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Storm Filomena
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Storm Filomena
Satellite imagery of Storm Filomena over the Iberian Peninsula on 9 January
TypeExtratropical cyclone
European windstorm
Winter storm
Blizzard
Formed7 January 2021
Dissipated15 January 2021
Highest winds
Highest gust85 mph (140 km/h)
Lowest pressure995 mb (29.38 inHg)
Maximum snowfall
or ice accretion		60 cm (24 in)
Maximum rainfall51 mm (2.0 in)
Fatalities5 fatalities
Damage$2.2 billion (2021 USD)[1]
€1.8 billion (2021 Euro)
Areas affectedPortugal, Spain, Andorra, France, Morocco, Italy, Vatican City, San Marino, Greece, Turkey, Ukraine

Storm Filomena was an extratropical cyclone in early January 2021 that was most notable for bringing unusually heavy snowfall to parts of Spain, with Madrid recording its heaviest snowfall in over a century [1], and with Portugal being hit less severely. The eighth named storm of the 2020–21 European windstorm season, Filomena formed over the Atlantic Ocean close to the Canary Islands on 7 January, subsequently taking a slow track north-eastwards towards the Iberian Peninsula and then eastwards across the Mediterranean Sea.

As Filomena was crossing the Iberian Peninsula, the leading edge of the storm collided with cold air that was being channeled down from the Arctic by an area of high pressure centred over the United Kingdom; the constant supply of cold air and slow movement of Filomena resulted in persistent heavy snowfall, reaching up to 60 cm (24 in) in Madrid. At least 5 people were killed due to the effects of cold weather in Spain during the passage of Filomena: three in Madrid and two in Málaga. Impacts elsewhere were minimal as Filomena moved away from the high to its north, lost its supply of cold air and weakened, and the storm was last noted over Ukraine on 15 January. The storm killed 5 people and caused an estimated $2.2 billion (2021 USD; €1.8 billion) in damages.[1]

Meteorological history

[edit]

Storm Filomena formed as a low pressure centre along a frontal boundary over the Canary Islands on 7 January.[2] By then, the coldest temperature ever recorded in Iberia was registered at Torremocha de Jiloca, in the Teruel, at −26.5 °C (−15.7 °F).[disputed – discuss][3] The system then moved slowly north-eastwards, crossing the Iberian Peninsula between 8–10 January;[4][5][6] the storm's slow movement contributed to the duration and severity of snowfall across Spain. During the time of Filomena's passage over the Iberian Peninsula, a powerful high-pressure system, named Anticyclone Antje by the Free University of Berlin (FUB), was centred over the United Kingdom, bringing cold air from the Arctic across the British Isles and down into the vicinity of Storm Filomena. This cold air became entrained into the leading edge of Filomena as it pushed north-eastwards against the southern edge of the area of high pressure, leading to heavy snowfall.

After emerging into the Mediterranean Sea, Filomena accelerated eastwards away from the area of high pressure, losing its supply of cold air in the process. Filomena crossed Italy on 11 January[7] with minimal impacts, before stalling again between Italy and Greece on 11–12 January.[7][8] Considerably weakened by this time, Filomena then moved over Turkey and stalled for a third time on 13–14 January,[9][10] before accelerating northwards across the eastern Black Sea on 15 January.[11] Filomena was last noted as a weak low over eastern Ukraine later that day,[11] before being absorbed by a deeper low named Cyclone Dimitrios by the FUB by 16 January.[12]

Impact

[edit]
Heavy snowfall in Zaragoza on 9 January

The State Meteorological Agency of Spain (AEMET) named Storm Filomena on 5 January as they issued the first weather warnings ahead of the anticipated severe impact of the system.[13] Near the coasts, wind gusts of up to 80 km/h (50 mph) occurred as Filomena made landfall on 7 January, as well as 25–50 mm (1–2 in) of rain in southern areas of Spain and Portugal which caused some flash flooding. Further inland and in higher elevations, snowfall of up to 60 cm (2 ft) was recorded. In the Sierra Nevada mountains of southern Spain, wind gusts of up to 121 km/h (75 mph) accompanied the large snow totals, leading to blizzard conditions.[14][15] Due to the unprecedented amount of snowfall, some unsuspecting motorists were trapped on the roads for hours.

