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Smooth structure
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Smooth structure
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In mathematics, a smooth structure on a manifold allows for an unambiguous notion of smooth function. In particular, a smooth structure allows mathematical analysis to be performed on the manifold.[1]

Definition

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A smooth structure on a manifold is a collection of smoothly equivalent smooth atlases. Here, a smooth atlas for a topological manifold is an atlas for such that each transition function is a smooth map, and two smooth atlases for are smoothly equivalent provided their union is again a smooth atlas for This gives a natural equivalence relation on the set of smooth atlases.

A smooth manifold is a topological manifold together with a smooth structure on

Maximal smooth atlases

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By taking the union of all atlases belonging to a smooth structure, we obtain a maximal smooth atlas. This atlas contains every chart that is compatible with the smooth structure. There is a natural one-to-one correspondence between smooth structures and maximal smooth atlases. Thus, we may regard a smooth structure as a maximal smooth atlas and vice versa.

In general, computations with the maximal atlas of a manifold are rather unwieldy. For most applications, it suffices to choose a smaller atlas. For example, if the manifold is compact, then one can find an atlas with only finitely many charts.

Equivalence of smooth structures

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If and are two maximal atlases on the two smooth structures associated to and are said to be equivalent if there is a diffeomorphism such that [citation needed]

Exotic spheres

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John Milnor showed in 1956 that the 7-dimensional sphere admits a smooth structure that is not equivalent to the standard smooth structure. A sphere equipped with a nonstandard smooth structure is called an exotic sphere.

E8 manifold

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The E8 manifold is an example of a topological manifold that does not admit a smooth structure. This essentially demonstrates that Rokhlin's theorem holds only for smooth structures, and not topological manifolds in general.

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The smoothness requirements on the transition functions can be weakened, so that the transition maps are only required to be -times continuously differentiable; or strengthened, so that the transition maps are required to be real-analytic. Accordingly, this gives a or (real-)analytic structure on the manifold rather than a smooth one. Similarly, a complex structure can be defined by requiring the transition maps to be holomorphic.

See also

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  • Smooth frame – Generalization of an ordered basis of a vector space
  • Atlas (topology) – Set of charts that describes a manifold

References

[edit]
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Smooth structure

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In , a smooth structure on a MM is defined as a maximal atlas consisting of charts that are homeomorphisms from open subsets of MM to open subsets of Rn\mathbb{R}^n, where the transition maps between overlapping charts are smooth (i.e., infinitely differentiable) functions. This of compatible atlases equips the manifold with the necessary framework to perform , enabling the precise definition of derivatives, tangent spaces, and other differential geometric concepts. The concept of a smooth structure generalizes the notion of smoothness from Euclidean spaces to more abstract topological spaces, ensuring that local behavior mimics that of Rn\mathbb{R}^n while maintaining global consistency across the manifold. A smooth manifold is then a endowed with such a structure, allowing for the study of smooth maps, immersions, and embeddings between manifolds. This structure is maximal in the sense that it includes all possible charts compatible with the given atlas, providing a complete system for coordinate representations. One of the most notable aspects of smooth structures is the existence of exotic smooth structures, which are distinct smooth structures on the same underlying that are not diffeomorphic to each other. In 1956, discovered the first examples on the 7-dimensional sphere S7S^7, constructing manifolds homeomorphic to S7S^7 but not smoothly equivalent to the standard smooth structure on S7S^7. The complete classification showed these exotic 7-spheres total 28 distinct ones up to , arising from classifying spaces of Lie groups and highlighting the subtlety of in higher dimensions. Exotic structures are known to exist in dimensions 7 and above; on spheres, the smooth structure is unique up to diffeomorphism in dimensions 1–3 and 5–6, while it remains unknown in dimension 4, and their study has profound implications for and geometry.

