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Yellow stingray
Yellow stingray
Yellow stingray
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Yellow stingray
A dark green ray with minute yellow lines, lying on sand amongst scattered seagrass
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Order: Myliobatiformes
Family: Urotrygonidae
Genus: Urobatis
Species:
U. jamaicensis
Binomial name
Urobatis jamaicensis
(Cuvier, 1816)
World map with blue shading in and around the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea
Range of the yellow stingray
Synonyms
  • Raia jamaicensis Cuvier 1816
  • Trygonobatus torpedinus Desmarest 1823
  • Urobatis sloani vermiculatus Garman 1913
  • Urolophus jamaicensis Cuvier 1816
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Urobatis jamaicensis.

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) is a species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae, found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to Trinidad. This bottom-dwelling species inhabits sandy, muddy, or seagrass bottoms in shallow inshore waters, commonly near coral reefs.

Female yellow stingrays are larger than males. Females reach about a maximum length of about 26 inches whereas the male will reach a maximum length of about 15 inches across. The yellow stingray has a round pectoral fin disc and a short tail with a well-developed caudal fin. It has a highly variable but distinctive dorsal color pattern consisting of either light-on-dark or dark-on-light reticulations forming spots and blotches, and can rapidly change the tonality of this coloration to improve its camouflage.

Relatively sedentary during the day, the yellow stingray feeds on small invertebrates and bony fishes. When hunting it may undulate its disc to uncover buried prey, or lift the front of its disc to form a "cave" attractive to shelter-seeking organisms. This species is aplacental viviparous, meaning that the developing embryos are sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ("uterine milk"). Females bear two litters of up to seven young per year in seagrass, following a gestation period of 5–6 months. Though innocuous towards humans, the yellow stingray can inflict a painful injury with its venomous tail spine. This species is taken as bycatch by commercial fisheries and collected for the aquarium trade; it may also be negatively affected by habitat degradation. Nevertheless, it remains common and widespread, which has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to list it under Least Concern.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

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French naturalist Georges Cuvier originally described the yellow stingray as Raia jamaicensis in 1816, in Le Règne Animal distribué d'après son organisation pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée. He based his account on specimens obtained from Jamaica, though no type specimens were designated.[2] Subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Urolophus, and then to the genus Urobatis (some literature still refers to this species as Urolophus jamaicensis). Other common names used for this ray include the yellow-spotted ray, the round ray, and the maid ray.[3]

Nathan Lovejoy's 1996 phylogenetic analysis, based on morphology, found that the yellow stingray is the most basal member of a clade that also contains Pacific Urobatis species and the genus Urotrygon of Central and South America. This finding would render Urobatis polyphyletic, though further study is warranted to elucidate the relationships between these taxa.[4]

Description

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Ray with numerous fine, dark vermiculations on an almost white background, blending in with the sand it's resting on
The yellow stingray is capable of adjusting its coloration to better blend into the environment.

The yellow stingray is small, growing no more than 36 cm (14 in) across and 70 cm (28 in) long.[1][5] It has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc slightly longer than wide, with a short, obtuse snout. The eyes are immediately followed by the spiracles. There is a narrow curtain of skin between the nostrils, with a fringed posterior margin.[6] The mouth is nearly straight and contains a transverse row of 3–5 papillae on the floor. There are 30–34 tooth rows in the upper jaw and a similar number in the lower jaw, arranged into bands. The teeth are broad-based, with low, blunt crowns in females and juveniles, and tall, pointed cusps in adult males. The teeth of males are more widely spaced than those of females. The pelvic fins have nearly straight leading margins and rounded trailing margins.[3][7]

The tail is stout and flattened, comprising less than half the total length, and terminates in a small, leaf-shaped caudal fin about a quarter high as long, that is continuous around the last vertebra.[6][7] A serrated spine is positioned about halfway along the tail.[8] Newborn rays are smooth-skinned; shortly after birth small, blunt tubercles appear in the middle of the back, which in larger adults extends to between the eyes, the "shoulders", and the base of the tail. Adults also develop recurved thorns along the upper margin of the caudal fin.[3] The color and pattern of the yellow stingray varies significantly among individuals, though most follow one of two schemes: minute dark green or brown reticulations on a light background, or dense white, yellow, or golden spots on a dark green or brown background. The underside is yellowish, greenish, or brownish white, with small darker spots toward the disc margin and the tail.[7] This species is capable of rapidly changing the tone and contrast of its coloration to better match its environment.[8]

Distribution and habitat

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Ray with fine dark lines on a light background, swimming over an invertebrate-encrusted bottom
The yellow stingray prefers habitats with a dense covering of invertebrates.

The yellow stingray is found throughout the inshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico (where it is the only representative of its family)[9] and the Caribbean Sea, including Florida, the Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles to Trinidad. On rare occasions, it ranges as far north as Cape Lookout in North Carolina.[7][10] It is quite abundant in the Florida Keys and parts of the Antilles, and rather uncommon elsewhere. Off Mexico, this species occupies a salinity range of 26–40 ppt.[1]

Benthic in nature, the yellow stingray inhabits coastal habitats such as bays, lagoons, estuaries, and low-energy surf zones, and has been reported from the water's edge to a depth of 25 m (82 ft). It particularly favors insular hard-bottomed habitats with a dense encrustation of sessile invertebrates (termed live-bottom habitats), but can also be found over sand, mud or seagrass (Thalassia), sometimes in the vicinity of coral reefs.[1] Off Jamaica, large numbers of yellow stingrays, up to one per square meter, gather beneath the aerial roots of mangrove trees used as roosts by cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis); it is theorized that the birds' droppings sustain invertebrates that attract the rays.[11] There is no evidence of seasonal migration, though during the spring females tend to be found closer to shore than males.[12]

