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Velar consonant
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Velar consonants are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (also known as the "velum").

Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relatively extensive and the movements of the dorsum are not very precise, velars easily undergo assimilation, shifting their articulation back or to the front depending on the quality of adjacent vowels.[1] They often become automatically fronted, that is partly or completely palatal before a following front vowel, and retracted, that is partly or completely uvular before back vowels.

Palatalised velars (like English /k/ in keen or cube) are sometimes referred to as palatovelars. Many languages also have labialized velars, such as [kʷ], in which the articulation is accompanied by rounding of the lips. There are also labial–velar consonants, which are doubly articulated at the velum and at the lips, such as [k͡p]. This distinction disappears with the approximant consonant [w] since labialization involves adding of a labial approximant articulation to a sound, and this ambiguous situation is often called labiovelar.

A velar trill or tap is not possible according to the International Phonetics Association: see the shaded boxes on the table of pulmonic consonants. In the velar position, the tongue has an extremely restricted ability to carry out the type of motion associated with trills or taps, and the body of the tongue has no freedom to move quickly enough to produce a velar trill or flap.[2]

Examples

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Some velar consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:

IPA Description Example
Language Orthography IPA Meaning
ŋ̊ voiceless velar nasal Burmese[3] ငှါး/nga: [ŋ̊á] 'borrow'
ŋ voiced velar nasal English ring [ɹʷɪŋ] 'ring'
k voiceless velar plosive English skip [skɪp] 'skip'
ɡ voiced velar plosive English ago [əɡoʊ̯] 'ago'
k͜x voiceless velar affricate Korean 크다/keuda [k͜xɯ̽da] 'big'
ɡ͡ɣ voiced velar affricate English[a] good [ˈɡ͡ɣʊˑd̥] 'good'
x voiceless velar fricative German Bauch [baʊx] 'abdomen'
ɣ voiced velar fricative Greek γάτα [ˈɣata] 'cat'
ɰ voiced velar approximant Irish naoi [n̪ˠɰiː] 'nine'
ʍ voiceless labial-velar approximant English which[b] [ʍɪtʃ] 'which'
w voiced labio-velar approximant English witch [wɪtʃ] 'witch'
k͜𝼄 voiceless velar lateral affricate Archi[4] лӀон/ƛon [k͜𝼄on] 'a flock'
ɡ͡ʟ̝ voiced velar lateral affricate Hiw qr̄ē [kʷg​͡ʟɪ] 'dolphin'
𝼄 voiceless velar lateral fricative Wahgi[5] nòⱡ [no𝼄˩] 'water'
ʟ̝ voiced velar lateral fricative Archi[4] наӏлъдут [naˤʟ̝dut] 'blue'
ʟ voiced velar lateral approximant Wahgi aʟaʟe [aʟaʟe] 'dizzy'
ʟ̆ voiced velar lateral tap Melpa [example needed]
kʼ velar ejective stop Archi кӀан [kʼan] 'bottom'
k͜xʼ velar ejective affricate Hadza dlaggwa [c͜𝼆ʼak͜xʷ’a] 'to cradle'
xʼ velar ejective fricative Tlingit xʼáaxʼ [xʼáːxʼ]ⓘ 'apple'
k͜𝼄ʼ velar lateral ejective affricate Sandawe tl’ungu [k͜𝼄ʼùŋɡȕ] 'sky'
ɠ̊ (ƙ) voiceless velar implosive Uspantek[6] k'aam [ɠ̊aːm] 'cord/twine'
ɠ voiced velar implosive Sindhi ڳرو/g̈əro [ɠəro] 'heavy'
ʞ velar-released click Wolof (paralexical) [ʞ] (allophonic with uvular [ʞ᫢]) 'yes'

Lack of velars

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The only languages recorded to lack velars (and any dorsal consonant at all) may be Xavante, standard Tahitian (though /tVt/ is pronounced [kVt], a pattern also found in the Niihau dialect of Hawaiian), and arguably several Skou languages (Wutung, the Dumo dialect of Vanimo, and Bobe), which have a coda [ŋ] that has been analyzed as the realization of nasal vowels. In Pirahã, men may lack the only velar consonant.

