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Copper pheasant
Copper pheasant
Copper pheasant
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Copper pheasant
Male
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Syrmaticus
Species:
S. soemmerringii
Binomial name
Syrmaticus soemmerringii
(Temminck, 1830)

The copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii), also known as Soemmerring's pheasant or yamadori (ヤマドリ),[2] is a pheasant endemic to the Japanese archipelago. The scientific name commemorates the German scientist Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring. It is the official bird of multiple Japanese prefectures, cities, and towns. It was commonly hunted for sport throughout the 20th century.

Its population has been in consistent decline since the 1970s due to factors including habitat destruction and predation, but the most widely cited cause is overhunting.

Taxonomy

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Illustration from John Gould's Birds of Asia

The copper pheasant was described in 1830 by Coenraad Temmerick[2] as Phasianus soemmerringii.[3] It was named for the German scientist Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring,[4] while the subspecies S. s. ijimae is named for Japanese zoologist Isao Ijima.[5] It was reclassified into the Syrmaticus genus in 1914 by William Beebe, despite the differences between the males, because he saw a high number of similarities between females of the genus.[6] However, based on the reports of interbreeding between the copper pheasant and the green pheasant (Phasianus versicolor) in Nobusuke Takatsukasa's 1943 pamphlet, Studies of the Galli of Nippon, the Ornithological Society of Japan moved the bird back into the Phasianus genus.[7] In the same book, Takatsukasa also split the copper pheasant into two species and eliminated all subspecies. Those, as well as other taxonomic changes he proposed, were termed by a United States Fish and Wildlife Service report as "not in accordance with sound systematic practice".[8] The copper pheasant is sometimes still referred to as Phasianus soemmerringii in Japanese literature.[9]

There are five recognized subspecies of copper pheasant:[10]

  • Soermmering's copper pheasant (S. s. soemmerringii) (Temminck, 1830) is found the northern and central Kyushu.[11] The nominate subspecies, it is dark reddish in colour with an amber sheen to the rump and tips of the upper-tail coverts.
  • Ijima copper pheasant (S. s. ijimae) (Dresser, 1902), also known as the koshijiro-yamadori (コシジロヤマドリ)[12] (literally white-waisted yamadori), is found in southern to central Kyushu.[11] It is similar in appearance to soemmeringii, but the male has a white rump.
  • Scintillating copper pheasant (S. s. scintillans) (Gould, 1866), also known as the shining copper pheasant or Honda copper pheasant[13] is found in northern Honshu, from the Kansai region to Aomori prefecture.[11] It is the palest subspecies, with broad white fringes on its belly and flanks.
  • Shikoku copper pheasant (S. s. intermedius) (Kuroda, 1919) is found in Shikoku and the Chūgoku regions.[11] Like scintillans, it has white fringes on its belly and flanks, but is darker.
  • Pacific copper pheasant (S. s. subrufus) (Kuroda, 1919) is found in the Ehime, and Kōchi, and Yamaguchi prefectures and the Bōsō, Izu, and Kii peninsula.[11] It has golden fringes on its rump and upper-tail coverts.

Both S. s. ijimae[14] and S. s. scintillans were initially described as distinct species.[15]

Pleistocene-era Syrmaticus fossils in Japan have been classified as S. soemmerringii, but this identification is disputed.[16]

Description

[edit]

It is a large pheasant with a rich coppery chestnut plumage, yellowish bill, brown iris, and red facial skin. The female is a brown bird with greyish brown upperparts and buff barred dark brown below. The male has short spurs on its grey legs, while the female has none. Males are between 87.5 centimetres (34.4 in) and 136 centimetres (54 in) long, including the tail, while the female is between 51 centimetres (20 in) and 54 centimetres (21 in) (subspecies scintillating copper pheasant, scintillans).[17] Juveniles have similar plumage to the females.[18] The plumage of the chicks is, overall, chestnut, with some darker patches of brown on the back of the neck and cream-coloured feathers on the face. Darker stripes of cream and dark brown run along their face and neck.[19]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The copper pheasant is distributed in and endemic to the hill and mountain forests of the Honshū, Kyūshū, and Shikoku islands[2] at elevations of up to 1,800 metres (1.1 mi).[1] It typically confines itself to deciduous forest floors with extensive vegetation. However, members of the species also lives in conifer forests. They often nest on the edges of grasslands.[11] It naturally occurs only south of the Blakiston's Line, and this species' distribution was originally cited as evidence for the line's existence.[20]