Snowfall from Filomena over the Iberian Peninsula

As Filomena began to move into the area, snow began to fall in Madrid on 7 January.[16] This was followed by 30 hours of continuous snowfall on 8–9 January. On 9 January, AEMET reported between 50–60 cm (20–24 in) of accumulated snow from its weather stations within Madrid.[17][18] The severity of the event was unmatched by any previous snowfall in the Spanish capital since at least 1971.[17]

The EMT's bus lines, the commuter rail Cercanías as well as Madrid-Barajas airport all stopped operating due to heavy snowfall. The Metro de Madrid became the only available public transportation system, staying open 24 hours for only the second time in its history after the 2017 Madrid WorldPride [es] event.[19][20] Early estimates showed that around 150,000 trees in the city (18.5% out of the 800,000 registered trees) were damaged or had collapsed due to the snow.[21] Later assessments by the Madrid Town Hall gave figures of 70% of trees in historical parks, 15% of trees in singular parks and an additional 450,000 trees in forest parks being damaged by the storm. Conifers and Mediterranean evergreen trees were particularly affected.[22] During these events in Madrid, winter sports were practiced in the city. The slopes of the Cerro del Tío Pío [es] in Vallecas were used as snowboarding runs.[23]

The roof of "La Nevera", in the IES Ramiro de Maeztu school, the traditional home of the CB Estudiantes youth system, collapsed due to the weight of snow.[24] The Military Emergencies Unit (UME) contributed to clear up accesses to hospitals—the event took place amid the third wave of the deadly COVID-19 pandemic and the connected vaccination effort—and the Madrid–Barajas Airport lanes.[18][25]

Five people were killed in Spain during the passage of Filomena. By 9 January, two homeless people had died from the effects of cold weather, one in Madrid and one in Calatayud. Two more deaths occurred due to flooding in Málaga.[26] On 16 January, a fifth dead body was found under lying snow in the Arganzuela district of Madrid.[27]

  • Shattered trees in Calle de Manuela Malasaña
    Shattered trees in Calle de Manuela Malasaña
  • Snowboarders in Vallecas
  • EMT bus stranded in Plaza de España
    EMT bus stranded in Plaza de España

Aftermath

[edit]
The snowfall as captured by the Sentinel-2 satellite of the European Space Agency on 11 January 2021

The majority of roads in Madrid still remained blocked by snow a week after the snowstorm, with small streets and the city periphery being particularly affected.[28] Delays in clearing snow in the city led to closure of Madrid schools until the 20th of January.[29] On the 16th of January, a body was found under the snow in Arganzuela district of Madrid.[27]

The snowstorm fully paralyzed the waste collection service for 4 days. As of 15 January only a 13% of the 9,000 tonnes of litter accumulated on the streets had been removed.[30]

The Mayor of Madrid, José Luis Martínez-Almeida required the Government of Spain for the declaration of Madrid as disaster area and numbered in 1,398 million euros the damages caused by the storm.[31] The bill however also reportedly included the money foregone on parking meters and paddle tennis courts.[31]

A presence of rodents was detected during the spillover of the Storm Filomena, as the waste collection service ceased to operate.[32] By early February a plague of roof rats (black rats) was reported to have installed around the area of Méndez Álvaro.[32]

See also

[edit]
  • Storm Gloria – a similarly slow-moving extratropical cyclone in January 2020 which caused catastrophic flooding over the Iberian Peninsula.

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Storm Filomena

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Storm Filomena was the sixth named of the 2020–2021 Atlantic storm season, which impacted from 6 to 10 2021, delivering exceptional snowfall across the central and eastern through the interaction of a deepening low-pressure system with cold polar air masses. Named by Spain's State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) on 5 due to anticipated , the storm produced up to 50 cm of snow accumulation in over 30 hours on 8–9 , marking the most intense snowfall in the city since 1971 and leading to widespread infrastructure disruptions including airport and rail closures. The originated from a surface low that traversed the Atlantic from the , intensifying as it encountered warmer Mediterranean waters and clashed with sub-zero temperatures aloft, facilitated by a negative phase of the that promoted cold, moist conditions over the region. While heavy rain dominated in southern areas like Málaga with over 250 mm recorded, the event blanketed half of , affecting urban centers unprepared for such volumes and causing significant damage to arboreal masses and transportation networks. Following the precipitation, a prolonged from 11 to 17 January shattered temperature minima, with readings as low as –26.5 °C in locations like Torremocha de Jiloca, underscoring the storm's role in compounding meteorological extremes. Forecasts from models like those of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts accurately anticipated the event's severity days in advance, enabling warnings but highlighting challenges in pinpointing exact snowfall distributions.