Other languages lack simple velars. An areal feature of the indigenous languages of the Americas of the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest is that historical *k was palatalized. When such sounds remained stops, they were transcribed ⟨kʸ⟩ in Americanist phonetic notation, presumably corresponding to IPA ⟨c⟩, but in others, such as the Saanich dialect of Coastal Salish, Salish-Spokane-Kalispel, and Chemakum, *k went further and affricated to [tʃ]. Likewise, historical *k’ has become [tʃʼ] and historical *x has become [ʃ]; there was no *g or *ŋ. In the Northwest Caucasian languages, historical *[k] has also become palatalized, becoming /kʲ/ in Ubykh and /tʃ/ in most Circassian varieties. In both regions the languages retain a labialized velar series (e.g. [kʷ], [kʼʷ], [gʷ], [xʷ], [w] in the North Caucasus) as well as uvular consonants.[7] In the languages of those families that retain plain velars, both the plain and labialized velars are pre-velar, perhaps to make them more distinct from the uvulars which may be post-velar. Prevelar consonants are susceptible to palatalization. A similar system, contrasting *kʲ with *kʷ and leaving *k marginal at best, is reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European.

Apart from the voiceless plosive [k], no other velar consonant is particularly common, even the [w] and [ŋ] that occur in English. There can be no phoneme /ɡ/ in a language that lacks voiced stops, like Mandarin Chinese,[c] but it is sporadically missing elsewhere. Of the languages surveyed in the World Atlas of Language Structures, about 10% of languages that otherwise have /p b t d k/ are missing /ɡ/.[8]

Pirahã has both a [k] and a [ɡ] phonetically. However, the [k] does not behave as other consonants, and the argument has been made that it is phonemically /hi/, leaving Pirahã with only /ɡ/ as an underlyingly velar consonant.

Hawaiian does not distinguish [k] from [t]; ⟨k⟩ tends toward [k] at the beginning of utterances, [t] before [i], and is variable elsewhere, especially in the dialect of Niʻihau and Kauaʻi. Since Hawaiian has no [ŋ], and ⟨w⟩ varies between [w] and [v], it is not clearly meaningful to say that Hawaiian has phonemic velar consonants.

Several Khoisan languages have limited numbers or distributions of pulmonic velar consonants. (Their click consonants are articulated in the uvular or possibly velar region, but that occlusion is part of the airstream mechanism rather than the place of articulation of the consonant.) Khoekhoe, for example, does not allow velars in medial or final position, but in Juǀʼhoan velars are rare even in initial position.

Velodorsal consonants

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Normal velar consonants are dorso-velar: The dorsum (body) of the tongue rises to contact the velum (soft palate) of the roof of the mouth. In disordered speech there are also velo-dorsal stops, with the opposite articulation: The velum lowers to contact the tongue, which remains static. In the extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, these are transcribed by reversing the IPA letter for a velar consonant, e.g. ⟨𝼃⟩ for a voiceless velodorsal stop,[d] ⟨𝼁⟩ for voiced, and ⟨𝼇⟩ for a nasal.

extIPA HTML Description
𝼃 k Voiceless velodorsal plosive
𝼁 ɡ Voiced velodorsal plosive
𝼇 ŋ Velodorsal nasal