Copper pheasant populations have been established on Hokkaido and Sado Island.[11]

Behavior and ecology

[edit]

The bird is not heavily vocal, only occasionally making a "kuk-kuk"-like call when breeding or threatened.[11][21] These pheasants are known to sunbathe, especially when living in grasslands. They roost in trees,[11] and are a non-migratory bird.[1]

Breeding

[edit]
Pheasant chick running through undergrowth
Juvenile Syrmaticus soemmerringii ssp. subrufus

The copper pheasant's mating season occurs between March and July, with the exact month depending local climate. During this time, males perform their wing-whirring display[21] and fight other males in an attempt to secure a mate. It is unknown if the species is monogamous.[11] Male copper pheasants exhibit aggressive behaviour in captivity, sometimes killing their mates.[22] It is usual for this species to be bred in captivity by means of artificial insemination.[23]

Copper pheasants typically nest on the ground, but have also been recorded nesting in trees.[24] They often build their nests in hollows sheltered by fallen trees.[21][11] Captive birds have a clutch of ten to twenty eggs, while wild birds have a clutch of seven to thirteen eggs.[21] The cream-coloured[18] or tan[11] eggs take twenty five days to hatch,[23] and the chicks are able to walk within hours of hatching. After all the chicks have hatched, they abandon the nest and stay at their mother's side until adulthood. Occasionally, the male pheasant is seen near his offspring and mate,[25] but young are raised primarily by their mother. When threatened, she will either attack potential predators or attempt to distract them by feigning injury herself.[11] Young birds reach maturity in less than a year.[21]

Food and feeding

[edit]

Their diet consists mainly of insects, insect larvae, worms, crabs, berries, and acorns, especially those from the Castanopsis, Machilus, Cleyera, and Castanea trees.[26] Adults eat a substantial amount of leaf and fern matter,[11] while the young mostly consume insects.[11][26]

Threats

[edit]

The copper pheasant serves as an important source of prey to Japanese populations of the golden eagle and Hodgson's hawk eagle.[27] It is susceptible to infection by the heterakis gallinarum parasite.[28]

Relationship to humans

[edit]

In Japan

[edit]
1791 woodblock of a copper pheasant by Kitagawa Utamaro.

The copper pheasant can take the role of a yōkai in Japanese folklore. Tying the pheasant's tail feather's to an arrow grants the arrow the ability to harm malignant spirits in some stories.[29]

The copper pheasant is used in an early 8th century poem by Kakinomoto no Hitomaro,[30] where it is used a metaphor for "the separation of lovers".[31]

葦引の山鳥の尾のしだり尾の
     ながながし夜をひとりかも寝む
ashihiki no yamadori no o no shidari o no naganaga shi yo o hitori kamo nemu
Am I to sleep alone this long night, long like a drooping tail, tail feathers of copper pheasants resting mountains apart?
(Kakinomoto no Hitomaro)

Several screens, dating to the eighth century and incorporating copper pheasant feathers, are kept in the Shōsō-in temple. The screens were mistakenly assumed to be Chinese, but are, in reality, of Japanese origin.[32] Unidentified bones of either copper pheasants or chickens have been found at Japanese archaeological sites from the Kofun period.[33]

The copper pheasant is a popular game animal in Japan.[34] They are hunted both as a source of food and a source of entertainment.[1]

