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9K31 Strela-1
9K31 Strela-1
9K31 Strela-1
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The 9K31 Strela-1 (Russian: 9К31 «Стрела-1»; English: arrow) is a highly mobile, short-range, low altitude infra-red guided surface-to-air missile system. Originally developed by the Soviet Union under the GRAU designation 9K31, it is commonly known by its NATO reporting name, SA-9 "Gaskin". The system consists of a BRDM-2 amphibious vehicle, mounting two pairs of ready-to-fire 9M31 missiles.

Key Information

Development history

[edit]

The missiles used in this system were developed alongside the ubiquitous Soviet MANPADS 9K32M "Strela-2" (NATO designation SA-7 "Grail") in the 1960s. At first, both missiles were intended to be man-portable systems, but as it became obvious that the Strela-2 would be far more compact, the development goals of Strela-1 were changed. Instead of a battalion-level man-portable system the new criteria called for a regimental vehicle-mounted SAM to support the ZSU-23-4.

As a result of the change in role and more relaxed weight limits of a vehicle-mounted SAM, the design team made the 9M31 a much heavier missile, which permitted fewer design compromises than in the case of Strela-2 to achieve acceptable kinematic performance. The most notable difference is the much larger diameter of the missile and a blunt seeker head spanning the full width of the missile. With all else being equal, the ability of an optical seeker to detect a target is directly proportional to its diameter, but on the other hand aerodynamic drag increases proportionally to the square of the diameter.

The Strela-1 also had a warhead more than twice as heavy as the Strela-2, a proximity fuze, and more effective control surface configuration to provide better maneuverability at the cost of increased drag. The result was a missile four times the weight of Strela-2, with only slightly longer reach, but otherwise much better performance.

Vehicle

[edit]

Each TEL carries four ready-to fire missiles, but typically no missiles for reloading. Reloading is performed manually and usually takes approximately 5 minutes. The missile boxes are lowered for transport to lower the total height of the vehicle. The driver and commander have periscopes for viewing outside the vehicle when the hatches are closed.

Apart from the new turret, the other major change to the BRDM-2 chassis is the removal of the belly wheels (which are presumably to improve off-road performance). The driver and commander both have infra-red vision systems. The vehicle has standard NBC (Nuclear, Biological and Chemical) protection including overpressure. The missiles fold down to the sides of the turret which greatly reduces the height of the vehicle whilst travelling. Each vehicle weighs around 7 tonnes (7.7 short tons) and has a 104 kW (140 hp) engine and a central tire pressure control system.

Missiles and guidance

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9M31

[edit]
The 9M31 missile

According to a number of Russian sources,[who?] the original 9M31 (US DoD designation SA-9A "Gaskin-Mod0") had a zone of reliable target destruction from 900 to 4200 metres. Several western and also some Russian sources give much higher range estimates of 800 to 6500 m (0.5 to 4 miles); these may refer to maximum firing range against an approaching target and minimum against receding, which are obviously larger envelopes as the target only has to reach the intercept zone by the time the missile would reach it.

The missile is effective against targets receding at a maximum speed of 220 m/s, or approaching at 310 m/s.

9M31
TypeSurface-to-air missile
Place of originSoviet Union
Production history
Variants9M31, 9M31M
Specifications (9M31[2])
Mass30 kg (66 lb)
Length1.803 m (5.92 ft)
Diameter120 mm (4.7 in)
Wingspan36 mm (1.4 in)
WarheadFrag-HE
Warhead weight3 kg (6.6 lb)
Detonation
mechanism
RF Proximity
Propellantsingle-stage Solid-fuel rocket motor
Operational
range
4,200 metres (2.6 mi)[3] (sometimes reported also as 6.5 kilometres (4.0 mi) for 9M31, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) for the 9M31M.)
Flight altitude3,500 metres (11,500 ft) (some sources give also higher figures)
Maximum speedMach 1.8
Guidance
system
photocontrast Lead(II) sulfide infrared homing seeker.[3] (sometimes reported also as IR seeker of 1–3 μm and/or 1–5 μm wavelength);

The warhead was primarily intended to impact the target directly, and had contact and magnetic fuzes, but also contained a back-up optical proximity fuze to detonate the warhead in case of a near miss. The missile also had an unusual safety mechanism in case of a miss; rather than a self-destruct fuze, if the optical fuze didn't detect a target within 13–16 seconds, the warhead safety mechanism would be engaged to prevent its detonation upon impact.