Preliminaries

Topological Manifolds

A is a fundamental object in that serves as the basis for more structured spaces like smooth manifolds. Formally, an nn-dimensional MM is a that is second-countable and Hausdorff, and locally Euclidean of dimension nn, meaning every point in MM has an open neighborhood homeomorphic to an open subset of Rn\mathbb{R}^n. The second-countability axiom ensures that MM has a countable basis for its , which implies paracompactness—a property guaranteeing that every open cover admits a locally finite refinement—essential for many constructions in . The Hausdorff condition provides separation between distinct points via disjoint open sets, preventing pathological clustering and ensuring a well-behaved global structure. These properties collectively ensure that topological manifolds are metrizable and support a rich theory of continuous functions and embeddings. The local allows for the study of local phenomena through familiar Euclidean tools, while global or connectedness can vary. For instance, Rn\mathbb{R}^n is the prototypical example of an nn-dimensional , being open, non-compact, and simply homeomorphic to itself. The nn- SnS^n, defined as the set of points in Rn+1\mathbb{R}^{n+1} at unit distance from the origin, exemplifies a compact topological manifold of nn. Similarly, the nn- Tn=S1×⋯×S1T^n = S^1 \times \cdots \times S^1 (n times) is a compact, connected topological manifold of nn, arising as a product of circles. A key feature of topological manifolds is the : if MM admits charts to Rn\mathbb{R}^n, then all such charts map to the same nn, independent of the choice of coordinate systems; this follows from Brouwer's theorem, which shows that homeomorphic images preserve in Euclidean spaces. This invariance ensures that the is a well-defined topological invariant for the . Smooth atlases extend these topological charts by imposing compatibility conditions on transition maps.

Charts and Atlases

In the context of topological manifolds, which are Hausdorff, second-countable spaces locally homeomorphic to Euclidean space, charts provide a means to describe this local Euclidean structure through coordinate systems. A chart on a topological manifold MM of dimension nn is a pair (U,ϕ)(U, \phi), where U⊆MU \subseteq M is an open set and ϕ:U→Rn\phi: U \to \mathbb{R}^n is a homeomorphism onto an open subset ϕ(U)⊆Rn\phi(U) \subseteq \mathbb{R}^n. The map ϕ\phi assigns local coordinates to points in UU, allowing the neighborhood to be identified with a portion of Euclidean space while preserving the topology. For two charts (U,ϕ)(U, \phi) and (V,ψ)(V, \psi) on MM with nonempty overlap U∩V≠∅U \cap V \neq \emptyset, the transition map is defined as ψ∘ϕ−1:ϕ(U∩V)→ψ(U∩V)\psi \circ \phi^{-1}: \phi(U \cap V) \to \psi(U \cap V), which maps coordinates from the first chart to the second. Since both ϕ\phi and ψ\psi are homeomorphisms, the transition map ψ∘ϕ−1\psi \circ \phi^{-1} is itself a homeomorphism between open subsets of Rn\mathbb{R}^n, ensuring consistent topological structure across overlapping regions. The inverse transition map ϕ∘ψ−1\phi \circ \psi^{-1} similarly provides a homeomorphism in the opposite direction. An atlas on MM is a collection A={(Uα,ϕα)∣α∈I}\mathcal{A} = \{(U_\alpha, \phi_\alpha) \mid \alpha \in I\} of charts such that the domains ⋃α∈IUα=M\bigcup_{\alpha \in I} U_\alpha = M cover the entire manifold and all transition maps between overlapping charts are homeomorphisms. This collection equips MM with a global coordinate framework while maintaining local . Atlases are not unique; different choices may describe the same topological structure if they are compatible. Two atlases A\mathcal{A} and B\mathcal{B} on MM are compatible if their union A∪B\mathcal{A} \cup \mathcal{B} forms an atlas, meaning that transition maps between any from A\mathcal{A} and any from B\mathcal{B} with overlapping domains are homeomorphisms. This compatibility ensures that the atlases induce the same on MM, allowing them to be interchanged without altering the manifold's structure.

