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Silver pheasant
Silver pheasant
Silver pheasant
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Silver pheasant
Male
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Lophura
Species:
L. nycthemera
Binomial name
Lophura nycthemera
Synonyms
  • Phasianus nycthemerus Linnaeus, 1758
Silver pheasant in captivity. Note the brown patches, typical of sub-adult males

The silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) is a species of pheasant found in forests, mainly in mountains, of mainland Southeast Asia and eastern and southern China. It is introduced on Victoria Island in Nahuel Huapi Lake, Neuquén, Argentina and on Vancouver Island, Canada. The male is black and white, while the female is mainly brown. Both sexes have a bare red face and red legs (the latter separating it from the greyish-legged kalij pheasant).[2] It is common in aviculture, and overall also remains common in the wild, but some of its subspecies (notably L. n. whiteheadi from Hainan, L. n. engelbachi from southern Laos, and L. n. annamensis from southern Vietnam) are rare and threatened.[2]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The silver pheasant was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with the other pheasants in the genus Phasianus and coined the binomial name Phasianus nycthemerus. He specified the type locality as China.[3][4] The specific epithet nycthemerus combines the Ancient Greek νυξ/nux, νυκτος/nuktos meaning "night" with ἡμερα/hēmera meaning "day".[5] The silver pheasant was formerly sometimes placed in the genus Gennaeus[4] but is now one of 11 species placed in the genus Lophura that was introduced in 1822 by the Scottish naturalist John Fleming.[6]

The silver pheasant is closely related to the kalij pheasant and the two are known to hybridize.[7] The placement of the taxa L. n. lineata and L. n. crawfurdi has been a matter of dispute, with some treating them as subspecies of the kalij pheasant[8] and others as subspecies of the silver pheasant.[9] They have greyish legs as in the kalij pheasant, but their plumage is closer to that of some subspecies of the silver pheasant. Additionally, as the silver pheasant, L. n. lineata and L. n. crawfurdi are found east of the Irrawaddy River, a major zoogeographic barrier, while all other subspecies of the kalij pheasant are found west of the river (L. n. oatesi, a subspecies of the kalij pheasant, has sometimes been reported as occurring east of that river,[8] but this is incorrect[10]). Based on mtDNA, it was recently confirmed that L. n. lineata and L. n. crawfurdi should be regarded as subspecies of the kalij pheasant.[11]

With these two as subspecies of the kalij pheasant, the silver pheasant has 15 subspecies.[12][13] However, while some subspecies are relatively distinctive, several others (at least L. n. rufipes, L. n. occidentalis, L. n. ripponi, L. n. jonesi, L. n. beaulieui, L. n. nycthemera, and L. n. fokiensis) are likely part of a cline,[2] which if confirmed, would result in them being junior synonyms of the nominate subspecies. Several other taxa, for example L. n. andersoni, are now considered invalid by all major authorities.[2][12][13]

Once considered a very rare species, the imperial pheasant is actually a naturally occurring hybrid between the silver pheasant and Edward's pheasant.[14]

Subspecies

[edit]

Fifteen subspecies are recognised:[6]

  • L. n. omeiensis Cheng T & Chang C & Tang R, 1964 – central, south Sichuan (central south China)
  • L. n. rongjiangensis Tan Y & Wu Z, 1981 – southeast Guizhou (central south China)
  • L. n. nycthemera (Linnaeus, 1758) – Guangxi, Guangdong (south China) and northeast Vietnam
  • L. n. fokiensis Delacour, 1948 – northwest Fokien (southeast China)
  • L. n. whiteheadi (Ogilvie-Grant, 1899) – Hainan Island (south China)
  • L. n. occidentalis Delacour, 1948 – northwest Yunnan (southwest China) and northeast Myanmar
  • L. n. rufipes (Oates, 1898) – southwest Yunnan (southwest China) and central north Myanmar
  • L. n. jonesi (Oates, 1903) – east Myanmar to south China and north Thailand
  • L. n. ripponi (Sharpe, 1902) – central east Myanmar
  • L. n. beaulieui Delacour, 1948 – southwest Yunnan (central south China), north Laos and northwest Vietnam
  • L. n. berliozi (Delacour & Jabouille, 1928) – central north Vietnam
  • L. n. beli (Oustalet, 1898) – central west Vietnam
  • L. n. annamensis (Ogilvie-Grant, 1906) – central south Vietnam
  • L. n. lewisi (Delacour & Jabouille, 1928) – southwest Cambodia and southeast Thailand
  • L. n. engelbachi Delacour, 1948 – south Laos