It is the official bird of the Gunma[35] and Akita prefectures.[36] The Ijima subspecies is the official bird of the Miyazaki prefecture,[12] as well as a natural monument in the town of Asagiri, Kumamoto.[37] As of 2024, the copper pheasant is the also the official bird of Japanese cities, towns, and villages of Hachimantai,[38] Higashinaruse,[39] Ichinohe,[40] Ikawa,[41] Iwaizumi,[42] Isehara,[43] Kamiyama,[44] Kanegasaki,[45] Karumai,[46] Kitaaiki,[47] Kunohe,[48] Kuzumaki,[49] Mihara,[50] Mogami,[51] Ōkura,[52] Okutama,[53] Shiiba,[54] Sumita,[55] Takayama,[56] Tanohata,[57] Tōno,[58] Yasuoka,[59] Yamakita,[60] and Yuzawa.[61]

It has been depicted on stamps from Japan[62] and Laos.[63]

Outside Japan

[edit]

Outside of Japan, the copper pheasant is infrequently[23] kept as a pet or display animal.[1]

The Importation of Plumage (No. 1) Order 1922 (SR&O 1922/275) added an addendum to the Importation of Plumage (Prohibition) Act 1921 (11 & 12 Geo. 5. c. 16) which halted the importation of copper pheasant feathers into the UK. They were removed from the list after a year by the Importation of Plumage (No. 2) Order 1923 (SR&O 1923/1496).[64]

From 1907 to 1914, there was a series unsuccessful attempts made by the Hawaii Board of Agriculture and Forestry to establish copper pheasants colonies on the Hawaiian islands.[65][66] Another attempt to introduce the birds to the United States was made around 1885 by an American diplomat, when he released three pairs of birds into Puget Sound.[67] It was made illegal in the U.S. states of Nebraska[68] and Oregon[69] to hunt birds he had introduced, but a copper pheasant population was never established.[67]

Status

[edit]

As of 2016, the copper pheasant was listed as "Near Threatened" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, with the exact number of wild adults unknown. It has been listed as a near-threatened species since 2004, but had previously held the same classification in 1988.[1] The ijimae subspecies is protected in Japan,[70] with both S. s. soemmeringii and S. s. ijimae being listed as "Near Threatened" on the Japanese Red List.[71]

In 1995, an IUCN report called for the continued monitoring of the species, citing over-hunting and a lack of knowledge about the species' behaviour as a reason to study and protect them.[72] Threats to the species include non-native predation, overhunting, and habitat destruction.[1] Feral dogs and cats disturb nesting sites, further negatively impacting the species.[73] However, overhunting is widely considered as the greatest threat to the species.[1][34][74]

Throughout the twentieth century half a million[34][70] to 800,000[75] copper pheasants were killed by hunters every year. In 1976, to prevent further decline of the species, it was made illegal in Japan to hunt female copper pheasants.[34][1] The number of birds hunted decreased to 100,000 per year by the 1990s.[75] As of 2006, the number of birds killed annually had dropped to 6,000.[27] To allow for hunting, captive-bred copper pheasants are released every year throughout Japan,[70] including in regions such as Hokkaido and Sado Island where they are a non-native species.[11]

References

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Bibliography

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Copper pheasant

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) is a medium-sized bird in the family , endemic to and renowned for the males' distinctive reddish-chestnut head, neck, and breast , along with a long, cinnamon-colored tail featuring black bars that can measure up to 98 cm in length. Males typically reach 87.5–136 cm in total length and weigh 943–1,348 g, while females are smaller at 51–54 cm (with tails of 14–19 cm) and 745–1,000 g, displaying grey-brown upperparts with a darker breast band and a shorter, blunter tail. This species exhibits and geographical variation across five , such as S. s. scintillans on northern and S. s. intermedius on . Native to the forested hills and mountains of , , and islands, the copper pheasant has been introduced to Sado and , with an extent of occurrence spanning approximately 510,000 km². It inhabits a range of types below 1,800 m elevation, including broadleaf, , coniferous, and mixed forests, as well as plantations and areas near villages, favoring dense undergrowth for and cover while roosting in trees at night. The bird's diet consists primarily of , seeds, and plant matter, and it is known for its elusive behavior, often remaining hidden in thick . Historically abundant, the copper pheasant faced severe declines from excessive , with estimates of 500,000–1,000,000 birds harvested annually between 1925 and 1975, alongside loss due to . Predation by like raccoon dogs, foxes, and raptors, as well as disturbance from herbivores and omnivores, pose ongoing risks, though protective measures such as the 1976 ban on females have aided recovery. Current population estimates range from 50,000 to 300,000 mature individuals, with an unknown trend, leading to its classification as Least Concern on the as of 2025. Conservation efforts emphasize , monitoring, and sustainable practices to ensure the ' persistence in its island homeland.

