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Near-open front unrounded vowel
Near-open front unrounded vowel
Near-open front unrounded vowel
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Near-open front unrounded vowel
æ
IPA number325
Audio sample
Encoding
Entity (decimal)æ
Unicode (hex)U+00E6
X-SAMPA{
Braille⠩ (braille pattern dots-146)

The near-open front unrounded vowel, or near-low front unrounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨æ⟩, a lowercase of the ⟨Æ⟩ ligature. Both the symbol and the sound are commonly referred to as "ash".

The rounded counterpart of [æ], the near-open front rounded vowel (for which the IPA provides no separate symbol) has been reported to occur allophonically in Danish;[2][3] see open front rounded vowel for more information.

In practice, ⟨æ⟩ is sometimes used to represent the open front unrounded vowel; see the introduction to that page for more information.

In IPA transcriptions of Hungarian and Valencian, this vowel is typically written with ⟨ɛ⟩.

Features

[edit]
  • Its vowel height is near-open, also known as near-low, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to an open vowel, but is slightly more constricted – that is, the tongue is positioned similarly to a low vowel, but slightly higher.
  • Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned forward in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded.
Sagittal section of a vocal tract pronouncing the IPA sound ⟨æ⟩. Note that a wavy glottis in this diagram indicates a voiced sound.