Description

[edit]
Lophura nycthemera - MHNT

This is a relatively large pheasant, with males of the largest subspecies having a total length of 120 to 125 cm (47 to 49 in), including a tail up to 75 cm (30 in), while the males of the smallest subspecies barely reach 70 cm (28 in) in total length, including a tail around 30 cm (12 in).[2] The body mass of males can range from 1.13–2.00 kg (2.49–4.41 lb).[15] Females of all subspecies are notably smaller than their respective males, with a size range of 55–90 cm (22–35 in) in total length, including a tail of 24–32 cm (9.4–12.6 in).[2][16][17] The body mass of females can range from 1.0–1.3 kg (2.2–2.9 lb).[15]

Males of the northern subspecies, which are the largest, have white upperparts and tail (most feathers with some black markings), while their underparts and crest are glossy bluish-black. The males of the southern subspecies have greyer upperparts and tail with extensive black markings, making them appear far darker than the northern subspecies.[2] The adult male plumage is reached in the second year.[2]

Females are brown and shorter-tailed than males. Females of some subspecies have whitish underparts strongly patterned with black, and in L. n. whiteheadi this extends to the upper mantle.[2]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Silver pheasant

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Silver (Lophura nycthemera) is a large, strikingly patterned in the pheasant family , endemic to the forested regions of and southern . Males are notable for their elegant white plumage accented by black streaks on the upperparts and wings, a long white , glossy blue-black underparts, a prominent blue-black crest, and vivid scarlet facial skin with wattles, measuring 120–125 cm in total length including a tail of 60–65 cm, and weighing 1,130–2,000 g. Females are smaller and more cryptically colored, at 70–71 cm long with a shorter tail of 24–32 cm and weight of 1,150–1,300 g, featuring brown upperparts, creamy-white underparts edged with darker bars, a shorter blackish crest, and pinkish-red legs. This inhabits a variety of forested environments, primarily subtropical and tropical moist lowland and montane forests, as well as dry grasslands and forest edges, typically at elevations from 100 m to 2,200 m, though it is rarely found in dense interior forests and prefers more open areas up to 1,000 m. Its range spans an extent of occurrence of approximately 3,280,000 km² across , (including Island), , , , and , where it is resident and non-migratory, with 15 recognized exhibiting geographic variation in and size. Silver pheasants are predominantly terrestrial, on the ground for seeds, fruits, roots, and seasonally available during morning and evening sessions, while roosting in trees at night; they exhibit polygamous mating systems, with males performing territorial displays including loud whistling calls and "wing-whirring" behaviors. Although classified as Least Concern on the due to its relatively wide distribution, the global of silver pheasants is unknown but estimated at 10,000–100,000 breeding pairs in alone, with an overall decreasing trend driven by from , unsustainable for food and the pet trade, and potential impacts from . Conservation efforts include the identification of protected areas across its range, though no comprehensive recovery plan or systematic monitoring exists, highlighting the need for targeted actions to address these threats in this biodiverse region.