Meteorological History

Synoptic Conditions and Formation

Prior to the formation of Storm Filomena, experienced a phase of negative (NAO), characterized by weakened westerly winds and enhanced meridional flow, which enabled the of cold polar air masses southward from toward the . This setup contributed to an extended cold spell across starting in early January 2021, with surface temperatures dropping well below seasonal norms and establishing a deep cold air layer over the region. The storm originated as an extratropical cyclone developing from a precursor low-pressure system over the central North Atlantic, intensifying upon interaction with an upper-level potential vorticity (PV) trough resulting from anticyclonic Rossby wave breaking over Europe. This dynamical process, evident in ERA5 reanalysis data, amplified the trough's amplitude and facilitated the deepening of a surface low over the western Mediterranean around January 6-7, 2021. The cyclone's genesis was further supported by the juxtaposition of the preexisting cold continental air mass with relatively warm Mediterranean sea surface temperatures, promoting latent heat release and cyclogenesis through baroclinic instability. Synoptic analyses confirm that the upper-level divergence associated with the PV trough enhanced upward motion, while the surface low's central pressure fell rapidly, reaching values indicative of rapid intensification typical of Mediterranean extratropical systems. ERA5 reanalysis fields highlight the role of this configuration in channeling cold northerly flows ahead of the cyclone, setting the stage for subsequent precipitation dynamics without reliance on subtropical influences.

Development and Track

Storm Filomena originated as a precursor low-pressure system over the central North Atlantic, positioned between the and . The Spanish State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) named the developing Filomena on January 5, 2021, in anticipation of its impacts on the . Beginning on January 6, the system brought strong winds and heavy rain to the and southern as it tracked eastward. The intensified on January 7, 2021, with its central pressure decreasing amid interaction with an upper-level trough resulting from anticyclonic wave breaking, propelling it toward 's eastern coast. gusts near coastal areas reached up to 80 km/h during this phase of eastward progression and initial land interaction. By January 8, the system stalled over central and eastern , reaching peak effects through January 9 as the stalled frontal structure prolonged atmospheric moisture influx. Following its peak, Filomena weakened rapidly over land from January 10 onward, with the low-pressure core filling as it progressed inland and lost dynamical support. The system fully dissipated by January 12, 2021, after crossing the .

Snowfall Dynamics and Dissipation

The heavy snowfall during Storm Filomena resulted from a seeder-feeder mechanism, where a layer of warm, moist air at approximately 1.5 km altitude overrode a shallow air mass near the surface, about 1 km deep, over the . This configuration, driven by the extratropical cyclone's transporting moisture from the , promoted the formation of widespread ice crystals in the upper levels (seeder clouds) that fell through lower-level supercooled droplets (feeder clouds), enhancing snowflake growth via riming and aggregation. Surface temperatures below 0°C, combined with pre-existing soils from an extended spell, ensured that precipitation reached the ground as rather than , analogous to a frozen variant of typical Mediterranean "cold drop" events but enabled by the anomalously deep polar air intrusion. Orographic enhancement played a key role in local snow accumulation, particularly over elevated terrain such as the northwest of , where forced ascent of the moist air mass increased efficiency and intensity. The cyclone's slow movement and persistent moisture supply sustained snowfall rates of several cm per hour over 30+ hours from January 8–9, 2021, yielding accumulations exceeding 50 cm in central areas like 's Retiro Park (52.9 cm) despite minimal surface melting due to sub-zero conditions. Snowfall dynamics dissipated as Filomena accelerated eastward into the Mediterranean after January 9, depleting the supply of cold air and moisture convergence over central , with ceasing by January 10. The subsequent development of a blocking anticyclone introduced cold, dry northerly flow, preventing immediate thawing and extending the cover's persistence through and surface effects, rather than rapid melt from warming. This transition minimized short-term melt-induced runoff in affected regions by January 12, though localized formation occurred under diurnal cycles.