Occurrence

[edit]
Language Word IPA Meaning Notes
Afrikaans Standard[4] perd [pæːrt] 'horse' Allophone of /ɛ/, in some dialects, before /k χ l r/. See Afrikaans phonology
Äiwoo ikuwä [ikuwæ] 'I go' Distinguished from both [a] and [ɑ~ɒ].
Arabic Standard[5] كتاب (kitāb) [kiˈtæːb] 'book' Allophone of /a/ in the environment of plain labial and coronal consonants as well as /j/ (depending on the speaker's accent). See Arabic phonology
Azerbaijani Azərbaycan [ɑːzæɾbɑjˈd͡ʒɑn] 'Azerbaijan'
Bambam[6] bätä [ˈbætæ] 'stem'
Bashkir[7] йәй (yäy) [jæj]ⓘ 'summer'
Bengali[8] ব্যাঙ/bêṅ [bæŋ] 'frog' Also pronounced as /ɛ/. See Bengali phonology
Bulgarian Moesian dialects млечен (mlečen) [mlæt͡ʃɛn] 'made from milk' Descendant of Proto-Slavic *ě in places where Standard Bulgarian would have /ɛ/. See Yat.
Rup dialects Descendant of Proto-Slavic *ě in all positions. See Yat.
Teteven dialect мъж (măž) [mæʃ] 'man' In place of Standard Bulgarian [ɤ̞] (written as ъ).
Erkech dialect
Catalan Majorcan (some speakers)[9] sac [ˈs̺æc] 'bag' Majorcan /a/-fronting. See Catalan phonology
Valencian[10][11] and some Catalan dialects (some speakers) raig [ˈr̺æt͡ɕ] 'ray' Palatal variant of /a/. It can be more open ([a]). See Catalan phonology
taula [ˈt̪ɑwɫɛ̞̈] 'table' Final unstressed /a/ found in some speakers. Can be realized as (un)rounded and further back. See Catalan phonology
Balearic (except Ibizan)[12][13] tesi [ˈt̪ɛ̞z̺ɪ] 'thesis' Main realization of /ɛ/. More open and centralized before liquids and in monosyllabics. See Catalan phonology
Valencian (general pronunciation)[12][13]
Chechen аьрзу (ärzu) [ærzu] 'eagle'
Danish Standard[2][14] dansk [ˈtænˀsk] 'Danish' Most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩ – the way it is realized by certain older or upper-class speakers.[15] See Danish phonology
Dutch[16] pen [pæn] 'pen' Allophone of /ɛ/ before /n/ and coda /l/. In non-standard accents this allophone is generalized to other positions, where [ɛ] is used in Standard Dutch.[17] See Dutch phonology
English Cultivated New Zealand[18] cat [kʰæt]ⓘ 'cat' Higher in other New Zealand varieties. See New Zealand English phonology
General American[19] See English phonology
Conservative Received Pronunciation[20] Fully open [a] in contemporary RP.[20] See English phonology
Estonian[21] väle [ˈvæ̠le̞ˑ] 'agile' Near-front.[21] See Estonian phonology
Finnish[22] mäki [ˈmæki] 'hill' See Finnish phonology
French Parisian[23] bain [bæ̃] 'bath' Nasalized; typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɛ̃⟩. See French phonology
Quebec[24] ver [væːʁ] 'worm' Allophone of /ɛ/ before /ʁ/ or in open syllables, and of /a/ in closed syllables.[24] See Quebec French phonology
German Standard Austrian[25] erlauben [æˈlɑɔ̯bn̩] 'allow' Variant of pretonic [ɛɐ̯].[25] See Standard German phonology
West Central German accents[26] oder [ˈoːdæ] 'or' Used instead of [ɐ].[26] See Standard German phonology
Northern accents[27] alles [ˈa̝ləs] 'everything' Lower and often also more back in other accents.[27] See Standard German phonology
Western Swiss accents[28] spät [ʃpæːt] 'late' Open-mid [ɛː] or close-mid [eː] in other accents; contrasts with the open-mid /ɛː/.[29] See Standard German phonology
Greek Macedonia[30] γάτα (gáta) [ˈɣætæ] 'cat' See Modern Greek phonology
Thessaly[30]
Thrace[30]
Pontic[31] καλάθια (kaláthia) [kaˈlaθæ] 'baskets'
Hungarian[32] nem [næm] 'no' Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɛ⟩. See Hungarian phonology
Kanoê[33] [example needed] [æː] 'tobacco'
Kazakh әйел (äiel) [æ̝ˈje̘l̪ʲ] 'woman' Varies between near-open and open-mid.
Kurdish Sorani (Central) گاڵته (galte) [gäːɫtʲæ] 'joke' Equal to Palewani (Southern) front [a]. See Kurdish phonology
Lakon[34] rävräv [ræβræβ] 'evening'
Limburgish[35][36][37] twelf [ˈtβ̞æ̠ləf] 'twelve' Front[36][37] or near-front,[35] depending on the dialect. The example word is from the Maastrichtian dialect, in which the vowel is near-front.
Lithuanian jachtą [ˈjæːxt̪aː] 'yacht' (accusative) See Lithuanian phonology
Low Saxon Including Sallandic gläzen [xɫæːzn̩] 'glasses'
Luxembourgish[38] Käpp [kʰæpʰ] 'heads' See Luxembourgish phonology
Norwegian Urban East[39][40] lær [læːɾ] 'leather' See Norwegian phonology
Persian[41][42] هشت (hašt) [hæʃt] 'eight'
Portuguese Some dialects[43] pedra [ˈpæðɾɐ] 'stone' Stressed vowel. In other dialects closer /ɛ/. See Portuguese phonology
Some European speakers[44] também [tɐˈmæ̃] 'also' Stressed vowel, allophone of nasal vowel /ẽ̞/.
Romanian Bukovinian dialect[45] piele [ˈpæle] 'skin' Corresponds to [je] in standard Romanian. Also identified in some Central Transylvanian sub-dialects.[45] See Romanian phonology
Russian[46][47] пять (pjatʹ) [pʲætʲ]ⓘ 'five' Allophone of /a/ between palatalized consonants. See Russian phonology
Serbo-Croatian Zeta-Raška dialect[48] дан / dan [d̪æn̪] 'day' Regional reflex of Proto-Slavic *ь and *ъ. Sometimes nasalised.[48]
Sinhala[49] ඇය (æya) [æjə] 'she'
Slovak mäso [mæso] 'meat, flesh' In conversation sometimes pronounced as [e] or [a]. See Slovak phonology
Swedish Central Standard[50][51][52] ära [²æːɾä]ⓘ 'hono(u)r' Allophone of /ɛː, ɛ/ before /r/. See Swedish phonology
Stockholm[52] läsa [²læːsä] 'to read' Realization of /ɛː, ɛ/ for younger speakers. Higher [ɛː, ɛ̝ ~ ɛ] for other speakers
Turkish[53] sen [s̪æn̪] 'you' Allophone of /e/ before syllable-final /m, n, l, r/. In a limited number of words (but not before /r/), it is in free variation with [e̞].[53] See Turkish phonology