Smooth Atlases

Definition of Smooth Compatibility

In , a smooth function, or C∞C^\infty function, is a real-valued function f:U→Rf: U \to \mathbb{R} defined on an open U⊆RnU \subseteq \mathbb{R}^n that is infinitely differentiable, meaning all partial derivatives of all orders exist and are continuous on UU. This property ensures that the function can be differentiated arbitrarily many times without losing continuity in its derivatives, forming the foundation for higher-order on manifolds. Building on topological atlases, which provide compatible homeomorphisms to open subsets of Rn\mathbb{R}^n, a smooth atlas elevates this structure by requiring infinite differentiability in coordinate changes. Specifically, two charts (U,ϕ)(U, \phi) and (V,ψ)(V, \psi) on a MM are smoothly compatible if U∩V=∅U \cap V = \emptyset or if the transition map ψ∘ϕ−1:ϕ(U∩V)→ψ(U∩V)\psi \circ \phi^{-1}: \phi(U \cap V) \to \psi(U \cap V) is a C∞C^\infty , meaning it is a smooth with a smooth inverse. A smooth atlas is then defined as a collection of charts on MM that cover MM and are pairwise smoothly compatible, thereby inducing a consistent smooth structure across the manifold. The of transition maps ensures consistent differentiation across overlapping by allowing derivatives to transform predictably under composition. For instance, if a function ff is expressed in local coordinates via one chart and re-expressed via another, the chain rule guarantees that the partial derivatives in the new coordinates are obtained by multiplying the Jacobian matrix of the transition map by the original derivatives, preserving the manifold's differential properties globally. A example is the on Rn\mathbb{R}^n itself, consisting of the single (Rn,id)(\mathbb{R}^n, \mathrm{id}) where id\mathrm{id} is the identity map; any transition maps within this atlas are trivially the identity, which is a C∞C^\infty . This structure exemplifies how smoothness aligns seamlessly with the , serving as the prototype for smooth manifolds.

Maximal Smooth Atlases

In , given a smooth atlas A\mathcal{A} on a MM, the maximal smooth atlas generated by A\mathcal{A}, denoted A~\tilde{\mathcal{A}}, is the collection of all charts on MM that are smoothly compatible with every chart in A\mathcal{A}. Specifically, a chart (ϕ,U)(\phi, U) belongs to A~\tilde{\mathcal{A}} if for every chart (ψ,V)∈A(\psi, V) \in \mathcal{A} with U∩V≠∅U \cap V \neq \emptyset, the transition map ψ∘ϕ−1:ϕ(U∩V)→ψ(U∩V)\psi \circ \phi^{-1}: \phi(U \cap V) \to \psi(U \cap V) is a smooth diffeomorphism (and similarly for the inverse). This extension process ensures that A~\tilde{\mathcal{A}} includes every possible chart whose transitions with those in A\mathcal{A} satisfy the smoothness criterion of C∞C^\infty-diffeomorphisms between open subsets of Rn\mathbb{R}^n. The maximal smooth atlas A~\tilde{\mathcal{A}} is unique in the sense that any two smooth atlases A1\mathcal{A}_1 and A2\mathcal{A}_2 generate the same A~\tilde{\mathcal{A}} if and only if they determine the same smooth structure on MM. This follows from the fact that if A1⊆A~2\mathcal{A}_1 \subseteq \tilde{\mathcal{A}}_2 and A2⊆A~1\mathcal{A}_2 \subseteq \tilde{\mathcal{A}}_1, then A~1=A~2\tilde{\mathcal{A}}_1 = \tilde{\mathcal{A}}_2, establishing that atlases yielding identical maximal extensions are equivalent for defining the manifold's differentiability. Maximal smooth atlases serve as canonical representatives for smooth structures, eliminating redundancy when specifying collections of charts since any smooth atlas can be enlarged to its maximal form without altering the underlying geometry. By construction, A~\tilde{\mathcal{A}} covers the entire manifold MM and all transition maps between its charts are smooth, providing a complete and consistent framework for local coordinate representations.