The missile is propelled by a single-stage solid-fuel rocket motor, which is ignited a few meters from the launch tube. As the throw-out charge ejects the missile from its canister, it trails a wire from its rear The main rocket ignites when the missile reaches the wire's end at a few metres distance, and is cut off from it. To achieve roll stabilization, the rollerons on the tailfins are used. In contrast with the rollerons used on some IR guided air-to-air missiles which are spun by the airflow, 9M31 missile uses four wires which are wound on the rollerons' discs, with other end connected to the launch tube. On launch their wires crank the discs to speed.[4]

The seeker head is an unusual construction, using uncooled lead sulphide (PbS) detector elements but with an unusual tracking mechanism. Uncooled PbS elements are commonly used to detect radiation at only short wavelengths of less than 2 micrometers. Only very hot objects emit strongly at such short wavelengths, limiting heat-seeking systems using uncooled PbS detector elements to rear-hemisphere engagements against jet targets, although propeller-driven aircraft and helicopters can of course be engaged from any direction from which the exhaust or other very hot parts of the engine are visible.

The seeker head of 9M31, however, utilizes the PbS elements differently from usual. Taking advantage of the fact that the clear sky gives strong and constant background emission at below 2 micrometer range, peaking at visual light (0.4 to 0.7 micrometer) wavelengths at which PbS at a temperature of 295 kelvins still provides a response, the seeker head is used to track the absence of radiation when the target blocks the background. The method is called optical photocontrast homing (Rus.: фотоконтрастное наведение). The advantage of photocontrast homing method over traditional heat-seeking homing heads using PbS elements is that it negates the most serious drawback of early-generation IR-homing missiles: complete lack of front-aspect engagement capability against approaching jets. Even early cooled seeker heads had usually only limited forward hemisphere engagement abilities, often reducing to zero in case of jets approaching exactly towards the shooter.

The new photo-contrast seeker also had serious limits, which came in the form of rather strict meteorological conditions that had to be met to enable the seeker to detect and track the target. It could only engage targets against background conditions of either clear sky or solid overcast, at least 20 degrees away from the sun, and at least 2 degrees above horizon. Nevertheless, following a study of battlefield conditions and aircraft tactics in past conflicts where short-range air defences had been used, it was concluded that conditions allowing the use of such a homing system were common enough to make it a cost-effective design choice and a better trade-off than the only practical alternative available at the time, which was infrared homing restricted to rear-hemisphere engagements.

The fact that Strela-1 would be supplemented by IR-homing Strela-2 and radar-controlled ZSU-23-4 self-propelled AA gun system may have influenced the decision in favour of such an unusual homing system. The main advantage of the choice was that it made Strela-1 the only ADA system in the Soviet tank or motor rifle regiment that could engage approaching targets out to a range of several kilometers – the ZSU being hampered by very short range, and Strela-2 by its limitation to tail-chase engagements of ground attack jets, after the jet had already delivered its attack.

9M31M

[edit]

While the 9M31 was accepted to service after state trials in 1968, the trials committee also suggested improvements that should be incorporated into the weapon as soon as possible. As a result of these improvements, the 9M31M "Strela-1M" (US DoD designation SA-9B "Gaskin-Mod1") entered service in 1970.