Taxonomy

Etymology and classification

The silver pheasant was first described scientifically by in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, under the binomial name nycthemerus. The specific nycthemera derives from the Greek words nyktos (night) and (day), reflecting the bird's contrasting black-and-white plumage pattern. The common English name "silver pheasant" originates from the distinctive silvery-white or metallic sheen observed in the upperparts of adult males, particularly in certain subspecies. In Chinese, it is known as bái xián (白鹇), where bái means "white" and xián refers to a graceful bird, emphasizing its elegant appearance. Taxonomically, the silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) is classified in the family Phasianidae (pheasants and allies) and the genus Lophura, which comprises 11 species of gallopheasants primarily distributed in Southeast Asia. Originally placed in the genus Phasianus, it was later reclassified into Lophura, established in 1829 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck, following recognition of morphological and genetic distinctions from other pheasants; it was previously sometimes grouped with the kalij pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos) in the genus Gennaeus. Within the Lophura , the silver pheasant is most closely related to the , with analyses showing approximately 4–5% sequence divergence between the two . Evidence of hybridization occurs in regions of range overlap, such as parts of and , where intermediate forms have been documented through morphological, experimental, and DNA studies. Phylogenetic studies place the Lophura genus within the broader radiation, with genetic divergence among close relatives, such as the silver pheasant and (L. swinhoii), estimated at around 2.71 million years ago (95% HPD: 1.31–4.22 million years ago), consistent with Pleistocene climatic oscillations driving in the clade.

Subspecies

The silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) is recognized as comprising 15 , primarily distinguished by clinal variations in coloration and patterning, with whiter upperparts and reduced black markings in northern populations transitioning to darker, more extensively marked forms in southern ranges. These differences, along with geographic isolation by rivers and mountains, form the basis for recognition, though some boundaries remain debated due to intergradation and limited . Vocalizations show minor regional variations supporting isolation in certain populations, but remains the primary diagnostic trait. The following table summarizes the 15 subspecies, their geographic distributions, and key morphological traits:
SubspeciesGeographic DistributionDistinguishing Traits
L. n. occidentalisSouthern (NW ), NE Darker upperparts with disrupted black V-shaped markings on silvery base; intermediate between northern white forms and southern dark ones.
L. n. rufipesNorthern (Shan States, between Irrawaddy and Salween Rivers)Similar to occidentalis, with greyer upperparts and extensive black vermiculations on tail and wings, appearing darker overall.
L. n. ripponiNorthern (southern Shan States), extending to Whiter V-pattern on upperparts; less black marking than southern forms; sometimes synonymized with jonesi due to clinal overlap.
L. n. jonesiSouth-central (SW ), northern/central , (south Shan States)Intermediate whiteness in plumage; black markings moderate; represents a transitional form in the cline.
L. n. omeiensisCentral (west-central )Pale silvery upperparts with minimal black; among the whiter northern variants.
L. n. rongjiangensisSouthern (SW )Resembles beaulieui and nycthemera with clean white upperparts and sparse black spots.
L. n. beaulieuiSouthern (SE ), northern (to 17°N), northern Intermediate plumage with white V-patterns; intergrades with adjacent forms.
L. n. nycthemera (nominate)Southern (Guangdong, ), NE (E )Whitest form overall; silvery upperparts with fine black vermiculations; long tail with little black.
L. n. whiteheadiHainan Island, southern Similar to nominate with white nape and silvery body; smaller size; restricted range on Hainan Island.
L. n. fokiensisSoutheast (NW , possibly , NW , adjacent )Very white plumage like nycthemera; minimal black markings; clinal with northern forms.
L. n. berlioziEastern , central (west Annamitic Mts, Nakay Plateau)Intermediate between beaulieui and engelbachi; moderate black markings on white base; historically debated as a potential separate species due to distinct patterning.
L. n. beliWest-central (east Annamitic Mts slopes)Darker form resembling southern Burmese types; extensive black on greyish upperparts; possibly hybrid origin.
L. n. engelbachiSouthern (Bolovens Plateau)Dark plumage with heavy black markings; rare due to habitat fragmentation.
L. n. lewisiSouthwest (Elephant and Cardamom Mts), SE Southeastern dark form with grey upperparts and black tail markings; threatened by and .
L. n. annamensisSouthern Smallest subspecies; darker southern plumage with prominent black; faces localized threats.
Historical taxonomic debates have centered on clinal intergradation, leading some researchers to question the distinctness of southern forms like berliozi and beli, which were occasionally treated as full species in earlier classifications based on plumage extremes.