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Velar consonant

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A velar consonant is a type of consonant sound produced when the back of the , known as the dorsum, raises to make contact with or approximate the , or velum, at the rear of the oral cavity. This results in a characteristic closure or narrowing that shapes the airflow, distinguishing velars from other consonants like those produced at the lips (labials) or the alveolar ridge (alveolars). In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), velar consonants are typically transcribed with symbols such as for the voiceless stop, [ɡ] for the voiced stop, [ŋ] for the nasal, and or [ɣ] for fricatives, depending on voicing and manner. Velar consonants are among the most widespread in human languages, with velar stops occurring in the vast majority of known inventories; for instance, data from the UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database (UPSID), which surveys 451 languages, shows that the voiceless velar stop occurs in 403 languages (89.4%), alongside bilabial and alveolar positions. This near-universality underscores their role as a core component of phonological systems, often serving as the default or unmarked dorsal articulation in many language families. In English, prominent examples include the in "cat," the [ɡ] in "go," and the [ŋ] in "sing," where the latter appears primarily in codas. Beyond stops and nasals, velars can include like [ɰ] and fricatives, though these are less common cross-linguistically and often vary by language-specific . Notable aspects of velar consonants include their susceptibility to processes like palatalization, where front vowels trigger a forward shift toward palatal articulation (e.g., becoming [tʃ] before /i/ in some languages), and assimilation, such as nasal velarization before velar stops. These consonants also play a key role in phonological typology, with the velar nasal [ŋ] occurring in 237 (52.6%) of the 451 UPSID languages, highlighting their perceptual and articulatory salience. In summary, velars exemplify the interplay between , acoustics, and linguistic diversity, forming a foundational element in the study of and .

Fundamentals

Definition

Velar consonants are a class of produced by raising the back of the , known as the dorsum, to make contact with or approach the , also called the velum, which forms the rear portion of the roof of the mouth. This sets velar consonants apart from those at other locations, such as bilabial consonants formed with the or alveolar consonants involving the tip or near the alveolar behind the upper teeth. Velar consonants belong to the broader category of dorsal consonants, in which the dorsum serves as the primary active articulator. The most common velar consonants are stops, including the voiceless velar stop and the voiced velar stop [ɡ]. The velum plays a key role not only in primary velar articulation but also in , a secondary articulation where the back of the is raised toward the velum while the primary occurs elsewhere, as seen in sounds like the velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ]. The term "velar" originates from the Latin word velum, meaning "veil" or "curtain," reflecting the soft palate's flexible, curtain-like anatomical structure. This nomenclature was adopted in to describe articulations involving this region of the vocal tract.

Articulatory Phonetics

Velar consonants are produced by raising the dorsum of the to make contact with the , or velum, typically at the midline of the vocal tract. This articulation creates a or closure in the back of the oral cavity, distinguishing velars from more forward places like palatals or alveolars. The precise point of contact can vary along the velum: prevelar articulations occur more anteriorly, closer to the hard palate-soft palate junction, while postvelar ones are retracted toward the back of the velum, sometimes approaching uvular territory in certain languages. These variations reflect the relatively broad span of the velar region, allowing for subtle differences in tongue body positioning without altering the primary place classification. In terms of , velar stops involve a complete closure between the dorsum and velum, blocking pulmonic egressive through the oral cavity and building intraoral behind the . Upon release, this is abruptly expelled in a characteristic velar plosion, producing a burst of noise as the articulators separate; the velum remains raised to prevent nasal during this oral phase. For velar fricatives, the dorsum approximates but does not fully contact the velum, creating a narrow channel that generates turbulent and frictional noise due to the high-velocity air passing through the restricted back cavity. These aerodynamic patterns ensure that velars maintain their place-specific acoustic signatures, with stops featuring a momentary followed by release, and fricatives exhibiting continuous but noisy . Acoustically, velar consonants are marked by distinct formant transitions, particularly in the second formant (F2), which typically shows low values around 1000-1500 Hz during the consonant-vowel transition due to the resonance of the enlarged back cavity anterior to the velar constriction. For velar stops, F2 and F3 frequencies converge closely during the closure phase, reflecting the compact spectral structure from the velar pinch, while the release burst often displays diffuse high-frequency energy. These properties arise from the backward positioning of the tongue, which lengthens the front cavity and shortens the back one, leading to lower F2 loci compared to alveolar or labial consonants. Individual differences in velar articulation are prominent, influenced by coarticulatory and speaker anatomy; for instance, in English, the velar stop often fronts toward a prevelar position before front like /i/, shifting the tongue contact anteriorly to accommodate the high tongue position of the , while remaining more central or back before non-front . This fronting reduces the perceptual distance to palatal-like articulations and varies across speakers based on vocal tract , with some exhibiting greater advancement due to habitual patterns or dialectal norms. Such variations highlight the dynamic of velar production, where anatomical constraints and phonetic modulate the exact locus without compromising the consonant's identity.