Impacts

Regional Variations in Precipitation and Snow Accumulation

Storm Filomena, occurring from January 7 to 10, 2021, produced marked regional differences in type and accumulation across , with gauge measurements revealing heavy snowfall in the colder interior and mountainous zones transitioning to rainfall in warmer southern and coastal regions. In central , particularly , snow depths accumulated to 50 cm or more, including a verified 52.9 cm at the Retiro station, representing the highest 24-hour snowfall in the capital since 1971 as confirmed by AEMET observations. Average snow cover across the affected interior half of reached 30–50 cm, with the precipitation primarily falling as between elevations of 200–700 m during January 8–9. Mountainous areas, such as the , experienced elevated accumulations due to orographic enhancement, with adjusted gauge data indicating depths up to 75 cm in select high-elevation sites amid the broader 30–50 cm interior pattern. These central snow totals contrasted sharply with southern Spain, where liquid precipitation prevailed; for instance, in province recorded 252 mm of rain, highlighting the driven by temperature gradients during the event. Eastern coastal zones like saw similar rainfall dominance, though with lesser totals than the Andalusian extremes. The 's snowfall in and surrounding plateaus exceeded comparable events in intensity and extent, yet such heavy accumulations align with infrequent but documented historical variability in Spain's interior climate records. Satellite-derived estimates corroborated gauge data, showing widespread snow cover persisting in central highlands while southern radar returns indicated convective rain episodes without significant freezing levels.

Human and Infrastructure Disruptions

Storm Filomena caused widespread transportation disruptions across central , particularly in , where heavy snowfall led to the closure of Madrid-Barajas Airport starting on January 8, 2021, with operations halted for several days due to snow accumulation on runways and low visibility. Rail services in the region were suspended, and major roads remained impassable, stranding thousands of motorists overnight on highways such as the A-3 and A-4, with services rescuing over 2,500 drivers trapped in their . Power outages affected multiple areas, including parts of , Toledo, and surrounding regions, exacerbating the crisis amid sub-zero temperatures following the storm. In some locales, such as certain townships near , electricity failures persisted for days, leaving residents without heating during the freeze. Urban areas like experienced near-total paralysis, with halted, supermarkets facing supply shortages due to blocked delivery routes, and residents advised to remain indoors as tire chains proved ineffective on uncleared roads. The storm resulted in at least four fatalities in , including two individuals who drowned when their vehicle was swept away by floodwaters near in , and others attributed to or cardiac events amid the cold and isolation. No widespread structural collapses were reported, though fallen trees and contributed to incidents and minor damage without large-scale building failures.

Ecological and Agricultural Effects

The heavy snowfall from Storm Filomena caused widespread structural damage to trees across central Spain, particularly in urban areas like Madrid where the weight of accumulated snow—reaching up to 50 cm in some locations—snapped branches and uprooted evergreens. Post-event assessments using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) imagery indicated that 11% of Madrid's winter vegetation cover was impacted, with significant losses among evergreen species that reduced the city's natural barrier against winter air pollution episodes. These tree losses also affected local wildlife, as the destruction of habitats and food sources disrupted avian populations during the harsh cold snap that followed the storm. Studies documented reduced energetic reserves in birds, prompting behavioral adaptations such as decreased disturbance responses to conserve energy, with common urban species like pigeons and magpies facing heightened vulnerability due to limited foraging opportunities amid the snow cover. Feral animal colonies, including cats, experienced food shortages and exposure risks, exacerbating displacement in affected rural and peri-urban zones. Agriculturally, olive groves bore the brunt of the damage, especially in the Community of Madrid and southeast regions, where snow burial of unharvested fruits led to substantial losses estimated at €12 million in Madrid alone, alongside broken branches and uprooted trees causing necrosis from freeze-thaw cycles. This resulted in direct yield reductions for the 2021 harvest, as buried olives were irretrievable and damaged trees impaired future productivity. Fruit trees, including some vineyards, suffered similar structural harm, though olives were the most quantified sector with total agricultural damages exceeding €100 million nationwide, centered on groves and winter crops.

Response and Recovery

Emergency Measures and Government Actions

The Spanish State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) began issuing warnings for Storm Filomena on January 6, 2021, forecasting heavy snowfall in inland peninsular regions starting the following day, with alerts escalating to red levels for accumulations exceeding 20 cm in 24 hours across provinces including Madrid, Guadalajara, and Toledo by late January 7. These red alerts, unprecedented for snowfall at the time, prompted preemptive activations of regional emergency plans, including restrictions on non-essential travel in affected areas. In response to the intensifying storm, the requested deployment of the Unidad Militar de Emergencias (UME) at 22:38 on January 8, 2021, to conduct urgent rescues of civilians trapped in vehicles amid widespread road blockages. UME units, comprising thousands of personnel alongside civil protection teams, prioritized and ground-based evacuations, rescuing over 1,500 individuals by January 11 and initiating snow clearance operations on more than 500 roads in central . National coordination involved over 62,000 personnel in total deployment for search-and-rescue and infrastructure access restoration, with initial focus on urban centers like where deep snow hindered conventional machinery. Urban coordination in faced logistical constraints due to paralyzed and power outages, necessitating ad-hoc distributions of food, , and heating aids via convoys and local services starting January 9. The central government supported these efforts by maintaining heightened alert status through January 12, urging avoidance of travel and mobilizing additional resources for stranded populations, while regional authorities operated under activated Level 2 protocols until de-escalation on January 19.