See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Near-open front unrounded vowel

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The near-open front unrounded vowel is a type of sound used in some spoken languages, characterized by a position that is slightly more constricted than a fully while remaining in the front of the oral cavity, with the lips spread and unrounded. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), it is represented by the symbol ⟨æ⟩, positioned on the vowel chart at near-open height, front backness, and unrounded rounding. This sound is distinct from the fully /a/, as its opening and elevation are marginally higher, creating a subtle acoustic difference often described as "near-low" or "near-open." Articulatorily, the production of ⟨æ⟩ involves raising the body toward the without significant bunching or retraction, while the drops to a position intermediate between open-mid and open vowels, allowing for a relatively wide pharyngeal space. Acoustically, it features a low first (F1) frequency around 700-800 Hz, a high second (F2) above 1500 Hz due to its front articulation, and no lip to maintain unrounded , making it perceptually brighter than back or rounded counterparts. These properties contribute to its role in contrasts, particularly in languages with rich front systems. The ⟨æ⟩ sound occurs as a in numerous languages worldwide, including English (as in the "trap" vowel of words like cat or hat in both and General American). In English, it typically appears in stressed syllables and can vary regionally—for instance, lengthening before certain consonants or diphthongizing in some dialects—but remains a core component of the language's system. Its presence in loanwords and highlights its cross-linguistic utility, though learners from languages lacking it (e.g., many Romance or Slavic tongues) often substitute it with /a/ or /ɛ/, leading to characteristic accents. Overall, ⟨æ⟩ exemplifies the IPA's precision in capturing subtle articulatory distinctions essential for and linguistic analysis.

Phonetic Description

Articulatory Features

The near-open front unrounded vowel is produced with the body of the raised to a low height in the oral cavity, positioned forward toward the , creating a relatively open space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. This tongue configuration distinguishes it as a , with the highest point of the tongue located under the front portion of the , slightly higher than in a fully open vowel. The are unrounded during articulation, typically held in a neutral or slightly spread position without protrusion or , which contributes to the vowel's front quality. In terms of vocal tract involvement, airflow passes through a relatively open and oral cavity due to the lowered and low position, while the vocal folds at the vibrate to produce a voiced , modulating the from the lungs. A sagittal of this production illustrates a midline cross-section of the vocal tract, showing the arched low and forward, the dropped to enlarge the oral space, the expanded without constriction, unrounded at the front, and a vibrating at the base to generate periodic voicing as air flows upward. Compared to the open front vowel /a/, the near-open front unrounded vowel features a subtly higher position, resulting in a less open oral cavity and a more forward advancement, which creates a distinct articulatory difference.

Acoustic Properties

The near-open front unrounded vowel exhibits distinct acoustic properties defined by its formant frequencies, which provide key indicators of vowel height, frontness, and lip rounding. The first (F1) typically falls in the range of 700–850 Hz, reflecting the vowel's near-open quality, as higher F1 values correspond to lower positions and greater vocal tract openness. The second (F2) is generally between 1600–1900 Hz, signaling the front articulation of the body toward the . The third (F3) occurs at higher frequencies, around 2500–3000 Hz, influenced by the unrounded lip posture that prevents the lowering of higher formants seen in rounded s. These values vary by speaker sex and age, as documented in the classic study by Peterson and Barney (1952) on 1520 vowels produced by 76 speakers (33 men, 28 women, 15 children), yielding the following averages:
Speaker GroupF1 (Hz)F2 (Hz)F3 (Hz)
Men66017202410
Women86020502800
Children99024803250
The spectral envelope of this vowel features broad energy distribution in the lower bands due to the expanded pharyngeal and oral cavities, resulting in increased acoustic output below 1000 Hz compared to higher vowels. This openness contributes to a robust low-frequency prominence, while the front enhances energy clustering around F2, aiding perceptual identification as a sound. Higher formants, including F3, show less damping from lip rounding, maintaining clearer separation in the mid-to-high range. Regarding temporal and amplitude characteristics, the vowel typically has a mean duration of 200–250 ms in stressed, citation-form contexts, longer than high vowels but comparable to or slightly extended relative to mid vowels like /ɛ/, owing to intrinsic duration patterns tied to articulatory . Intensity levels are elevated, often 2–4 dB higher than mid vowels, attributable to the larger glottal and oral , which amplify overall . These properties align with norms from early phonetic investigations adapted for the near-open category.