Equivalence of Smooth Structures

Compatible Atlases

Two smooth atlases A\mathcal{A} and B\mathcal{B} on a MM are compatible if their union A∪B\mathcal{A} \cup \mathcal{B} forms a smooth atlas. This requires that, for every pair of charts (U,ϕ)∈A(U, \phi) \in \mathcal{A} and (V,ψ)∈B(V, \psi) \in \mathcal{B} with U∩V≠∅U \cap V \neq \emptyset, the transition map ψ∘ϕ−1:ϕ(U∩V)→ψ(U∩V)\psi \circ \phi^{-1} : \phi(U \cap V) \to \psi(U \cap V) is a smooth diffeomorphism (i.e., both it and its inverse are smooth). The compatibility relation is reflexive, as A∪A=A\mathcal{A} \cup \mathcal{A} = \mathcal{A} is smooth by assumption; symmetric, since A∪B\mathcal{A} \cup \mathcal{B} smooth implies B∪A\mathcal{B} \cup \mathcal{A} smooth; and transitive, because if A\mathcal{A} is compatible with B\mathcal{B} and B\mathcal{B} with C\mathcal{C}, then all transition maps in A∪B∪C\mathcal{A} \cup \mathcal{B} \cup \mathcal{C} are compositions of smooth diffeomorphisms and thus smooth. Consequently, compatibility partitions the collection of all smooth atlases on MM into equivalence classes. Atlases in the same induce identical smooth structures on MM, meaning they define the same class of smooth functions (a map f:M→Rf: M \to \mathbb{R} is smooth with respect to A\mathcal{A} it is with respect to a compatible B\mathcal{B}) and yield isomorphic local tangent spaces at each point. A concrete example arises on Rn\mathbb{R}^n, where the standard atlas A={(Rn,id)}\mathcal{A} = \{(\mathbb{R}^n, \mathrm{id})\} is compatible with any atlas B\mathcal{B} consisting of charts (Ui,ϕi)(U_i, \phi_i) such that each ϕi\phi_i is a smooth diffeomorphism onto an open subset of Rn\mathbb{R}^n, including those obtained via invertible linear transformations, as their transition maps are linear isomorphisms and hence smooth.

Smooth Structures as Equivalence Classes

A smooth structure on a topological manifold MM is defined as an equivalence class of smooth atlases on MM, where two smooth atlases A\mathcal{A} and B\mathcal{B} are equivalent if their union A∪B\mathcal{A} \cup \mathcal{B} is also a smooth atlas, meaning all transition maps between charts from A\mathcal{A} and B\mathcal{B} are smooth. This equivalence relation partitions the collection of all smooth atlases into classes, each representing a distinct way to differentiate MM consistently across its topology. Equivalently, a smooth structure can be identified with the unique maximal smooth atlas containing any representative atlas from the class, which includes every chart on MM that is smoothly compatible with the original atlas. The smooth structure induces key operations on the manifold. Specifically, it defines smooth maps between smooth manifolds: a continuous map f:M→Nf: M \to N between manifolds equipped with smooth structures is smooth if, for every pair of charts (U,ϕ)(U, \phi) on MM and (V,ψ)(V, \psi) on NN with f(U)⊂Vf(U) \subset V, the composition ψ∘f∘ϕ−1:ϕ(U)→ψ(V)\psi \circ f \circ \phi^{-1}: \phi(U) \to \psi(V) is a smooth map between open subsets of Rn\mathbb{R}^n and Rm\mathbb{R}^m. This notion extends to tensor fields, where sections of tensor bundles over MM are smooth if their coordinate representations with respect to the atlas are smooth functions. On the Euclidean space Rn\mathbb{R}^n, the standard smooth structure is the unique equivalence class generated by the identity atlas consisting of the single chart (Rn,id)(\mathbb{R}^n, \mathrm{id}), which is compatible with any atlas whose transition maps are smooth diffeomorphisms between open subsets of Rn\mathbb{R}^n. This structure aligns with the usual differentiation from multivariable calculus and admits all polynomial coordinate changes as compatible transitions, since polynomials are smooth. In low dimensions, smooth structures exhibit uniqueness: every of dimension at most 3 admits a unique smooth structure up to , meaning any two smooth structures on such a manifold are diffeomorphic.