The new version introduced many incremental improvements in the performance characteristics of the missile: it had a slightly heavier warhead (increased from 2.6 kg to 3 kg), a more accurate guidance system to increase the probability of a hit, and extended range. Range is again reported to be as high as 8000 m (0.35 to 5 miles) in a number of western and also a few Russian sources, whereas for example Petukhov & Shestov, Lappi, and a number Russian web sources give much more modest performance figures; considering the performance of similar systems, at least an intercept range of 8,000 m seems unlikely for such a small, high-drag missile design.

Deployment

[edit]

The Strela-1 was deployed in short-range air defense batteries of Soviet motor rifle and tank regiments. The battery consisted of a gun platoon of four ZSU-23-4 Shilkas, and a SAM platoon with four Strela-1 vehicles.

The Strela-1 platoon contains, in addition to a command vehicle, one TEL fitted with a passive radar detection system similar to a Radar Warning Receiver, and several more (usually three) without any radar system. The radar detection system is the 9S16 "Flat Box" and consists of four sensors mounted around the BRDM vehicle giving it 360 degree coverage. This system emits no radar energy but can detect radio waves emitted from aircraft, giving the vehicle warning about incoming aircraft and aiding in the acquisition of the target aircraft with the optical system. Typical tactics call for the launch of two missiles against each target to improve the chance of destroying it.

In Russia, the 9K31 Strela-1 system was superseded by the 9K35 Strela-10.

Operators

[edit]
Operators
  Current
  Former
Croatian 9K31.
Angolan 9K31 captured by South African troops during Operation Askari.
Missile launch of a Romanian CA-95 (licensed built 9K31 Strela-1 using a TABC-79 vehicle instead of a BRDM-2).

Current

[edit]

Former

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

9K31 Strela-1

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The 9K31 Strela-1, known by its NATO reporting name SA-9 Gaskin, is a Soviet-designed mobile, short-range, low-altitude (SAM) system intended for point air defense of motorized rifle and units against low-flying aircraft and helicopters. It features four infrared-homing 9M31 missiles mounted in twin launch containers on a BRDM-2 4x4 amphibious armored scout vehicle chassis, providing a maximum engagement range of 4.2 km and altitude of 3 km. The system entered service with the in 1968, following development that began in the early by the Nudelman OKB-16 design bureau, with initial production starting in 1966. Development of the 9K31 Strela-1 was driven by the need for a lightweight, vehicle-mounted SAM to complement existing anti-aircraft guns like the , offering protection against visually guided or low-altitude threats in forward areas. The base 9M31 missile uses a passive seeker operating in the 1–3 µm wavelength band, with a solid-propellant motor achieving speeds up to Mach 1.8 and a 3 kg high-explosive fragmentation warhead. An improved variant, the 9M31M, extended the seeker's sensitivity to 1–5 µm, reduced minimum engagement altitude to 30 m, and increased maximum altitude to 3.5 km, entering service in 1970 as part of the 9K31M upgrade. The BRDM-2 platform weighs approximately 7 tons, reaches road speeds of 100 km/h, and includes (nuclear, biological, chemical) protection, night vision, and thin 5–14 mm steel armor for crew survivability. Operationally, the system is crewed by three personnel—a driver, commander, and gunner—and integrates a basic optical sight and the Flat Box A radar for up to 30 km, though primary guidance relies on manual aiming and without radar illumination. Missiles are launched sequentially at 5-second intervals, with no onboard reload capability, requiring about 5 minutes for manual rearming; for higher hit probability, pairs of missiles are often fired simultaneously. Deployed in batteries of four vehicles alongside ZSU-23-4 units, it saw extensive use during the and beyond, including in the Arab-Israeli Wars, the Iran-Iraq War, the , the 2003 Iraq invasion, the , and the . Over 1,700 units were produced, and it remains in limited service with more than 20 countries, such as , , , , , and , though many have been phased out in favor of more advanced systems like the 9K35 Strela-10. A notable variant is Romania's TABC-79, adapted to a local .

