; and as a substitute for ground beef in tacos or Bolognese sauce. Ground wild boar meat should be cooked to an internal temperature of 160°F (71°C) to ensure safety from potential parasites and pathogens. Hunting sustains rural economies via license fees, guided tours, and meat sales, with direct expenditures on and lodging bolstering local businesses in boar-rich regions. Selective targeting of bolder, crop-associated individuals during drives can aid by culling problem animals without depleting herds, as evidenced in quota-based systems that balance harvest with reproductive rates. In the , hog hunts attract non-resident participants, injecting funds into outfitters despite the species' pest status.

Agricultural and Environmental Damages

Feral swine, derived from wild boar (Sus scrofa), inflict substantial agricultural damage in the United States through rooting, trampling, and direct consumption of crops, with estimated annual losses exceeding $1.6 billion across 13 surveyed states, encompassing costs to cropland, pastures, and feed sources. This figure derives from landowner surveys accounting for per-acre damages averaging $25–$28 in states like , , and , where rooting exposes plant and grubs while destroying integrity. Broader estimates, including control efforts, elevate total U.S. agricultural sector costs to $2.5 billion yearly. Environmentally, wild boar rooting disrupts , leading to and loss of native cover, while wallowing exacerbates water quality decline through increased , , and fecal contamination in streams and wetlands. These activities favor weed invasion and alter aquatic habitats by uprooting and promoting . for resources occurs with native ungulates such as deer, potentially displacing them in shared habitats, alongside predation on ground-nesting birds' eggs and , where wild boar account for up to 9% of nest losses in studied European forests. Empirical evidence from fenced exclosures demonstrates ecosystem recovery following wild boar exclusion: in Hawaiian montane wet forests, native understory vegetation abundance increased significantly within 16 years of feral pig removal compared to adjacent unfenced areas, with reduced soil disturbance and enhanced plant diversity. Similarly, seven-year exclosures in temperate forests yielded higher plant species diversity and altered soil microbial communities, underscoring rooting's role in suppressing native recovery.

Human Safety and Conflicts

Wild boar attacks on humans remain rare globally, with documented fatalities averaging 8.6 per year from 2000 to 2019 across 163 incidents resulting in 172 deaths, predominantly involving solitary large boars acting defensively when provoked, cornered, or protecting offspring. In , direct physical assaults are infrequent and typically defensive, triggered by perceived threats such as encounters with mothers guarding piglets or territorial boars, though vehicle collisions—often classified under conflict risks—exceed tens of thousands annually in nations like . These incidents have risen alongside expanding populations, with reports from noting injuries and occasional fatalities when humans confront or feed the animals, exacerbating boldness. Although attacks are rare and primarily defensive, prevention is key to avoiding escalation. Wildlife safety guidelines recommend maintaining a safe distance from wild boars, especially sows with piglets, refraining from feeding them, and slowly backing away without turning one's back or running if encountered. If a boar charges, individuals should attempt to quickly climb a tree or reach elevated ground, as wild boars are poor climbers. If no such option is available, standing one's ground, appearing larger by raising arms, shouting loudly, and waving arms may deter the animal. In the event of an attack, fighting back aggressively is recommended, using any available object (such as a stick, trekking pole, or rocks) to target sensitive areas like the snout, eyes, or head. Staying on one's feet is crucial to avoid being gored while down, and playing dead is not advised. Wounds from attacks require immediate medical attention due to risks of severe bleeding and infection. Habituation from anthropogenic food sources, particularly unsecured garbage, amplifies urban conflicts by drawing boars into settlements, where they exhibit reduced flight responses and increased intrusion frequency. In European cities such as and , boars routinely raid waste bins and gardens, leading to sanitation issues, , and escalated encounters including jostling pedestrians or charging at perceived threats like dogs. Surveys of urban-wildlife interactions indicate property intromissions at rates around 1% of reported events, with habituated groups showing higher tolerance for proximity, thereby heightening profiles in provisioned areas. Rural property conflicts manifest as unauthorized trespasses, where boars cross fences and root extensively in fields and yards, infringing on landowner access and control as evidenced by regional damage assessments linking intrusions to behavior. Such violations, often uninvited and persistent, correlate with boar increases, prompting defensive responses that can provoke retaliatory charges, though empirical data underscore that most conflicts stem from boar opportunism rather than predatory intent.