Examples of Non-Standard Smooth Structures

Exotic Spheres

An is a smooth manifold that is homeomorphic to the standard nn-sphere SnS^n but not diffeomorphic to it with the standard smooth structure. In 1956, discovered the existence of exotic smooth structures on the 7-sphere by constructing manifolds homeomorphic to S7S^7 using S3S^3-bundles over S4S^4, showing that the smooth category allows phenomena absent in the topological category. Together with Michel Kervaire in 1963, Milnor classified all such structures, proving that there are exactly 28 distinct oriented smooth structures on S7S^7, up to , forming the group Θ7≅Z/28Z\Theta_7 \cong \mathbb{Z}/28\mathbb{Z}. This classification arises from the stable π7(SO)≅Z/28Z\pi_7(SO) \cong \mathbb{Z}/28\mathbb{Z}, which parametrizes the possible framings and bundle structures leading to these exotic forms. Exotic spheres exist only in dimensions n≥7n \geq 7, with no such structures in lower dimensions except possibly n=4n=4, where the smooth remains open but no exotic spheres are known. Kervaire and Milnor established that the number of distinct oriented smooth structures on SnS^n is finite for each nn, though it grows rapidly with dimension; for example, there are 2 in dimension 8 and 8 in dimension 9. Stephen Smale's h-cobordism theorem, proved in 1961, plays a crucial role by implying the topological uniqueness of spheres: any homotopy nn-sphere for n≥5n \geq 5 is h-cobordant to the standard SnS^n and thus homeomorphic to it via a diffeomorphism in the topological category. However, this theorem highlights the distinction in the smooth category, as the exotic structures are not h-cobordant via smooth cobordisms, allowing multiple smooth realizations of the same topological manifold. In higher dimensions, the Kirby-Siebenmann obstruction theory provides a framework for detecting and classifying these exotic smooth structures on topological manifolds like spheres, where the primary obstruction lies in H4(M;Z/2)H^4(M; \mathbb{Z}/2) and determines the possible smoothings relative to the unique PL structure. For spheres in dimensions ≥5\geq 5, this obstruction vanishes, permitting smooth structures, but the theory reveals the multiplicity arising from homotopy-theoretic invariants.

E8 Manifold

The E8 manifold is the unique compact, simply connected topological whose second homology group is isomorphic to Z8\mathbb{Z}^8 with intersection form given by the negative definite E8E_8 lattice. This lattice arises from the of the exceptional E8E_8, characterized by its consisting of eight nodes connected in a specific branched configuration. The manifold's existence was established by as a cornerstone in his classification theorem for simply connected topological s under connected sum with the 4-sphere. The E8 manifold is constructed explicitly through a plumbing procedure, where eight copies of the disk bundle over the 2-sphere S2S^2 with −2-2 are glued together along their boundaries according to the of the E8E_8 . This negative plumbing yields a closed with the desired intersection form on H2(M;Z)H_2(M; \mathbb{Z}), and its is trivial due to the simply connected nature of the building blocks and the plumbing attachments. Topologically, it is spin, as confirmed by the even intersection form, and its Betti numbers are b0=1b_0 = 1, b1=0b_1 = 0, b2=8b_2 = 8, b3=0b_3 = 0, b4=1b_4 = 1, resulting in an of χ=10\chi = 10. The signature is σ=−8\sigma = -8, reflecting the negative definiteness of the form. Unlike exotic spheres, which admit multiple distinct smooth structures, the E8 manifold admits no smooth structure whatsoever. This non-smoothability follows from Rokhlin's theorem, which asserts that the signature of any closed smooth spin 4-manifold must be divisible by 16; here, σ=−8≢0(mod16)\sigma = -8 \not\equiv 0 \pmod{16}. Independently, Donaldson's gauge-theoretic invariants provide a diagonalization theorem for definite intersection forms on smooth simply connected 4-manifolds, implying that any smooth manifold with the E8E_8 form would contradict these invariants, as the form must be diagonalizable over Z\mathbb{Z} with entries ±1\pm 1, which the E8E_8 form is not. Consequently, while the E8 manifold exists in the topological category, equipping it with a smooth atlas leads to inconsistencies in the differentiable category. The E8 manifold exemplifies the profound differences between topological and smooth manifold theories in dimension 4, highlighting how and index-theoretic obstructions prevent smoothability in cases where topological existence is assured. Its construction via has influenced subsequent work on handlebody decompositions and re-embedding theorems for 4-manifolds, underscoring the role of exceptional root systems in .