Phonological Features

Voiced and Voiceless Variants

Velar consonants exhibit a fundamental distinction between voiceless and voiced variants, primarily observed in stops where voicing determines the of the vocal folds during the oral closure at the velum. Voiceless velar stops, such as , are articulated with the vocal folds held apart, preventing glottal and resulting in a period of silence or voiceless airflow following the release. This variant is ubiquitous across languages and often appears in aspirated forms like [kʰ], where post-aspiration adds a burst of voiceless air, as in , with voice onset time (VOT) typically ranging from 80 to 100 ms for the aspirated realization. In contrast, voiced velar stops, represented by , involve vibration of the vocal folds throughout the closure, producing periodic glottal pulses that contribute to the sound's resonance. These consonants frequently undergo lenition in intervocalic positions, weakening to approximants like [ɰ], a process driven by aerodynamic pressures that reduce articulatory effort while maintaining voicing. VOT for is generally negative (prevoicing) or short-lag (0-30 ms), distinguishing it acoustically from its voiceless counterpart and aiding perceptual categorization in languages like English. Phonologically, the voice contrast between /k/ and /g/ serves as a key oppositional feature in many inventories, enabling minimal pairs such as "" versus "" in English, where the distinction relies on VOT differences—approximately 80-100 ms for // versus negative values for /g/. This opposition is subject to rules like final devoicing in German, where underlying voiced obstruents, including /g/, surface as voiceless in codas due to a phonological constraint neutralizing voicing word-finally. Such patterns highlight how voicing interacts with prosodic structure, influencing both production and perception across languages.

Nasal and Other Manners

The velar nasal [ŋ] is articulated by raising the back of the tongue to contact the (velum), completely blocking the oral cavity, while the velum is lowered to direct airflow through the nasal passages. This manner contrasts with oral stops by permitting nasal resonance, resulting in a voiced sound with sustained nasal airflow. In many languages, including English, [ŋ] frequently appears as an of the alveolar nasal /n/ in assimilation before velar consonants, as in the pronunciation of "ten kilometers" [tʰɛŋ kɪˈlɑmɪtərz] where /n/ assimilates in place to [ŋ]. Velar fricatives include the voiceless and voiced [ɣ], produced by narrowing the space between the dorsum and velum to create turbulent without full closure. The voiceless variant involves aspiration-like at the velar point, while [ɣ] adds vocal fold vibration for voicing. Uvular variants such as the voiceless [χ] are distinguished by a posterior articulation at the rather than the velum, often occurring in languages with back inventories and producing a raspier quality due to the shifted . The velar approximant [ɰ] is a rare non-fricative manner, involving a loose of the dorsum to the velum that allows smooth airflow without turbulence or closure. Similarly uncommon is the velar lateral [ʟ], which features central -velum contact or near-contact combined with lowered sides to permit lateral airflow around the obstruction. These lack the intense of fricatives, emphasizing gliding transitions in vowel-like contexts. Phonetic realizations of velar manners often involve coarticulatory place shifts influenced by adjacent segments; for instance, the velar nasal [ŋ] may front or palatalize toward [ɲ] before front vowels due to anticipatory raising. Such variations enhance perceptual clarity in vowel-consonant sequences without altering the core velar identity.