Systematics

Taxonomy

The copper pheasant was first described in 1830 by Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck as Phasianus soemmerringii in his Nouveau recueil de planches coloriées d'oiseaux, honoring the German anatomist Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring for his contributions to natural history. The species is classified in the family Phasianidae within the order Galliformes, with the currently accepted binomial name Syrmaticus soemmerringii. Following its initial placement in the genus Phasianus, the copper pheasant was moved to the monotypic genus Graphephasianus in 1852 by Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, based on its distinctive long-tailed morphology. In 1918, American ornithologist William Beebe reclassified it into the genus Syrmaticus in his comprehensive Monograph of the Pheasants, expanding the genus from its prior single species (S. reevesii) to include the copper pheasant and others sharing traits such as elongated central tail feathers and a prominent crest, despite some plumage differences among males. This placement has been upheld in modern taxonomy, though historical disputes persisted, including brief considerations of retaining it in Phasianus due to reported hybridization with the green pheasant (Phasianus versicolor), which produces infertile offspring. Phylogenetically, the copper pheasant represents the basal divergence within the genus Syrmaticus, followed by Reeves's pheasant (S. reevesii), with the remaining species including Elliot's pheasant (S. ellioti) and the Mikado pheasant (S. mikado) forming a sister clade, as confirmed by analyses of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. These genetic studies support the monophyly of Syrmaticus and highlight its distinction from Phasianus based on molecular divergences.

Subspecies

The Copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) is recognized as comprising five , distinguished primarily by variations in male coloration, tail length, and feather fringes, with differences arising from geographic isolation across the Japanese islands. These exhibit clinal variation, with generally becoming darker toward the south, though some authorities suggest that certain races, such as intermedius and subrufus, may be synonymous with scintillans due to overlapping traits, and further studies in contact zones are recommended to clarify boundaries. Currently, the remains stable without evidence from molecular data supporting additional subdivisions. The following table summarizes the recognized subspecies, their distributions, and key morphological distinctions:
SubspeciesDistributionDistinguishing Features
S. s. scintillansNorthern and central HonshūMales paler overall with shorter tails; proposed northern (septentrionalis) and southwestern (inabaensis) variants included herein.
S. s. intermediusSouthwestern Honshū and Males with longer, redder tails; richer red tones and golden fringes on scapulars and mantle.
S. s. subrufusSoutheastern and southwestern Honshū, southwestern Males darker red with minimal white in upperparts and golden-orange fringes.
S. s. soemmerringiiNorthern and central KyūshūDarkest race overall, with golden-carmine fringes; dark red-brown and black tail bars (nominate form).
S. s. ijimaeSoutheastern KyūshūSimilar to soemmerringii but with broad white fringes on back and rump feathers; darker .
These distinctions are based on ornithological assessments emphasizing male traits, as females show less variation across subspecies.