IPA Representation

Standard Symbol

The standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for the near-open front unrounded vowel is ⟨æ⟩, known as "ash," assigned IPA chart number 325. This symbol was introduced in 19th-century phonetic notations and standardized within the IPA framework upon the founding of the International Phonetic Association in 1886, with further refinements in early revisions such as the 1888 alphabet prototype. On the IPA vowel quadrilateral, ⟨æ⟩ occupies the near-open row in the front unrounded column, reflecting its articulatory position between close-mid and open vowels along the front-back axis. Although a rare voiceless variant exists as ⟨å̝⟩, the primary symbol ⟨æ⟩ denotes the voiced form by default.

Transcription Variations

In broad phonetic transcriptions, the near-open front unrounded vowel is frequently approximated with the open-mid front unrounded symbol ⟨ɛ⟩, particularly in languages where the corresponding exhibits height variation close to near-open realization, such as in Hungarian dialects where /ɛ/ is phonetically [æ]. Similarly, in Valencian Catalan, the /ɛ/ is realized as [æ] in most dialects, leading to its use in broad transcriptions despite the precise IPA symbol being ⟨æ⟩. In older or simplified transcription systems, the vowel may be represented with ⟨a⟩, reflecting a confusion or approximation with the open front unrounded vowel /a/, especially in historical linguistic descriptions where fine height distinctions were not emphasized. Diacritics in the International Phonetic Alphabet provide precise alternatives for denoting the vowel relative to cardinal positions. The raised (◌̝) applied to the yields ⟨a̝⟩, indicating a raised open vowel approximating near-open height. Conversely, the lowering (◌̞) on the produces ⟨ɛ̞⟩, representing a lowered open-mid vowel that aligns with near-open articulation. These notations are employed when emphasizing articulatory adjustments from standard in narrow transcriptions. In the Americanist phonetic alphabet, a system developed for transcribing , the near-open front unrounded vowel is commonly notated as ⟨⟩, distinguishing it from central ⟨a⟩ and back ⟨ɑ⟩ low vowels through umlaut diacritics to indicate fronting. Additionally, in certain orthographic conventions, the ligature ⟨æ⟩ appears in English loanwords (e.g., "encyclopædia") to evoke the vowel's historical pronunciation, influencing informal phonetic approximations in non-IPA systems. The choice of transcription symbol is often influenced by dialectal variations in vowel height, where realizations range from open-mid to near-open, prompting approximations like ⟨ɛ⟩ for practicality in broad analyses. Orthographic traditions in specific languages or historical contexts further drive substitutions, prioritizing readability or convention over strict IPA precision.