Representation and Examples

IPA Chart

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) provides a standardized system for representing velar consonants, which are articulated with the back of the against the (velum). The pulmonic consonants chart excerpt for the velar includes symbols for common manners of articulation, organized by voicing where applicable. These symbols are derived from the official IPA chart maintained by the . The following table summarizes the pulmonic velar consonants:
Manner of ArticulationVoicelessVoiced
kɡ
Nasalŋ
xɣ
ɰ
Shaded areas in the full IPA chart indicate articulations judged impossible, but all listed velar symbols are attested in human languages. Non-pulmonic velar consonants are represented separately in the IPA chart, incorporating alternative mechanisms. Ejectives, produced with glottalic egressive airflow, include the voiceless velar ejective [kʔ] or simplified [k']. Voiced implosives, using glottalic ingressive airflow, feature the velar implosive [ɠ]. Clicks with velar rear articulation, common in , are notated by combining anterior click symbols (e.g., ǀ for dental) with a velar release like or [ŋ], such as [ŋ̊ǃ] for a voiceless velar . Additional IPA symbols and diacritics extend the representation of velar variations. The [ʟ] appears in the "other symbols" section, denoting a rare lateral airflow at the velum. Pre-velar articulation, slightly forward of the true velar position, is indicated by the advanced [k̟]. Other diacritics, such as [kˠ] or aspiration [kʰ], can modify base velar symbols for precise phonetic description. Usage guidelines recommend combining symbols only when necessary to avoid , prioritizing simplicity for transcription. The voiced velar lateral approximant [ʟ] is particularly rare, occurring as a phoneme in only a handful of languages, such as Arandic varieties (e.g., Arrernte) and Papuan languages like Mid-Wahgi and Mee (Ekari). The IPA chart for velar symbols saw minor typographic revisions in the 2020 Kiel edition, but no substantive changes to the core pulmonic or non-pulmonic velar inventory; distinctions between velar and uvular fricatives (e.g., vs. [χ]) remain in separate columns without alteration.

Examples from Languages

In English, velar consonants include the voiceless stop as in "," the voiced stop as in "go," and the nasal [ŋ] which appears as an before and [ŋ] in words like "sing." These sounds are articulated with the back of the tongue against the , and [ŋ] is not contrastive but conditioned by its phonological environment. Among other Indo-European languages, German features the voiceless velar stop and fricative , with the latter occurring after back vowels as in "Bach," while the voiced appears intervocalically. In French, true velar stops and are present, often in loanwords or initial positions like in "gâteau," though the language's uvular fricative [ʁ] in words like "rue" represents a related but posterior articulation that contrasts with standard velars. Non-Indo-European languages exhibit diverse velar realizations; in , the voiced velar stop occurs in some dialects (e.g., , realizing /q/ as in "galb" for "heart"), while Standard Arabic maintains the plain voiceless as in "kitāb." includes aspirated [kʰ] as in "gāo" (high) and the fricative in "hǎo" (good), where velars contrast with labials and dentals in syllable onsets. demonstrates velar stops in minimal pairs, such as /kama/ (like) versus /gama/ (finish), highlighting the phonemic distinction between voiceless and voiced . Allophonic variations are common; in English, the cluster [ŋk] emerges in "" due to nasal assimilation before velar stops. Similarly, Japanese velar stops like and appear prominently in , such as "" (sparkling), though often nasalizes to [ŋ] word-medially in compounds.