Finite Differentiability Structures

Finite differentiability structures, or CkC^k structures for 1≤k<∞1 \leq k < \infty, generalize smooth (C∞C^\infty) structures by relaxing the requirement on transition maps in an atlas. A CkC^k atlas on a MM is a collection of charts such that the transition maps between overlapping charts are CkC^k diffeomorphisms, meaning they are kk times continuously differentiable with CkC^k inverses. Two CkC^k atlases are compatible if their union forms a CkC^k atlas, and a CkC^k structure is defined as an of such compatible CkC^k atlases, with each class admitting a unique maximal CkC^k atlas. This framework, introduced by Whitney, allows for the study of manifolds where higher derivatives beyond order kk are not controlled, contrasting with the infinite differentiability of smooth structures. Every C∞C^\infty structure on a manifold induces a CkC^k structure for any finite kk, as C∞C^\infty transition maps are automatically CkC^k. Conversely, every CkC^k structure for k≥1k \geq 1 uniquely refines to a compatible C∞C^\infty structure. An adaptation of the Whitney embedding theorem applies to CkC^k manifolds: any compact nn-dimensional CkC^k manifold (k≥1k \geq 1) embeds as a closed CkC^k submanifold of R2n\mathbb{R}^{2n}. While the proof relies on general position arguments similar to the smooth case, the finite smoothness limits global analytic properties, such as the existence of tubular neighborhoods with CkC^k normal forms, affecting applications in approximation theory and singularity analysis. This embedding dimension remains $2nregardlessofregardless ofk,buthigher, but higher k$ enables better control over jet spaces and higher-order approximations. On Rn\mathbb{R}^n, all CkC^k structures for k≥1k \geq 1 coincide with the standard Euclidean one, as the group acts transitively on possible atlases, ensuring uniqueness up to . For spheres, the of C1C^1 structures aligns with that of smooth structures: unique up to 6, with exotics beginning at 7.

Piecewise Linear and Topological Structures

Piecewise linear (PL) structures offer a combinatorial framework for manifolds, defined on a via an atlas to where transition maps are piecewise linear—affine on the simplices of a . This category interpolates between smooth structures and purely topological ones, with PL maps preserving the linear structure on each while allowing breaks at vertices. In low s, PL structures closely align with smooth ones; specifically, for s at most 3, the categories of PL and smooth manifolds are equivalent, with every PL manifold admitting a unique compatible smooth structure up to . In higher dimensions, the equivalence breaks down. Every PL manifold of dimension at most 6 admits a unique compatible smooth structure up to , while in dimension 7, they admit compatible smooth structures but not uniquely, as exemplified by the 28 exotic smoothings of the PL 7-sphere. In dimensions greater than 7, not every PL manifold admits a compatible smooth structure; counterexamples exist, such as certain aspherical manifolds in dimension 8 and higher, though some admit multiple exotic smooth structures relative to the fixed PL . The Haefliger-Weber theorem highlights differences in higher dimensions by classifying PL embeddings, showing that while PL structures approximate smooth ones locally, global discrepancies arise beyond dimension 3, as PL embeddings may not always smooth to embeddings without additional obstructions. Topological (TOP) structures consist solely of the underlying , without specified differentiability or linearity in transition maps. Smoothing a TOP manifold involves endowing it with a compatible PL or smooth atlas; the Kirby-Siebenmann theorem shows that not every TOP manifold admits a PL structure, with the primary obstruction given by the Kirby-Siebenmann invariant in H4(M;Z/2)H^4(M; \mathbb{Z}/2) for dimensions at least 5; its vanishing implies the existence of a unique PL structure up to PL . Hirsch's obstruction theory provides a framework for detecting further barriers to smooth structures using groups with coefficients in the groups of the stable group. PL triangulations approximate smooth manifolds by providing compatible subdivisions where the smooth structure refines the linear pieces, allowing local smoothing via affine charts. Exotic smooth structures on a given topological manifold all induce the same underlying PL structure, implying that non-standard smoothings do not alter the PL category but reveal multiplicities within it in dimensions 7 and above. Thus, while PL structures serve as a bridge to TOP, exotic phenomena underscore that smooth refinements can vary even when PL and topological aspects remain fixed.

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