Linguistic Occurrence

As a Phoneme

The near-open front unrounded /æ/ functions as a distinct in over 200 languages worldwide, where it typically contrasts with adjacent vowels such as the open front unrounded /a/, the open-mid front unrounded /ɛ/, and the close-mid front unrounded /e/ within the vowel inventory. This contrastive role is evident in minimal pairs that demonstrate its phonemic status, allowing speakers to distinguish meaning based on the vowel's quality. The is particularly prevalent in Germanic and Uralic language families, with notable examples in English, Danish, and Finnish. In English, /æ/ is a core component of the vowel system in dialects such as General American and Received Pronunciation, contrasting with /ʌ/ in pairs like "cat" [kæt] versus "cut" [kʌt], and with /ɛ/ in "bat" [bæt] versus "bet" [bɛt]. Orthographically, it is realized as ⟨a⟩, particularly before non-nasal consonants in open syllables or certain environments, as in "cat" or "trap." In Danish, /æ/ occupies a dedicated slot in the complex vowel system, contrasting with /a/ and /ɛ/. For example, it appears in "mand" [ˈmænˀ] 'man' versus "mænd" [ˈmɛnˀ] 'men' (with /ɛ/), and is orthographically represented by ⟨a⟩ or ⟨æ⟩, as in "dansk" [ˈdænˀsɡ̊] 'Danish'. In Finnish, a Uralic language, /æ/ contrasts with /a/ in minimal pairs such as "väli" [ˈvæli] 'space between' versus "vali" [ˈvɑli] 'valley', and with /ɛ/ in contexts like "tähti" [ˈtæhti] 'star' versus "tehti" (hypothetical, but systematic opposition in harmony sets). Orthographically, it appears as ⟨ä⟩, as in "käsi" [ˈkæsi] 'hand'. Phonotactically, /æ/ frequently appears in stressed syllables across these languages, often subject to restrictions in environments—for instance, in Danish, its realization is influenced by adjacent glides and . In Finnish, vowel constrains its co-occurrence with back vowels, limiting it to front-harmony words.

As an Allophone

The near-open front unrounded vowel [æ] frequently appears as a non-contrastive of other vowels in diverse linguistic contexts, where its realization is predictably conditioned by phonological environment rather than serving as a phonemic distinction. In , [æ] serves as an of the mid front vowel /ɛ/ before liquids and non-nasal dorsals, while the low central /ɑ/ undergoes before nasal consonants such as /n/, often resulting in a raised or fronted variant in certain positions. In , the /a/ lowers or fronts to [æ] in open syllables or when adjacent to front consonants, creating a predictable allophonic variation without altering word meaning. Dialectal realizations of [æ] are evident in English varieties; for example, in , words in the BATH lexical set like "bath" are pronounced [bæθ] with a short , contrasting with Received Pronunciation's lengthened back [bɑːθ], due to the absence of the trap-bath split. In , the trap-bath merger results in both lexical sets sharing [æ], avoiding a split and treating the near-open realization as a uniform of /æ/ across contexts like "trap" and "bath." Common conditioning factors for [æ] include , where vowels adjacent to nasal consonants acquire a nasal off-glide or adjustment; stress, which can tense or raise low vowels in prominent syllables; and adjacent consonants, particularly front or voiced ones, that trigger fronting or slight raising from underlying /a/ or /ɛ/. This allophonic role is more prevalent than phonemic status in non-Indo-European languages, including certain Austronesian dialects where small vowel inventories (typically 4–5 vowels) lead to conditioned variants like [æ] from /a/ in response to consonantal contexts.

Historical and Comparative Linguistics

Phonetic Evolution

In the development of , the near-open front unrounded vowel [æ] originated from the Proto-Germanic short low vowel *a through a process of fronting and slight raising in the Anglo-Frisian subgroup. This Anglo-Frisian brightening fronted *a into [æ] in and , while other like retained . For instance, Proto-Germanic *kattaz ('') yielded /kæt/, exemplifying the typical evolution except before nasals or /w/, where persisted. This [æ] remained stable through the transition to , where it continued to represent the reflex of earlier *a without undergoing the raising or diphthongization characteristic of the (c. 1400–1700), which predominantly targeted long vowels. Short vowels like [æ] experienced minimal displacement, preserving their near-open quality and contributing to the modern phonemic inventory in languages such as English, where it phonemically contrasts in words like "" [/kæt/]. In Danish, a North Germanic , /æ/ standardized in the as part of orthographic reforms that distinguished it from /a/, evolving primarily through the lowering of an earlier open-mid /ɛ/ in certain contexts, such as before /r/. This lowering was reinforced by the —a laryngeal feature on stressed syllables—which often results in a more centralized or lowered realization of /æ/ in non-stød environments, as seen in words like "mand" [/mænˀ] ('man'). Within the Uralic family, Hungarian acquired its near-open front unrounded vowel /ɛ/ through internal shifts from Proto-Finno-Ugric *e, where short instances of *e lowered to [ɛ] while long *ē raised to [eː], creating a qualitative distinction tied to length. This development, part of broader adjustments in the Ugric branch, integrated /ɛ/ into native (e.g., "kéz" [/keːz/] 'hand' contrasting with short /ɛ/ forms) and facilitated its adoption in loanwords from Slavic and Germanic sources, adapting them to Hungarian's vowel system.