Physical characteristics

Plumage and appearance

The silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) displays marked in plumage, with males exhibiting iridescent, ornate patterns suited for displays and females showing cryptic, camouflaged coloration adapted for nesting and ground-dwelling. Males possess strikingly contrasting silvery-white upperparts finely vermiculated with black shaft-streaks, glossy bluish-black underparts, a glossy bluish-black crest, , , and belly, and a long white tail tipped and barred with black. The bare facial skin is vivid scarlet, the bill pale , and the legs ; a prominent crest of elongated black feathers adorns the head. Adult male plumage is fully attained in the second year. In contrast, females are predominantly reddish- or dark overall, with buff shaft-streaks and bold bars across the upperparts, underparts, and shorter brown tail, enhancing concealment in leaf litter. They share the red facial skin (though duller), yellow bill, and red legs with males but feature a much shorter, less prominent crest. Juveniles closely resemble females but with an even shorter crest. Among the 15 recognized , plumage shows geographic variation; for instance, males of northern forms like L. n. nycthemera display purer white upperparts, whereas southern such as L. n. lewisi have greyer upperparts and tails with extensive black markings, appearing darker overall. Females of certain , including L. n. whiteheadi, exhibit whitish underparts with fine black bars. Seasonal changes in are minimal.

Size and measurements

The silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) exhibits significant sexual size dimorphism, with males typically 20–30% larger than females in overall dimensions and mass. Total length varies notably among the 15 recognized , with northern forms generally larger than southern ones. For example, the nominate subspecies L. n. nycthemera from southern and northern has males measuring 120–125 cm (tail 60–75 cm) and females 70–71 cm (tail 24–32 cm), while southern subspecies like L. n. lewisi from has males c. 67 cm (tail c. 30–33.5 cm) and females c. 61 cm (tail 23–25 cm). Males weigh 1.13–2.00 kg overall, and females 0.95–1.3 kg. Wingspan in males spans 60–80 cm, with females having proportionally smaller spans adapted to their reduced body size. The species possesses a robust build suited to terrestrial life, featuring strong, sturdy legs equipped with sharp claws for scratching and foraging in leaf litter, and short, rounded wings that enable brief bursts of flight rather than sustained aerial travel.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) is native to mainland Southeast Asia and southern/eastern China, with its range extending from northeastern Myanmar through northern and central Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, as well as to Hainan Island. The species occupies elevations between 100 and 2,200 meters across this distribution. Several subspecies exhibit more restricted distributions within this overall range. For instance, L. n. lineata occurs in central Indochina, from southern (east of River) to northwestern ; L. n. whiteheadi is confined to Island; and L. n. ripponi is found in northern , particularly in the southern . Other subspecies, such as L. n. lewisi in southwestern and southeastern , and L. n. annamensis in southern , further delineate the species' patchy but widespread native presence. Introduced populations have become established outside the native range through escapes from . In Argentina, a viable persists on Isla Victoria in , , following introductions between 1907 and 1911. Smaller feral groups exist in and various locations on the mainland, while in , birds released in the 1970s near on have formed a localized . Historically, the silver pheasant's range has contracted in lowland areas since the early 1900s due to extensive , though it remains stable in higher montane where loss has been less severe.

Habitat preferences

The silver pheasant primarily inhabits montane and semi- , as well as , thickets, and edges with open understories. It favors areas with drier soils on slopes rather than flat, moist lowlands or dense primary interiors, often selecting habitats with high canopy cover, dense layers, and abundant for concealment. In some regions, it also utilizes dry grasslands and open areas bordered by , particularly where fruiting plants are available. Altitudinally, the species occurs from 100 m to 2,200 m, with most populations recorded between 500 m and 2,000 m, showing preferences for mid-elevation montane zones around 700–1,200 m in surveyed areas. Microhabitat selection emphasizes steep slopes greater than 15°, proximity to streams for water access, and understory features like and shrubs that provide escape cover and foraging opportunities. As a predominantly ground-dwelling , the silver pheasant is well-adapted to hilly and rugged , relying on strong legs for and cryptic for amid leaf litter. Its preference for less dense understories ensures clear escape routes from predators, while selection of larger patches with high arbor and density supports persistence.