Special Cases and Variations

Absence in Phoneme Inventories

Some languages exhibit inventories that entirely lack , a typological rarity given that velars such as /k/ and /g/ occur in over 98% of the world's languages according to the UPSID survey of 451 languages. This absence is most commonly observed in languages with small overall sets, where the reduction in places of articulation simplifies the system; for instance, inventories with fewer than 10 often prioritize labial, coronal, and glottal places over dorsal ones to maintain perceptual distinctiveness. Perceptual factors contribute to this pattern, as velars produce transitions that can acoustically overlap with alveolars or uvulars, facilitating mergers or losses in small systems without significant communicative disruption. In , the absence of velars exemplifies a historical sound shift from Proto-Polynesian, where the velar stop *k regularly became /ʔ/ in several Eastern varieties, resulting in no underlying velar phonemes. Tahitian, for example, has a consonant inventory comprising only /p, t, ʔ, f, v, h, m, n, r/, relying on glottal /ʔ/ for cognates that were velar in the , such as Tahitian i'a '' from Proto-Polynesian *ika (with *k > ʔ merger). In loanwords, Tahitian substitutes velar sounds from donor languages with glottal stops /ʔ/ or alveolar /t/, as in adaptations of foreign words. This shift is documented as an areal feature in , where small inventories (typically 8-10 consonants) favor coronal over dorsal places to align with vowel-heavy structures. The South American language also lacks velar consonants, with its inventory limited to bilabial /p, b, m, w/, alveolar /t, d, s, z, n, ɾ/, palatal /ɲ/, and glottal /ʔ, h/ places, totaling 13 consonants. Historical evidence points to a where ancestral velars shifted to glottals, as reconstructed for the Macro-Jê family; for instance, Xavante waʔu 'house' reflects a velar-to-glottal merger absent in related languages like Xerénte, which retains /k/. This absence is compensated by expanded use of alveolars and glottals, maintaining contrast through and tone, in a system optimized for the language's complex morphology. Although generally include velars as a core —present in over 95% of sampled varieties due to typological preferences for peripheral (labial-velar) contrasts—some exhibit near-absences through mergers or restrictions. Historical sound shifts in Pama-Nyungan languages occasionally neutralized velars with retroflexes or alveolars in small inventories, though complete lack is undocumented; for example, in some Arandic dialects, velar stops may reduce in coda positions, relying on alveolar or retroflex series for functional load. Languages without velars employ compensatory mechanisms to handle gaps, often substituting with coronals or glottals to preserve meaning. In child language acquisition, velar fronting is a prevalent pattern, where /k/ and /g/ are replaced by alveolar /t/ and /d/ (e.g., "go" as [do]); this is typically transient, with velars acquired by age 3;11 in 90-100% of typically developing English-speaking children. This substitution mirrors adult patterns in pidgins and creoles, where velars from substrate or superstrate languages are adapted to available phonemes; such mechanisms ensure perceptual salience, with alveolars serving as defaults due to their acoustic robustness. Co-articulated velar consonants, such as labialized velars in Salishan languages, involve the tongue dorsum contacting the velum with additional lip rounding or secondary articulation. In Montana Salish, for instance, labio-velar stops like /kʷ/ and /qʷ/ combine a primary velar or uvular closure with lip rounding, creating a double-articulated effect that extends the dorsal gesture; examples include kʷaˈteʔ 'quarter' and qʷa 'hat,' where the velar component is fronted relative to plain uvulars. These articulations highlight the flexibility of dorsal consonants beyond simple velar stops, though they remain uncommon outside specific language families like Salishan, where they contrast with plain dorsals in complex consonant clusters. Uvular consonants extend velar properties posteriorly, involving tongue root advancement toward the rather than the , resulting in post-velar shifts observed in languages such as and varieties. In Hasawi , uvular stops /q/ and fricatives /χ/ alternate with velars /k/ and /x/ through processes like emphasis spread and backing coarticulation, where the uvular gesture lowers adjacent vowels and pharyngealizes coronals; for example, /kalb/ '' may surface as [qalp] in emphatic contexts due to resyllabification and manner assimilation. Similarly, in , uvulars like /q/ and /χ/ trigger vowel retraction and lowering, distinguishing them articulatorily from velars by a more retracted tongue body position, as seen in forms where /q/ precedes /a/ to yield centralized [ə]-like qualities. This distinction arises from the uvula's position, which requires greater tongue root depression compared to velar raising. Palatal-velar coarticulation involves fronting of velar articulations toward the palatal region, often triggered by high front vowels, leading to retracted palatals or fronted velars in languages like those of the Bantu family and historical Romance developments. In such as SiSwati and Sesotho, velars resist primary palatalization but exhibit fronting before /i/, resulting in advanced velars that approximate [c, ɟ]; for example, in SiSwati, /khipha/ 'remove' may coarticulate to [khijv’a] with a fronted dorsal gesture due to floating coronal features from suffixes. In , historical mergers occurred when Latin velars /k, g/ before front vowels /e, i/ evolved into palatals, as in Italian /tʃ/ from /k/ (e.g., *caelum > cielo [ˈtʃɛlo] '') or /dʒ/ from /g/ (e.g., *gelu > gelo [ˈdʒɛlo] ''), reflecting a gradual anterior shift in the dorsal place. Phonetic typology conceptualizes dorsals along a continuum, with velars positioned as the midpoint between anterior palatals and posterior , allowing for gradient variations influenced by vowel context or language-specific forces. This model accounts for contextual shifts, such as velar-uvular blending in back vowel environments or palatal fronting before /i/, as evidenced in cross-linguistic studies where dorsal obstruents vary along the hard palate to axis. In Qiang, for instance, uvular approximations extend velar-like gestures rearward, raising F1 and lowering F2 in vowels, underscoring the continuum's articulatory and acoustic continuity. Such typologies emphasize velars' central role in dorsal series, facilitating mergers or distinctions across languages.