Development

Origins and Design Phase

In the late , the Soviet military recognized a pressing requirement for mobile, low-altitude systems to safeguard motorized rifle and tank divisions from attacks by and emerging helicopters, informed by lessons from the (1950–1953), where low-flying UN aircraft inflicted significant damage on ground convoys and positions. This restructuring emphasized high mobility in air defense assets to match the evolving threat of tactical aviation operating below coverage, prompting the integration of short-range systems at the regimental level. Development of the 9K31 Strela-1 began on August 25, 1960, following a decree from the of the USSR to create a self-propelled anti-aircraft complex for direct protection of forward units against low-flying targets. The project was assigned to the Nudelman OKB-16 design bureau (now the KB Tochmash), which prioritized guidance for its simplicity, autonomy, and resistance to electronic jamming compared to radar-based alternatives. The GRAU index 9K31 was allocated early in the process to designate the overall system. Central to the design philosophy was maximizing operational tempo and survivability; the system was engineered for mounting on the BRDM-2 amphibious reconnaissance vehicle, leveraging its 4x4 chassis, light armor, and water-crossing capability to enable rapid repositioning with divisional maneuvers. The incorporated a motor to support near-instantaneous launches from a ready-to-fire configuration, while the passive seeker allowed silent without emitting detectable signals, enhancing stealth in contested environments. These choices drew partial inspiration from parallel efforts on the man-portable , adapting compact IR-homing principles for vehicle integration to achieve regimental-scale coverage. Initial engineering from 1960 to focused on prototyping the integrated launcher, guidance electronics, and 9M31 missile, addressing issues like seeker discrimination against solar glare and ground clutter through uncooled photocontrast enhancements. The first full prototypes emerged by , paving the way for state evaluation trials that commenced in after eight years of iterative refinement.

Testing, Production, and Service Entry

Field tests of the 9K31 Strela-1 began with initial launches at the missile test site, focusing on aerodynamic and component evaluations during the early development phase. State trials were conducted in at the Donguz , where the system demonstrated sufficient performance against low-altitude targets to proceed to adoption, though specific success rates from these trials are not publicly detailed in available records. The Soviet Ministry of Defense formally adopted the Strela-1 on April 25, 1968, via a decree from the of the CPSU and the of the USSR, marking its entry into service as a divisional air defense asset. Upon confirmation of its deployment through Western intelligence, assigned the designation SA-9 Gaskin to the system. Serial production commenced in 1966, primarily at the Aggregate Plant for the combat vehicles, with contributions from the Kharkov Tractor Plant, , the Research Institute of Electronic Devices, and the Poisk Research Institute for components. Overall production totaled approximately 1,700 launchers, with missile output in the thousands to support operational needs. Crew training programs were established shortly after adoption, emphasizing rapid deployment and integration into motorized rifle and tank regiments as organic anti-aircraft batteries to protect against low-flying threats. Early considerations for export to allies emerged in the 1970s, with deliveries to countries like beginning around 1977.

System Design

Vehicle Platform

The 9K31 Strela-1 employs the BRDM-2 as its base vehicle platform, a 4x4 amphibious modified for the role. The platform has a combat weight of 7 tons and measures 5.8 meters in length, 2.4 meters in width, and 2.3 meters in height when traveling. It is powered by a GAZ-41 V-8 water-cooled gasoline engine producing 140 horsepower, achieving a maximum road speed of 100 km/h, a water speed of 10 km/h propelled by twin water jets, and an operational range of 750 km. Key modifications to the BRDM-2 chassis for the Strela-1 include the removal of the standard turret and chain-driven belly wheels to enlarge the rear compartment, which houses four ready-to-fire 9M31 missiles arranged in twin launch tubes. The launcher supports 360-degree manual traverse and elevation from +20° to +80° (lowering to -5° for ). The vehicle retains a ground clearance of 0.43 meters for cross-country mobility and full amphibious capability. The crew consists of three personnel: a , , and gunner, with the and gunner sharing responsibilities for and operation from protected positions. Basic optics, including periscopes with infrared night vision for the and , enable visual and IR detection of low-flying targets; the system lacks and relies on line-of-sight acquisition. The IR seeker on the s aligns with vehicle-mounted sighting equipment for initial targeting. Armor protection comprises 5-14 mm welded plating, sufficient to resist fire and shell splinters, along with full (nuclear, biological, chemical) filtration. Resupply involves manual reloading of missiles, typically taking about 5 minutes using transport-loader vehicles to deliver containerized rounds. The platform operates effectively in diverse terrains, including water crossings, to support mobile ground forces.