Management and Control Strategies

The United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) administers the National Feral Swine Damage Management Program, which has facilitated the eradication of feral swine populations in multiple states since 2014, including Idaho, Iowa, Maine, New Jersey, and New York by 2019, through coordinated efforts involving trapping, ground shooting, and aerial gunning. These programs emphasize proactive population reduction, with APHIS reporting protection of $40.2 billion in crop revenue by curbing feral swine proliferation via removal efforts that have eliminated millions of animals nationwide. Trapping and aerial gunning stand out as the most empirically supported methods, with aerial operations proving cost-effective in open, high-density landscapes where helicopter-based shooting can rapidly reduce numbers, though efficacy diminishes in low-density or forested areas. Trapping costs range from $14.32 to $121 per hog removed, offering a favorable return on investment when scaled through state-federal partnerships, as demonstrated in pilot programs under the 2018 Farm Bill's Feral Swine Eradication and Control initiative. Toxicants like baits have shown high efficacy in field trials, achieving near-100% mortality in targeted pigs, but their deployment remains debated due to documented risks of primary and secondary poisoning to non-target wildlife, including birds and small mammals from spilled consumption. Warfarin-based baits at low doses (0.005%) have similarly reduced hog numbers with minimal environmental persistence, yet regulatory hurdles—such as extended approval processes under the EPA—have limited widespread use, prioritizing non-target safety over accelerated control despite evidence of controlled risks when paired with deterrents like bait stations. Proposals for reintroducing native predators, such as wolves or cougars, to suppress wild boar populations lack robust empirical support in North American contexts, where human-directed remains the dominant control mechanism and natural predation by existing carnivores exerts negligible landscape-scale impact. In , localized eradication successes have hinged on intensive culling campaigns, such as those in prairies, where proactive trapping and shooting have contained outbreaks from escaped farm stock, though "super pig" hybrids continue to challenge broader containment due to high adaptability and cold tolerance. Overall, evidence underscores that regulatory flexibility for lethal methods, combined with sustained funding for removal operations, yields superior outcomes compared to passive or experimental approaches, with states achieving pig-free status demonstrating that complete local extirpation is feasible through aggressive, data-driven interventions rather than reliance on ecological proxies like predators.

Cultural Representations

In ancient Greek mythology, the wild boar embodied chaos, vengeance, and heroic trials, as seen in the , where the beast—sent by to punish King —was slain by a band of heroes led by around the 8th century BCE in epic traditions. Similarly, the , a massive creature terrorizing Mount Erymanthos, was captured alive by during his fourth labor, symbolizing human mastery over primal fury in narratives preserved in Hesiodic and later accounts from the 7th–6th centuries BCE. These myths highlight the boar's dual role as a destructive force and a catalyst for valor, influencing Roman adaptations where boars appeared in art and literature as emblems of martial prowess. Across Celtic and Germanic societies, the wild boar signified warrior strength and protection, with Anglo-Saxon artifacts from the 5th–11th centuries CE featuring boar motifs on helmets to invoke ferocity in battle, as evidenced by finds like the . In medieval European , emerging by the 12th century, the boar charge denoted bravery and indomitability, adopted by noble families and figures such as (reigned 1483–1485), whose white boar badge underscored resolve amid conflict. This symbolism persisted in , portraying boars as totems of unyielding spirit, from Celtic dreams foretelling victory to broader Indo-European associations with and combat readiness. In modern media, wild boars represent ecological resilience and untamed wilderness, notably in Hayao Miyazaki's 1997 animated film , where boar deities like Okkoto lead forest clans against industrialization, drawing on the species' historical near-extinctions and 20th-century reintroductions across . Culturally, wild boar meat anchors heritage traditions, such as Italian salame di cinghiale and French saucisson de sanglier, with production rising in the due to managed hunting yields exceeding 1 million animals annually in countries like and as of the , reflecting sustained gastronomic esteem for its robust flavor profile.

References

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