Relations to Similar Vowels

The near-open front unrounded vowel [æ] differs from the /a/ primarily through its higher tongue position, which creates a less open oral cavity and generally prevents phonemic merger between the two in languages where both are present. This articulatory distinction is maintained in standard realizations, though in casual or broad speech across certain English varieties, the boundary may blur, resulting in perceptual confusion. Relative to the open-mid front unrounded vowel /ɛ/, [æ] features greater openness, evidenced by a higher first (F1) frequency that underscores their height-based separation. In vowel chain shifts within English dialects, /æ/ often raises toward /ɛ/ in specific contexts, such as prenasal environments, in many dialects, while /ɛ/ may adjust upward, preserving overall contrasts but reshaping relational dynamics. The rounded equivalent, the near-open front rounded vowel [œ̞] (or sometimes transcribed as [æ̹]), remains rare as a phoneme but emerges allophonically in Danish, notably as a variant of /œ/ before /r/. Psycholinguistic research demonstrates that listeners categorize [æ] based on vowel height gradients, with its proximity to /ɛ/ in acoustic space increasing confusion risks compared to more distant vowels like /a/.

References

  1. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart
  2. http://www.oeaw.ac.at/vlach/lab/transcription-guidelines/ipa-symbols
  3. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstreams/60eabc23-7a73-445c-b78d-d6a09d1aa8f9/download
  4. https://www.academia.edu/36034912/Differences_in_the_British_and_American_English_vowels
  5. https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/3-5-describing-vowels/
  6. https://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~krussll/phonetics/articulation/describing-vowels.html
  7. https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/24/2/175/710494/Control-methods-used-in-a-study-of-vowels
  8. https://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~krussll/phonetics/acoustic/formants.html
  9. https://www.singwise.com/articles/vowels-formants-modifications
  10. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_chart_orig/pdfs/IPA_number_chart_2020_full.pdf
  11. https://commons.princeton.edu/eng266-s25/wp-content/uploads/sites/433/2025/02/IPA-Introduction-Handbook.pdf
  12. https://grammarphobia.com/blog/2011/05/ae-digraph-ligature.html
  13. https://phoible.org/parameters
  14. https://oulurepo.oulu.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/36099/isbn978-951-42-8984-2.pdf
  15. https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/PLSA/article/download/4076/3794
  16. https://taalportaal.org/taalportaal/topic/pid/topic-14613250388668085
  17. https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/136/4/1895/906268/Colloquial-Arabic-vowels-in-Israel-A-comparative
  18. https://www.journal-labphon.org/article/id/10125/
  19. https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2006/ling001/English.html
  20. https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/twpl/article/download/6090/3092/8414
  21. https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/145/6/3675/940693/Neighborhood-conditioned-phonetic-enhancement-of
  22. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Austronesian-languages/Phonetics-and-phonology
  23. https://academic.oup.com/book/4263/chapter/146129517
  24. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/germanic-languages
  25. https://historyofenglishpodcast.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/HOE-Transcript-Episode142.pdf
  26. https://danpass.hum.ku.dk/ng/papers/acta_28_1996_5-63.pdf
  27. http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Hungarian.html
  28. https://dumas.ccsd.cnrs.fr/dumas-02345909v1/file/LARBAOUI_Nedjem_Eddine_M2R_Etudes_anglophones_2019.pdf
  29. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-variation-and-change/article/gradience-allophony-and-chain-shifts/557B7F1BD9ECCBCFE894BE8828586147
  30. https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/142/1/332/662601/The-articulatory-dynamics-of-pre-velar-and-pre
  31. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3288672/
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