Launcher and Guidance System

The launcher of the 9K31 Strela-1 system features a quadruple arrangement of ready-to-fire missiles mounted on a traversable turret, capable of from +20° to +80° and full 360° at speeds of 15-20° per second. The missiles are housed in container-launcher boxes that can be lowered for transport and reloading, with manual reloading requiring approximately 5 minutes to restore full capacity of four missiles. Guidance is provided by a passive (IR) homing seeker on the 9M31 , utilizing a (PbS) detector operating in the 1-3 μm wavelength band for the baseline version, which is uncooled to simplify design and enhance reliability in field conditions. The upgraded 9M31M variant extends sensitivity to the 1-5 μm band with a cooled seeker, improving detection of cooler targets like exhaust plumes. This passive system relies on the target's thermal signature for homing without emitting signals, making it inherently resistant to radar jamming but vulnerable to infrared countermeasures such as flares, which were widely deployed by the 1970s to decoy heat-seeking missiles. The targeting process begins with detection support from the associated Flat Box-A radar on the battery's command post, offering up to 30 km range in 360° azimuth and 40° elevation, though the operator uses visual and optical means for final acquisition and tracking. Launch occurs within the effective slant range of 800-4,200 m for the 9M31, with optimal engagement at closer distances to maximize hit probability, often involving the firing of two missiles in sequence against a single target. Post-launch, the missile operates autonomously using the seeker's contrast-tracking in visual and near-IR regions, though effectiveness diminishes in head-on aspects or low-contrast scenarios like nighttime operations. Key limitations include single-target engagement per launcher cycle due to manual aiming and firing sequences, a minimum engagement altitude of 50 m (30 m for the 9M31M), and a maximum altitude of 3,000 m (3,500 m for the 9M31M), restricting its role to low-altitude threats. The system's passive design eliminates the need for (ECCM), but this also precludes active defenses against advanced decoys, contributing to its vulnerability in contested environments.

9M31 Missile

The 9M31 missile serves as the baseline infrared-homing for the 9K31 Strela-1 system, entering service in 1968 as a short-range designed for low-altitude air defense. It features a compact cylindrical body with folding wings for aerodynamic stability during flight. The missile measures 1.803 meters in length, has a diameter of 0.12 meters, and a of 0.36 meters, with a launch weight of approximately 30-32 kg. is provided by a single-stage solid-fuel motor employing dual-thrust configuration, enabling rapid acceleration to supersonic speeds. The consists of a 2.6 kg high-explosive fragmentation type, armed with both contact and radio-frequency s for reliable target destruction. This configuration yields a lethal of about 5 meters against personnel and lighter structures, emphasizing area-denial effects against low-flying threats. The activates within a 3-5 meter burst , enhancing effectiveness against maneuvering without requiring a direct hit. In terms of performance, the 9M31 achieves a maximum speed of Mach 1.8, with an effective engagement range of 0.8 to 4.2 km and an altitude ceiling of 3 km. It employs a lofted to optimize energy for intercepts, typically climbing initially before descending toward the target. Under ideal conditions—such as clear weather, tail-aspect engagements, and target speeds of 200-300 m/s—the single-shot hit probability ranges from 60% to 70%, though overall kill probabilities vary from 0.1 to 0.7 depending on target type and aspect. The missile's seeker uses an uncooled detector for passive homing on heat sources, limited to rear-hemisphere acquisition due to its first-generation . Early production batches of the 9M31 exhibited reliability challenges, including seeker susceptibility to environmental factors like , which could lead to icing and reduce operational effectiveness in certain conditions; these issues were mitigated through design refinements in later runs. The missile integrates seamlessly with the 9P31 launcher's sighting and elevation systems for rapid firing.