Economic Costs and Long-term Recovery

The economic impacts of Storm Filomena were substantial, with Madrid's city government estimating direct damages at a minimum of €1.4 billion, encompassing repairs to , buildings, and public services disrupted by the unprecedented snowfall. Insured losses from and interruptions across affected regions reached approximately €1.8 billion, reflecting halted , transportation paralysis, and widespread power outages that curtailed for days. Agricultural sectors faced over €100 million in losses, primarily from damage to olive groves, orchards, winter , and in central and eastern , with initial assessments in the Madrid region alone projecting up to €21 million. Cleanup and initial repair phases extended over several weeks, involving the removal of accumulations exceeding 50 cm in urban areas and the clearance of fallen debris, including an estimated 150,000 trees uprooted or snapped across , which necessitated €75 million for building repairs and €110 million for roads and pavements. The Spanish government allocated €251.8 million in disbursed starting in 2022 to address verified and damages, prioritizing phased rebuilding of transportation networks and public utilities to restore operational capacity. These efforts included targeted investments in road resurfacing and structural reinforcements, with urban areas like completing major debris clearance by mid-2021 to mitigate prolonged from impeded and . Long-term recovery metrics indicate sustained investments in resilience, such as replanting initiatives for urban tree cover lost during the storm, integrated into municipal budgets to offset ongoing maintenance costs estimated in the tens of millions annually. By , regional authorities reported completion of core upgrades, reducing vulnerability to similar events through enhanced drainage and capabilities, though full economic rebound in affected sectors like lagged due to crop cycle disruptions extending into harvests. evaluations confirmed that distributions correlated with measurable recovery in productivity indices, with Madrid's GDP impacts from lost workdays—totaling millions of man-hours—gradually offset by 2023 through normalized supply chains and rebuilt assets.

Infrastructure Resilience and Lessons Learned

The Spanish electricity transmission grid exhibited robust resilience amid Storm Filomena's intense snowfall and sub-zero temperatures from to 10, 2021, with no structural damage or supply interruptions resulting from grid faults. Operator Red Eléctrica documented roughly 50 minor incidents affecting 12 circuits, 5 transformers, and 1 reactor, all resolved remotely or swiftly without impacting power delivery, thanks to redundant systems, digital monitoring tools that limited on-site interventions to a single instance, and over 140 technicians on standby. International grid interconnections proved vital, enabling imports surpassing 5 GW—primarily 3.4 GW from and 1.7 GW from —on January 8 to meet a 13% demand surge peaking at 42,000 MW. Post-event evaluations affirmed the accuracy of medium-range forecasts, which anticipated Filomena's trajectory and snowfall potential four to five days ahead via models from Spain's State Meteorological Agency (AEMET), allowing preemptive alerts despite underestimations of accumulation in some urban models. Urban infrastructure assessments, drawing on mobility data from Popular Times, revealed differential resilience: essential sectors like food and healthcare sustained operations better than discretionary activities, while low-income districts displayed unexpectedly higher continuity amid widespread transport halts that paralyzed for days. These findings underscored gaps in city-scale readiness for rare heavy-snow scenarios in Mediterranean climates, with variations tied to socioeconomic and infrastructural factors rather than uniform preparedness. Derived lessons emphasized bolstering remote grid diagnostics and cross-border ties to mitigate overloads, alongside refining urban protocols for clearance and mobility—evident in Madrid's subsequent emphasis on augmented stockpiles and coordinated municipal responses informed by Filomena's operational logs. Analyses advocated integrated data-driven to address localized vulnerabilities, prioritizing essential hardening without overreliance on probabilistic extremes, to enhance systemic in non-snow-prone regions.