Behavior and life history

Social behavior and vocalizations

Silver pheasants exhibit gregarious outside the breeding season, forming small flocks typically consisting of 3–6 individuals, though groups can occasionally reach up to 15–17 birds in winter. These flocks often include multiple males and females in a polygynous arrangement, with males maintaining loose associations near females, and post-breeding family units comprising smaller groups of 3–4 individuals including juveniles. In their native range, such as at in , observed groups averaged 3.0–4.1 members during breeding periods, reflecting low reproductive skew and multi-male, multi-female dynamics. The species is strictly diurnal, with peak activity at dawn and dusk, during which birds engage in ground-based movements and social interactions before retiring to roost in trees at night. To evade predators, silver pheasants rely on short, explosive flights, preferring to run or walk otherwise, which aligns with their ground-dwelling habits. In introduced populations in Patagonia, activity patterns showed no significant seasonal variation, with detections consistent across morning, midday, and evening hours. Vocalizations play a key role in communication, with males producing loud, far-carrying territorial calls described as a repeated "cak-crak-cak" or "chak-chak-chak" (3–6 notes), deeper and shorter than those of the , used for advertising and maintaining contact within groups. Females emit soft clucks during social interactions, while both sexes use sharp, high-pitched chirps or grunts as calls when disturbed. Calling intensity increases seasonally during the breeding period, and males may accompany displays with wing-whirring sounds. Social interactions involve males displaying to attract females or assert dominance, including tail fanning to reveal their white and raising the glossy black crest on the head, often during aggressive encounters with other males in mating season. In multi-male groups, a dominant male typically leads, and fights or vocal challenges occur to establish hierarchy, as observed in both native and introduced settings.

Diet and foraging

The silver pheasant exhibits an omnivorous diet, primarily consisting of plant matter such as seeds, fruits, flowers, leaves, stems, and green shoots, supplemented opportunistically with animal prey including , worms, snails, and small reptiles. This herbivorous foundation supports its large body size, with high-fiber plant materials providing sustained energy in forested environments. are particularly sought during the breeding season to obtain essential proteins for reproductive demands. Food sources vary by , with seeds and forest yams prominent in dense woodlands, while wild grains and dominate in more open grasslands or forest edges. Fruits and berries, such as figs, become key components where available, contributing to dietary diversity. Minimal browsing on leaves occurs, focusing instead on fallen or accessible ground-level vegetation. Chicks are initially provisioned with to meet high protein needs for rapid growth. Foraging occurs almost exclusively on the ground, where the bird uses its strong feet and claws to scratch and uncover items in leaf litter or . This is typically carried out in pairs or small family groups, with activity peaking in the early morning and late evening to avoid midday heat. The species is strictly diurnal, retreating to roosts in trees at night. Seasonal dietary shifts reflect availability, with an emphasis on fruits and berries during summer months when they ripen abundantly, transitioning to seeds, grains, roots, bulbs, and in winter for reliable sustenance. These adaptations ensure nutritional balance, with the high-fiber winter diet aiding in cooler conditions.

Reproduction

The silver pheasant's breeding season typically spans from late to May, coinciding with increasing rainfall and food availability that support chick survival during the subsequent . In southern parts of its range, breeding may commence earlier, while in northern areas like parts of , it often begins in late March or April and extends to the end of May. The exhibits a polygynous , in which a single male mates with multiple females, often in small breeding groups; males defend territories and perform elaborate displays—such as tail fanning and vocalizations—to attract and select mates, with females choosing based on these performances. Nesting occurs on the ground in concealed locations amid dense , providing protection from predators; the nest is a shallow scrape, sometimes lined with leaves or grass. Females lay clutches of 6–9 eggs, which are pale to rosy buff or creamy in color, with incubation lasting 25–26 days and handled solely by the . Hens may produce up to 20 eggs over the season if early clutches are lost, laying every other day. Chicks are precocial, hatching with downy —chestnut and dark brown above, whitish below—and leaving the nest immediately after hatching to follow the female, who provides food and protection. They are capable of short flights within a few days and achieve independence from the female after about 2–3 months, though full adult develops later. Individuals typically reach breeding age at 1–2 years, with males fertile in their first year but displaying full ornamental in the second. Predation remains the primary cause of nest and chick loss in the wild. Silver pheasants have a lifespan of 10–15 years in captivity and up to 20 years in .