Physical characteristics

Plumage and morphology

The male copper pheasant displays a striking plumage characterized by a rich reddish-chestnut coloration on the head, neck, and body, with the neck and mantle featuring paler tones accented by black feather bases and bright coppery-purple fringes. The scapulars are dark chestnut with white tips, the breast is pale chestnut, and the undertail-coverts are dark chestnut marked with black spots and bars. Its wings exhibit glossy black and white markings, while the long, pointed tail feathers, reaching up to 98 cm, are cinnamon-colored with bold black bars. A small crest adorns the head, complemented by vibrant red bare facial skin used in displays, a yellowish-horn bill, brown iris, and grey legs bearing a very short tarsal spur. In contrast, the female's is more subdued and cryptic, consisting of grayish-brown upperparts and buff underparts barred with dark brown for . Her tail is shorter, 14–19 cm, and blunter in shape, lacking the tones and tips seen in the male, with a darker breast band distinguishing her from similar . She shares the yellowish bill and brown iris but has less vibrant red skin around the eyes. Females lack the tarsal . Juveniles resemble females in their overall grayish-brown with barring, though the patterns are more diffuse initially. Young males begin transitioning to adult colors and develop the characteristic by the end of their first year. In the nominate , males show richer, darker reddish tones compared to paler northern forms.

Size and sexual dimorphism

The copper pheasant exhibits marked in body size, with males significantly larger than females primarily due to their elongated . Adult males measure 87.5–136 cm in total length, including a tail of 48–98 cm, and weigh 943–1,348 g; measurements and weights vary by , with northern forms generally lighter. In contrast, females are shorter at 51–54 cm in total length, with a tail of 14–19 cm, and weigh 745–1,000 g. This size disparity results in males being approximately 1.5–2 times longer overall than females. Sexual dimorphism extends beyond size to include morphological features such as spurs and characteristics. Males possess short tarsal spurs on their grey legs, which females lack entirely, aiding in territorial displays and . differences are pronounced, with males displaying vibrant reddish-chestnut heads, coppery-purple fringes, and a long tail with black bars, while females exhibit more cryptic, mottled brown tones with a darker breast band for (see and morphology). Chicks hatch weighing approximately 20–25 g, based on the species' average egg weight of 31.9 g and typical galliform hatching ratios. They reach nearly full adult size within about 6 months, during which juveniles remain primarily with the female parent and develop flight capabilities within 2 weeks of hatching. Compared to the (Phasianus versicolor), the copper pheasant is larger, with males exceeding the 56–90 cm length and 700–1,400 g weight of green pheasant males. However, it is similar in overall dimensions to other Syrmaticus species, such as (S. reevesii), which shares comparable body proportions within the .

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) is endemic to , with its native range confined to the forested hills and mountains of the islands of Honshū, , and Kyūshū. It occurs primarily at elevations from to 1,800 m, though it is most commonly found in upland areas above 300 m in coniferous and mixed forests, with an extent of occurrence of approximately 510,000 km². Introduced populations have been established through reintroduction efforts using captive-bred individuals, primarily since the to bolster wild numbers in areas outside the native range. Small populations exist on Hokkaidō, , and the , but these efforts have had limited success due to high post-release mortality rates, with average survival around 11 days in some studies, primarily from predation and other factors. Historically, the species was likely more widespread across its native islands prior to the , but its range has contracted due to from practices, such as cedar and plantations in the mid-1900s. Surveys indicate a reduction in occupied areas from approximately 239 quadrats in the 1970s to 197 in the late 1990s, representing about an 18% decline, though conservation measures have led to some recovery, with an increase to 297 quadrats recorded in 2016–2021. The species has no natural occurrence outside , and while occasional escapes from captivity have been reported in and the , no self-sustaining populations have established there.

Preferred habitats

The copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) primarily inhabits mixed deciduous-coniferous forests, including those dominated by Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) and cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), with a dense understory of ferns, bamboo grasses, and shrubs that provides essential cover. These birds show a strong affinity for well-shaded areas near streams and gullies, where the moist environment supports the vegetation they rely on for concealment and access to water. While they tolerate secondary growth and plantation forests, such as cedar or cherry orchards, they exhibit a clear preference for old-growth broadleaf and mixed woodlands, where the structural complexity enhances protection from predators. In terms of elevation, the species occupies forests from near up to 1,800 m, but it predominantly favors mid-elevation zones between approximately 500 m and 1,500 m, avoiding heavily modified lowlands and barren high-alpine areas above the . At these altitudes, the terrain often features steep slopes and rugged terrain, which the birds utilize for roosting in tall trees like pines while in the ground-level . They require habitats with dense canopy cover from mature trees to maintain shaded, humid conditions, alongside minimal human disturbance to sustain their secretive lifestyle. Seasonally, copper pheasants are largely resident, but populations in northern undertake minor altitudinal shifts, descending to lower elevations during winter to exploit more accessible food resources in milder forest edges. This movement is limited and does not constitute full migration, allowing the birds to remain within their preferred forested matrix while adapting to seasonal scarcity.