Scientific Analysis

Post-Event Meteorological Studies

Post-event analyses revealed significant undercatch in gauge measurements of solid during Storm Filomena, primarily due to effects reducing collection efficiency. A 2022 study applied transfer functions to adjust observed snowfall across , estimating that true totals were up to 50% higher than raw gauge readings in affected regions like , where unadjusted accumulations underestimated depths by 20-30 cm in 24 hours. These adjustments, validated against snow depth observations and , highlighted the need for site-specific corrections in low-lying Mediterranean areas prone to variable during cold outbreaks. Satellite-based validations using (GPM) mission data provided independent estimates of Filomena's snowfall intensity. Research from 2021 analyzed GPM's Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) outputs, confirming peak precipitation rates exceeding 20 mm/h over central on January 8-9, with qualitative matches to ground reports despite sampling limitations from the GPM core 's orbit. The study noted IMERG's underestimation of solid-phase precipitation by 10-15% in urban areas like due to algorithmic assumptions on hydrometeor type, underscoring the value of dual-frequency for future refinements in satellite snowfall retrievals. Investigations into synoptic dynamics emphasized the role of stalled fronts in amplifying Filomena's impacts. A analysis identified a critical threshold where the interaction of a blocking high over and a stalled over the western Mediterranean enabled prolonged cold air , sustaining snowfall for over 48 hours in interior —exceeding typical Euro-Mediterranean storm durations by a factor of two. This setup, traced via reanalysis data, involved quasi-stationary evolution from an extratropical precursor over the eastern U.S., with frontogenesis thresholds around 850 hPa potential temperature gradients of 10-15 K/100 km proving pivotal for heavy orographic enhancement. Evaluations of models post-Filomena exposed limitations in forecasting rare cold outbreaks. Comparisons of European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) outputs with adjusted observations showed systematic underprediction of by 30-40% in ensemble runs, attributed to insufficient resolution of cold pools and frontal stalling. Subsequent diagnostic studies recommended enhancements to ECMWF's parameterization of stratiform and soil-atmosphere to better capture Mediterranean snowstorm precursors, informing upgrades for subseasonal predictability of similar events.

Climate Context and Attribution Debates

Storm Filomena was primarily driven by natural atmospheric variability, including a negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) that enabled cold Arctic air masses to advect southward over the , exacerbated by a weakening of the stratospheric days prior to the event. This dynamical setup drew moist Mediterranean air into collision with the cold outflow, producing heavy snowfall without requiring anthropogenic forcing for its occurrence. Historical records indicate similar extreme snow events in central , such as the 1971 Madrid snowfall and earlier instances in 1904, occurred under comparable synoptic conditions, showing that such cold extremes align with multidecadal natural oscillations rather than an upward trend linked to . Attribution analyses reveal limited and conflicting evidence for a substantial anthropogenic signal. A 2022 study employing analog-based methods on reanalysis data found that Filomena-like cyclones in the present exhibit higher central sea-level pressure, reducing their overall probability and intensity compared to pre-industrial conditions, though thermodynamic increases in atmospheric moisture—via Clausius-Clapeyron scaling—yield modestly higher in central . This suggests dynamical regimes, rather than forcing, dominate the event's rarity, with future climates projected to make such storms less probable due to diminished cold air availability. A contrasting 2024 assessment highlighted potential thermodynamic intensification from anthropogenic , estimating up to 40% greater snowfall in northern and high-elevation regions where event-scale temperatures stayed below a -1°C threshold, allowing added moisture to enhance accumulation without dynamical alterations. However, this effect reverses in warmer southern areas, with reductions up to 80%, underscoring that snow-specific extremes hinge on precise temperature margins amid overall fewer cold outbreaks. Mainstream media attributions often amplify climate linkages, yet these overlook the event's fit within paleoclimatic variability and the challenges of isolating signals in rare, circulation-driven phenomena where empirical detection remains low-confidence. Potential upsides, like warmer sea-surface temperatures boosting and , are offset by downsides such as reduced stability and cold air incursions in a warming world.

References

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  40. https://www.reuters.com/article/business/environment/snowstorm-catastrophe-caused-17-billion-of-damage-says-madrid-mayor-idUSKBN29J1EI/
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  46. https://euroweeklynews.com/2021/12/30/economic-aid-for-storm-filomena-to-arrive-in-2022/
  47. https://www.ree.es/en/press-office/news/featured-story/2021/01/resilient-infrastructure-strength-red-electrica
  48. https://english.elpais.com/society/2022-01-14/why-claims-that-a-new-filomena-snowstorm-is-headed-for-spain-are-nothing-more-than-an-old-wives-tale.html
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212095523002389
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  53. https://wcd.copernicus.org/articles/3/1311/2022/
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  55. https://www.lsce.ipsl.fr/en/attributing-extreme-events-to-climate-change-using-observations-and-taking-into-account-the-atmospheric-circulation/
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