Conservation

Status and threats

The silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) is classified as Least Concern on the , owing to its extremely large range and lack of meeting Vulnerable thresholds under current criteria, although the overall population trend is decreasing. In , the population is estimated at 10,000–100,000 breeding pairs, while numbers elsewhere remain unknown. Populations appear stable or common in protected montane forests, but are declining locally in areas with greater activity, particularly isolated lowland and foothill populations. Certain subspecies, such as L. n. whiteheadi endemic to , , are considered at risk due to loss and hunting, with historical estimates suggesting populations of several thousand individuals in the , though recent surveys are needed. Primary threats to the silver pheasant stem from anthropogenic activities, including through logging and agricultural expansion, which have contributed to a regional loss of approximately 32% of forest cover in between 2000 and 2018. Unsustainable for meat, skins, and the pet further exacerbates declines, with local populations experiencing high mortality in heavily hunted areas. Minor additional pressures include from road development, though these are less impactful than direct and exploitation. Introduced populations of the silver pheasant, such as those in , parts of the mainland , and Victoria Island in , remain small but stable, with no major threats reported beyond occasional predation or competition in non-native habitats.

Protection and management

The silver pheasant receives legal in several range countries, though it is not listed under any appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (). In , it is classified as a national second-class protected animal under the Wildlife Law, which prohibits hunting, capture, and trade without special permits. In Vietnam, the is included in Group IB of the country's Red Data Book, denoting strict against exploitation; however, as of July 2025, it has been reclassified to Group IIB, permitting limited harvesting and commercial activities under stringent regulatory conditions to balance conservation with sustainable use. Across its range, the silver pheasant inhabits 45 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs/KBAs) that encompass key forest habitats, with an average of 70.5% coverage within these sites, providing essential safeguards against habitat loss and ; these sites cover a significant portion of the ' overall distribution. Notable examples include Pu Mat National Park in , a UNESCO-recognized reserve where the pheasant contributes to the area's Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) status. Similarly, populations occur in Namdapha Tiger Reserve along the India-Myanmar , where patrols and habitat management support the within this . In , Nam Ha National hosts significant pheasant populations, integrated into broader conservation efforts. Conservation initiatives emphasize community involvement and restoration to bolster wild populations. In and , community-based anti-poaching programs engage local residents in monitoring and patrolling forested areas, reducing illegal trapping through education and alternative livelihood support. projects in degraded habitats, particularly those restoring and broadleaf forests, aim to enhance grounds and nesting sites across . programs in support recovery, such as for the at-risk Hainan silver pheasant (L. n. whiteheadi), with zoos and conservation organizations propagating birds for potential reintroduction while maintaining . Conservation efforts for like L. n. whiteheadi include programs and monitoring in reserves such as Bawangling National Nature Reserve, as part of ongoing efforts to address local declines. Ongoing monitoring and research efforts provide critical data for . In , annual population surveys using camera traps and line transects track abundance trends in reserves like those on Island. Genetic studies, including and analyses of over 100 individuals from southern populations, assess hybridization risks with domestic pheasants and inform translocation strategies to prevent . In , ecotourism development in areas like Virachey highlights the species' role in , generating revenue to offset pressures through guided and community funds. Future conservation priorities include strengthening controls to curb illegal exports and developing adaptation plans that address shifting distributions due to warming temperatures. Enhanced enforcement of existing laws, coupled with cross-border collaboration among range states, will be essential to mitigate ongoing pressures and ensure long-term viability.

References

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