Behavior and ecology

Daily activities and vocalizations

The Copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) is a , with peak activity occurring in the morning and late afternoon as it navigates the dense of coniferous and mixed forests, often near or gullies. Individuals spend much of the day moving secretly through cover, occasionally engaging in dust-bathing and sunbathing in small clearings or cutover grasslands to maintain their . At night, they roost communally or singly in trees, favoring pines on steep slopes for protection against predators, though some males may roost on the ground near escape routes like inclines. In northern , birds descend to lower elevations during winter to access milder conditions. Copper pheasants exhibit terrestrial locomotion, preferring to run through undergrowth over flying, and resort to short, explosive flights only when flushed by threats, covering limited distances before returning to the ground. The species avoids open areas, sticking to habitats to minimize exposure, and typically responds to disturbances by freezing in place or fleeing rapidly into thick cover; females may additionally show threat displays, such as mock attacks, when protecting offspring. In the wild, individuals can live up to 10 years, reflecting their secretive lifestyle and low predation in suitable habitats. Socially, copper pheasants are mostly solitary or occur in pairs outside the breeding season, though small groups of up to six individuals—potentially units—form post-breeding as juveniles remain with adults. Males maintain year-round territoriality, defending home ranges averaging about 10 hectares in favorable forested areas, which expand in harsher conditions like heavy snowfall. Vocalizations are infrequent and subdued, aiding the species' secretive nature; while foraging or moving, birds emit a hoarse, indistinct "ko..ko..ko" or "ku-ku" call. Alarm signals include low "kuk-kuk" tones from both sexes or high-pitched female clucks such as "kyuk-kyuk" and "kichik-kichik" to alert others to danger. Males produce a distinctive wing-whirring sound, resembling deep drumming audible over distances, often in mornings and with increased frequency during seasonal peaks.

Breeding biology

The breeding season of the copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) typically begins around late in central regions like Kanto, , with egg-laying from mid- to and courtship displays extending into later months. Increasing daylight hours likely trigger the onset, as males develop bright red wattles from late February to and engage in aggressive displays, including jumping battles and wing-whirring drumming to attract females and defend territories. The mating system remains somewhat unresolved, with historical assumptions of similar to related pheasants, but recent observations indicating social where males guard a single female and pairs maintain consistent associations at feeding sites. During , males perform displays that highlight their iridescent coppery plumage and long tail, though detailed plumage aspects are covered elsewhere. Nests are constructed by females as shallow ground depressions, approximately 20–30 cm deep, typically sheltered under fallen trees, at tree bases, or in forest-edge grasslands, and lined with leaves and grass for and insulation. Clutch sizes range from 6 to 13 eggs, with an average of 7–10; the eggs are cream-colored to light tan, measuring about 47.4 mm × 35.4 mm and weighing around 31.9 g on average. Incubation is performed solely by the and lasts 24–25 days, after which the precocial chicks hatch with down above and yellowish buff below, leaving the nest within hours to follow the mother. The provides primary , leading the brood, protecting them through threat displays or feigned injury when predators approach, and remaining with the young for several months; chicks around two weeks post-hatching but continue depending on the mother until nearing adult size at about six months.