9M31M Missile

The 9M31M missile was developed between 1968 and 1970 as an upgraded variant of the baseline 9M31 to enhance performance against emerging Western aircraft countermeasures, such as infrared flares, and entered service with the Soviet military in December 1970. The primary improvement was in the guidance seeker, which incorporated a cooled lead sulfide (PbS) detector operating in the 1-5 μm infrared waveband for greater sensitivity and better discrimination of targets from decoys, compared to the uncooled seeker of the original 9M31. Key modifications included an extended engagement envelope with a minimum range of 0.5 km and maximum range of 4.2 km, a solid-fuel motor providing higher sustained for improved up to 600 m/s (Mach 1.8), and a high-explosive fragmentation weighing 2.6 kg equipped with an enhanced radio-frequency for a lethal of 5 m and damage of 7.6 m. The missile's overall length measured 1.8 m, with a of 0.12 m and launch of 32 kg, enabling compatibility with existing Strela-1 . These enhancements yielded a single-shot hit probability of 47-52% against maneuvering targets traveling at 200-300 m/s, a notable increase over the original variant, primarily due to the seeker's resistance to flares via improved thermal resolution and potential pulse modulation techniques. The 9M31M also supported a lower minimum altitude of 30 m, broadening its utility against low-flying threats. Production of the 9M31M commenced immediately following acceptance trials in 1970, supplanting the 9M31 in new Strela-1M systems and allowing retrofits to prior 9K31 units for upgraded capability. Despite these advances, the 9M31M retained inherent limitations, requiring direct line-of-sight and possessing no capability, as its passive seeker relied on detecting heat signatures primarily from engine exhaust.

Operational History

Initial Deployment and Exercises

The 9K31 Strela-1 entered service with the in 1968, marking the beginning of its initial deployment to motorized rifle and tank divisions between 1968 and 1970. These units received approximately three batteries per division (one per ), with each battery organized into platoons typically comprising 3-4 vehicles to provide organic for regimental columns. The system's mobility on the BRDM-2 chassis enabled rapid integration into forward maneuver elements, prioritizing protection against low-flying aircraft in close support of ground forces. Soviet for the Strela-1 emphasized rapid road marches and tactics, allowing crews to reposition quickly and engage threats from concealed positions during high-mobility operations. Annual exercises simulated air threats by incorporating mock low-altitude attacks on advancing formations, honing crew proficiency in and fire control under simulated combat stress. The improved 9M31M missile variant was routinely employed in these drills to test enhanced guidance against decoys and electronic countermeasures. Early adaptations included integration with the (SA-8 ) for layered defense, where the Strela-1 provided point defense at the level while the Osa covered medium-range threats at the or regimental echelon. Export deliveries commenced to and by the early 1970s, equipping allied forces with the system for similar tactical roles in Middle Eastern armored divisions. Logistical challenges arose in rough terrain, where the BRDM-2's wheeled configuration struggled with off-road mobility compared to tracked alternatives, necessitating specialized maintenance during extended maneuvers. By the 1990s, as newer systems like the arrived, the Strela-1 was progressively phased into reserve roles within Soviet and post-Soviet forces.