References

  1. https://pressbooks.utrgv.edu/engl6360/chapter/91/
  2. https://ocw.uci.edu/upload/files/consonants.pdf
  3. https://open.maricopa.edu/essentialsoflinguistics/chapter/2-7-classifying-consonants/
  4. http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/upsid_info.html
  5. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2011/OnlineProceedings/RegularSession/Schmid/Schmid.pdf
  6. https://opentext.ku.edu/amenglishpronunciation/chapter/consonants-and-word-level-grammar/
  7. https://www.laits.utexas.edu/phonology/turkish/turk_dorsal_pal1.html
  8. http://faculty.washington.edu/losterho/yule_chapters_5_through_10.pdf
  9. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/velar
  10. https://www.etymonline.com/word/velar
  11. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/velar
  12. https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2013/ling520/LectureNotes2.html
  13. http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/phonlab/documents/2014/Sylak-Glassman_Dissertation.pdf
  14. https://sail.usc.edu/~lgoldste/General_Phonetics/Slides/Consonant%20Formant%20Transitions.pdf
  15. https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~kjohnson/ling290e/Wilson2006.pdf
  16. https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/jsal/index.php/jsal/article/download/214/159
  17. https://colincwilson.github.io/papers/ChodroffWilsonCovariationVOT2017.pdf
  18. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2003/papers/p15_2749.pdf
  19. https://as.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/linguistics/documents/Bouavichith2014.pdf
  20. https://sail.usc.edu/~lgoldste/General_Phonetics/Week1/Ladefoged&Johnson_Ch1.pdf
  21. https://pressbooks.utrgv.edu/engl6360/chapter/manner-of-articulation/
  22. https://alic.sites.unlv.edu/chapter-11-10-phonological-features/
  23. https://commons.princeton.edu/eng266-s25/wp-content/uploads/sites/433/2025/02/McGregor-Phonetics-excerpt.pdf
  24. http://staroverov.wayne.edu/papers/Staroverov&Tebay_19-velar-lateral-allophony-Mee.pdf
  25. https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/KLahiri_1993.pdf
  26. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html
  27. https://teaching.ncl.ac.uk/ipa/consonants-non-pulmonic.html
  28. https://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/%25CA%259F/
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350326430_Velar_lateral_allophony_in_Mee_Ekari
  30. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_chart_orig/pdfs/IPA_Kiel_2020_full.pdf
  31. https://journals.colorado.edu/index.php/cril/article/download/201/181/427
  32. https://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=21
  33. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/bitstreams/b0de5f58-0f88-4d8a-8421-27a9d719defb/download
  34. https://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=37
  35. https://pages.uoregon.edu/tpayne/APP2007/APPSession02-3-2007-Payne-print.pdf
  36. https://repository.upenn.edu/bitstreams/473748fe-6aff-4c4b-85ee-75e749453fdb/download
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  38. https://people.umass.edu/pater/pater-wccfl.pdf
  39. https://escholarship.org/content/qt7597c5wf/qt7597c5wf_noSplash_991558dffcbabe90e006f84806794fc3.pdf
  40. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~vanderso/AndersonDiss.pdf
  41. https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-20-00373
  42. https://ifra-nigeria.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=89:guide-to-standard-naija-orthography-an-nla-harmonized-writing-system-for-common-naija-publications&catid=67:naija-languej-akedemi
  43. http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/salish.pdf
  44. https://repository.essex.ac.uk/32571/2/Thesis%20HudaAlTaisan.pdf
  45. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/466303
  46. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/uvular-approximation-as-an-articulatory-vowel-feature/8DAC44A2867C968AD6384D26D1270F5D
  47. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/29410403.pdf
  48. https://assta.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/No_01_Tabain_Garellek_et_al_2024_1_6.pdf
  49. https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/bitstreams/77b82032-0e90-4d8c-ad6c-bc3d47d34fb5/download
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