Diet and foraging

The copper pheasant's diet is predominantly vegetarian, consisting mainly of plant matter such as leaves, , fruits, stems, flowers, and roots, with animal components making up a small proportion. Analysis of crop contents from 56 individuals collected across 13 Japanese prefectures between 1999 and 2002 revealed that leaves occurred in 82.1% of samples, and fruits in 76.8%, stems in 32.1%, flowers in 12.5%, and roots in 10.7%, while animal matter was present in only 5.4% of samples, primarily small . Common plant items include ferns (e.g., tripteron and Cyrtomium fortunei), which comprise a significant portion of the foliage intake, as well as and fruits from species like Phryma leptostachya, Zanthoxylum ailanthoides, and (acorns), alongside berries from () and Ophiopogon japonicus, and dead leaves or twigs from conifers such as Japanese cedar ( japonica). , including , larvae, and earthworms, supplement the diet, particularly for growing young, though their overall contribution remains low in adult samples. Foraging occurs primarily on the forest floor, where individuals scratch through leaf litter and with their feet or probe the ground with their bill to uncover items. They also peck directly at low or tear off leaves and stems, such as ferns, and may opportunistically feed near or on fruits accessible from the ground or low branches. Group foraging is uncommon, with birds typically feeding solitarily or in small family units during the non-breeding season. Seasonal variations reflect food availability in forested environments, with a greater reliance on ferns and foliage during winter (mid-November to mid-February), when cover limits access to other resources; ferns were detected at high rates in crop samples from this period. In autumn, acorns and nuts from oaks and beeches become prominent, while summer diets incorporate more berries and fruits alongside year-round . Nutritional requirements emphasize protein for growth and , with chicks and young birds requiring substantial animal matter, such as , to develop normally, though exact proportions in the wild remain understudied. Adults supplement their intake with grit to aid of hard materials like seeds. The diversity of the , including a mix of broad-leaved trees, shrubs, and ferns, directly supports by providing varied food sources on the ground layer.

Conservation

The population of the copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) was historically abundant across its range in , with estimates suggesting hundreds of thousands of individuals prior to the mid-20th century, though precise figures are lacking due to limited early surveys. During the and , the species experienced a rapid decline, attributed to excessive and habitat degradation, with annual harvests peaking at 500,000–1,000,000 birds between 1925 and 1975 before dropping to around 100,000 by the . Current estimates place the mature population at 50,000–300,000 individuals as of 2024, reflecting a stabilization or possible slow increase in some areas following hunting restrictions, though remains poor. Habitat fragmentation and loss represent a primary ongoing , driven by , agricultural expansion, and conversion of native broadleaf forests to plantations, particularly during the and , which reduced suitable cover essential for and cover. This has exacerbated fragmentation and limited dispersal. Historical overhunting remains a significant factor in past declines, with up to 800,000 birds harvested annually in the mid-20th century, though rates have since fallen sharply due to regulatory measures. Predation has also intensified, particularly on reintroduced birds, with mammalian predators such as raccoon dogs and red foxes, and raptors including golden eagles, contributing to mortality. Additionally, the is susceptible to parasitic infections, notably by , a that affects galliform birds and can contribute to mortality through secondary infections. Recent trends indicate slow recovery in protected areas where is curtailed and restoration occurs, but certain face heightened vulnerability. For instance, Ijima's copper pheasant (S. s. ijimae), restricted to southern , has shown a significant , with density dropping from 1.35 birds/km² in 2002 to 0.12 birds/km² by 2011, linked to ongoing habitat conversion to plantations and localized predation by mammals like wild boars. Overall, while broad-scale trends are uncertain, these pressures underscore the need for targeted monitoring to prevent further localized extinctions.