Combat Employment

The 9K31 Strela-1 saw its first notable combat employment during the , where Syrian forces utilized the system to engage low-flying U.S. Navy aircraft conducting strikes against Syrian positions. On December 4, 1983, Syrian-operated infrared-homing missile systems, including possibly the 9K31 Strela-1 (SA-9 Gaskin), successfully shot down an A-6E Intruder and an A-7E Corsair II over , marking early confirmed kills for the system against modern . These engagements highlighted the system's effectiveness against low-altitude targets but also exposed its vulnerability to electronic countermeasures, as subsequent U.S. operations adjusted tactics to minimize exposure. In the and broader (1975–1989), Strela-1 systems were deployed by Cuban and n forces to counter incursions. (SADF) units captured several launchers during operations like in 1983, integrating them into their own arsenal. On November 25, 1985, SADF used a captured Strela-1 to shoot down a Soviet transport aircraft near Luassingua, , killing all 21 people on board and demonstrating the system's operational viability even in adversary hands. Cuban-operated units engaged South African jets throughout the conflict, achieving mixed results amid intense electronic warfare, though specific kill tallies remain limited in declassified records. During the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), Iraqi forces employed Strela-1 batteries primarily against Iranian helicopters and low-level strikes, integrating them into divisional air defenses. The system's mobility aided ground force protection, but poor maintenance and supply issues contributed to inconsistent performance, with few documented successes against Iran's aging air fleet. Lessons from these deployments underscored the need for robust in prolonged conflicts, influencing later upgrades to the 9M31M missile variant. In the (1991–1999), particularly during the 1999 bombing campaign over , Serbian forces deployed over 100 Strela-1 launchers as part of their integrated air defense network to target low-flying reconnaissance and . Despite numerous engagements, the system had minimal impact due to 's emphasis on high-altitude operations and suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD), with no confirmed kills attributed to Strela-1. This highlighted the system's obsolescence against advanced electronic jamming and standoff munitions. During the , Iraqi forces employed Strela-1 systems as part of their air defenses, but they had negligible effect against coalition air operations due to overwhelming superiority. Post-2010 conflicts saw limited Strela-1 employment, reflecting its aging status. In the (2011–present), Syrian Arab Army units maintained a small number of operational launchers, primarily in static defensive roles around key installations, though most were placed in storage early in the conflict due to attrition and superior alternatives. Reports indicate sporadic use against low-altitude drones and helicopters, but effectiveness was curtailed by maintenance challenges and Russian-supplied modern systems. In the (2022–present), both sides utilized surviving Strela-1 stocks in reserve capacities for point defense, with Ukrainian forces receiving Romanian CA-95 variants (a Strela-1 derivative) in 2025; however, the system proved obsolete against modern SEAD tactics and precision-guided munitions, often relegated to protecting static positions. As of November 2025, sightings persist in reserve forces across and the , primarily for low-threat environments. Historically, the Strela-1 achieved a modest number of confirmed aerial victories—primarily against low-altitude targets in the and early —but its guidance proved highly susceptible to flares and jamming, contributing to high loss rates in contested airspace and prompting widespread retirements in favor of more advanced systems like the 9K35 Strela-10. These experiences emphasized the importance of layered defenses and countermeasures in evolving air warfare doctrines.

Operators and Status

Current Operators

As of 2025, the 9K31 Strela-1 remains in limited service with more than 20 nations, primarily in reserve or low-readiness roles for territorial air defense, often supplemented by man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS). No major upgrades to the system have been reported in recent years, reflecting a gradual phase-out in favor of more advanced short-range air defenses. Russia maintains approximately 50 launchers in storage and reserve, utilized mainly for territorial defense training within motor rifle and tank units. held around 100 systems prior to the 2022 Russian invasion, but inventories have been significantly depleted through combat losses; however, in March 2025, transferred an undisclosed number of variants (a Strela-1 ) to supplement Ukrainian forces, with remnants believed to operate in a defensive capacity as of mid-2025. Syria operates an estimated 20-30 active launchers, supplied by , though readiness is low due to attrition from the ongoing . North Korea possesses over 100 units in its inventory, integrated into layered older-generation air defense networks for frontline protection. Among other users, Yemen's Houthi forces maintain a small number of variants inherited from pre-war Yemeni stocks, adapted for irregular operations. Vietnam holds roughly 20 systems in reserve status. Additional current operators include (~20), (~200-400 in active/reserve roles), (46), (50), and (60). These holdings align with 2024-2025 SIPRI reports indicating a broader trend of drawdown for legacy Soviet-era systems.