IUCN status and protection measures

The Copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) was upgraded from Near Threatened to Least Concern on the IUCN Red List in 2025, reflecting improvements in its conservation status due to stricter hunting regulations and habitat restoration efforts that have stabilized its global population. This reassessment by BirdLife International, which provides the scientific basis for bird listings on the IUCN Red List, notes range expansion and possible population increases as key factors, with an estimated 50,000–300,000 mature individuals persisting across its endemic range in Japan. In , the species has been protected as a Special since 1934 under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, prohibiting its capture, killing, or sale without permits to preserve its cultural and ecological value. regulations have significantly reduced pressure, with female hunting banned since 1976 and full protection for the subspecies S. s. ijimae; annual levels dropped from over 1 million birds in the 1970s to approximately 6,000 by the early 2000s, contributing to population recovery. The species occurs in numerous protected areas, including national parks, where hunting is further restricted to support habitat connectivity. Conservation actions include habitat enhancement through to restore vegetation in degraded forests, as proposed by Japanese wildlife authorities to improve and cover for the . Monitoring efforts utilize camera traps and breeding bird atlases, such as the Japan Bird Atlas Project, to track distribution and abundance trends in montane forests. programs, managed by zoos and wildlife centers, support reintroduction initiatives; birds have been released since the , with ongoing efforts to bolster local populations despite challenges like high post-release mortality from predation. Internationally, the Copper pheasant is not listed under CITES, indicating low risk from international trade, though research by BirdLife International includes genetic studies to inform subspecies management and conservation genetics. Looking ahead, ongoing monitoring will assess potential climate change impacts on high-elevation habitats, with targets for sustained population stability or modest growth aligned with national biodiversity strategies through 2030.

Cultural significance

Role in Japanese culture

The copper pheasant, known as yamadori in Japanese, holds symbolic importance as the official bird of , where it represents the region's natural heritage and forested mountains. In folklore, the bird is portrayed as a figure associated with mountain realms, with its tail feathers believed to repel evil spirits when possessing 13 nodes, symbolizing elusive beauty and mystical protection. Historically, the copper pheasant appears in classical Japanese literature and art, evoking themes of nature's transience and elegance. During the (794–1185), it featured in poetry collections like the Hyakunin Isshu, where its cry symbolized longing amid mountainous isolation. Motifs of the yamadori adorn prints by artists such as Utagawa Hiroshige and Kitagawa Utamaro, depicting the bird amid bamboo and seasonal flora to convey harmony with the landscape; these images also influenced textile designs and stage elements in traditional theater forms. In modern , the copper pheasant has been commemorated on postage stamps, including a 1971 issue in the Fauna, Flora, and National Treasures series highlighting its cultural and ecological value. It remains valued in traditions rooted in samurai-era practices, where seasonal pursuits of the male bird were conducted under regulated guidelines tied to respect for natural cycles. Since the , the species has served as an emblem in environmental campaigns promoting conservation, with surveys and sustainable use initiatives underscoring its role in raising awareness about habitat protection in central .

Interactions with humans outside Japan

The copper pheasant is maintained in a limited number of zoos and aviaries outside , where it is valued for its striking plumage and as part of ornamental bird collections. Notable examples include the in the United States, which houses the species, and the Lubin Zoo in , which keeps the nominate subspecies Syrmaticus soemmerringii soemmerringii as one of the rarer pheasants in global . In private , enthusiasts in and breed the bird for its aesthetic appeal, with records of specimens in German aviaries dating back to the late . efforts focus on sustaining small populations and promoting , often through managed pairings to mimic natural conditions. Research on the copper outside has contributed to broader understandings of pheasant and . Molecular phylogenetic studies using , including and control region sequences, have incorporated the to resolve relationships within the Syrmaticus, revealing its close ties to other long-tailed pheasants. No established wild populations of the copper pheasant exist outside its native , despite historical imports for ; occasional sightings in the UK and stem from escaped or released captives, but these have not led to breeding groups. The bird's ornamental value has earned it admiration in international ornithological circles, appearing in field guides like Birds of the World for its distinctive coppery-red male and elusive . International trade in copper pheasants is restricted to prevent , with exports from regulated under national laws to support captive programs abroad; the is not appended to but benefits from monitoring through global avicultural networks.

References

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  28. https://raps.bg/copper-and-green-pheasants-in-japan/
  29. https://100poets.com/tag/moon/
  30. https://www.artic.edu/artworks/110295/copper-pheasant-and-bamboo
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