Former Operators

The Soviet Union served as the primary operator of the 9K31 Strela-1, deploying the system across motorized rifle and tank regiments starting in 1968, with a total production run of approximately 1,700 units. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Russian Federation gradually phased out the Strela-1 in favor of more advanced short-range air defense systems like the 9K35 Strela-10 (NATO: SA-13 Gopher) during the 1990s and 2000s. Poland acquired 16 Strela-1 launchers in 1974 through transfers and maintained them in service until retirement in , after which they were replaced by modernized equipment. operated the Strela-1 as part of its War-era air defense inventory but decommissioned the systems following the Velvet Revolution and the country's division in 1993. Iraq received Strela-1 systems in the via Soviet and integrated them into its divisions, maintaining an estimated inventory that included SA-9 variants until the 2003 invasion. Most units were destroyed, captured, or rendered inoperable during the 1991 and the 2003 . Cuba incorporated the Strela-1 into its air defense forces through Soviet exports in the 1970s and 1980s. Libya's Strela-1 holdings, acquired during the , were largely dispersed or looted amid the chaos of the 2011 that ousted , with many systems abandoned at military sites. Serbia inherited Strela-1 units from the former and operated them briefly in the 1990s before retiring them as part of post-conflict military restructuring. Across these operators, retirement of the Strela-1 was driven by technological obsolescence, particularly its vulnerability to modern electronic countermeasures and low-observable aircraft, prompting transitions to upgraded systems during the post-Cold War era.

References

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  15. https://cat-uxo.com/explosive-hazards/missiles/sa-9-gaskin-9m31m-strela-1m-missile
  16. http://www.astronautix.com/s/strela-19m31m.html
  17. https://gulflink.health.mil/irfna/irfna_refs/n28en143/airdef.html
  18. https://prussia.online/Data/Book/ru/russian-armored-cars-1930-2000/Russian%20Armored%20Cars%201930-2000.pdf
  19. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA066227.pdf
  20. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/137906/ricerche.07-RussiasMilitary.pdf
  21. https://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Legacy-SAM-Upgrades.html
  22. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/01/05/Goodman-is-grounded-due-to-knee-injury/1184442126800/
  23. https://www.baaa-acro.com/city/luassingua
  24. http://parabat.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/SADF-Military-Operations.pdf
  25. https://pvo.guns.ru/combat/zaloga_kosovo.htm
  26. https://www.oryxspioenkop.com/2016/08/photo-report-syrian-arab-air-defence.html
  27. https://armyrecognition.com/focus-analysis-conflicts/army/conflicts-in-the-world/russia-ukraine-war-2022/romania-secretly-transferred-ca-95-short-range-air-defense-missile-systems-to-ukraine
  28. https://www.dafhistory.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/AFD-070912-043.pdf
  29. https://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Rus-PLA-PD-SAM.html
  30. https://www.sipri.org/publications/2025/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-international-arms-transfers-2024
  31. https://www.sipri.org/databases/armstransfers
  32. https://en.defence-ua.com/weapon_and_tech/romanian_ca_95_sam_system_spotted_for_the_first_time_in_ukraine-13771.html
  33. https://www.csis.org/analysis/syrias-uncertain-air-defense-capabilities
  34. https://www.oryxspioenkop.com/2015/09/pre-war-yemeni-fighting-vehicles_20.html
  35. https://www.ausairpower.net/Analysis-ODS-EW.html
  36. https://www.reuters.com/article/world/us/exclusive-abandoned-libyan-missile-a-gift-to-militants-idUSTRE78314S/
  37. https://outsidethebeltway.com/surface-to-air-missiles-looted-from-libyan-arms-depot/
  38. https://www.ausairpower.net/oaf-analysis.html
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