Biology and ecology

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Biofluorescence of the yellow stingray

During the day, the yellow stingray is fairly inactive and spends much time buried under a thin layer of sediment or lying motionless in vegetation.[13] Tracking studies have shown that it generally remains within a small home range of around 20,000 m2 (220,000 ft2), with individuals covering only a portion of the entire area on any particular day. It favors the boundaries between different terrain, such as sand and reef.[12] Its periscopic eyes give it a 360° panoramic view of its surroundings; each eye bears an elaborate covering or "operculum" that allows fine control over the amount of light entering the pupil.[14] Therefore, the resting ray is well equipped to detect approaching predators, which may potentially include any large carnivorous fish such as the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier).[3] The yellow stingray is most sensitive to sounds of 300–600 Hertz, which is fairly typical among sharks and rays that have been investigated thus far.[15] It and other stingrays have a large brain relative to other rays, comprising around 1–2% of the body weight.[16]

The diet of the yellow stingray is poorly documented but includes shrimps, and likely also worms, clams, and small bony fishes.[17][18] Typically, the ray will settle over a prey item and trap it against the bottom, whereupon it is manipulated to the mouth with motions of the disc.[19] Like the related round stingray (U. halleri), this species sometimes uses undulations of its disc margins to excavate pits and reveal buried prey.[3][9] It has also been observed raising the front of its disc to create a shaded "cave", to attract shelter-seeking organisms.[17] Known parasites of the yellow stingray include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium cartagenensis, Phyllobothrium kingae, Discobothrium caribbensis, Rhinebothrium magniphallum,[3] and R. biorchidum,[20] and the monogenean Dendromonocotyle octodiscus.[21]

The yellow stingray exhibits biofluorescence, that is, when illuminated by blue or ultraviolet light, it re-emits it as green, and appears differently than under white light illumination. Biofluorescence potentially assists intraspecific communication and camouflage.[22]

Life history

[edit]
Ray swimming over a dense bed of seagrass
Seagrass beds are important reproductive habitat for yellow stingrays

Like other stingrays, the yellow stingray is aplacental viviparous: at first the embryos are sustained by yolk, which is later supplanted by histotroph ("uterine milk", rich in proteins and lipids), delivered by the mother through numerous finger-like extensions of the uterine epithelium called "trophonemata".[23][24] Mature females have two functional uteruses, with the left used more than the right. Except in a few individuals, only the left ovary is functional. The reproductive cycle is biannual with a 5–6 month long gestation period. The first period of ovulation occurs from January to April, peaking in late February and early March, with birthing from June to September, peaking in late July and early August. The second period of ovulation occurs from August to September, with birthing from November to January. The two cycles overlap as vitellogenesis (yolk formation) begins while the female is still pregnant.[23]

Courtship and mating in the yellow stingray involves one or more males closely following a female, seeking to bite and grip the rear margin of her disc; the high, pointed teeth of males serve to aid in this endeavor. Once the male successfully holds onto the female, he flips under her so that the two are aligned abdomen-to-abdomen, and inserts a single clasper into her cloaca. Rival males may attempt to interfere with the mating pair by biting or bumping them. In one observation that took place in water 2.5 m (8.2 ft) deep near Tobacco Caye on the Belize Barrier Reef, the male pursuit lasted between 30 and 60 seconds and copulation lasted four minutes.[13][17]

The predominant source of embryonic nutrition is histotroph, which supports a 46-fold weight increase from ovum to near-term fetus.[23] By the time the embryo is 4.7 cm (1.9 in) across, it has fully resorbed its yolk sac and external gills.[25] The litter size ranges from one to seven. The first litter of the year (spring-summer) is larger than the second (autumn-winter), with the number of offspring increasing with the size of the female; this relationship is not observed for second litter. On the other hand, the newborns of the first litter tend to be slightly smaller than those of the second litter, at an average length of 14.5 cm (5.7 in) versus 15 cm (5.9 in). The second litter's fewer, larger young may reflect the lower temperatures of autumn-winter, which results in slower growth.[23] Seagrass beds serve as important habitat for parturition.[1] The newborns emerge tail-first and are similar in coloration to the adults, though the disc is relatively wider. They also have a small "knob" or "tentacle" that covers most of the spiracle, which is resorbed shortly after birth.[3][6] Males and females reach sexual maturity at disc widths of 15–16 cm (5.9–6.3 in) and 20 cm (7.9 in) respectively.[1] The maximum lifespan is 15–25 years.[26]

Human interactions

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A ray over a pebble bottom, with the front of a second ray to its right
Yellow stingrays at the Mote Marine Laboratory, Florida

Generally, yellow stingrays pay little heed to divers and can be approached closely.[8] If stepped on or otherwise provoked, however, this ray will defend itself with its tail spine, coated in potent venom. The resulting wound is extremely painful, but seldom life-threatening.[3][9] Small and docile, the yellow stingray adapts readily to captivity and has reproduced in the aquarium; it requires a large amount of space (at least 180 gal or 684 L) and a fine, deep substrate with minimal ornamentation.[17]

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed the yellow stingray under Least Concern, citing its wide distribution and high abundance in certain regions. In addition, its small size implies relatively high productivity, which would make its population more resilient to fishing pressure. This species is not targeted commercially, but is probably taken incidentally by inshore fisheries throughout its range.[1] It is also harvested for the home aquarium trade, being the most frequently available member of its family on the North American market.[17] The extent of this trade has not yet been quantified. Another potential threat is habitat degradation, particularly to seagrass beds. No conservation measures have been enacted for this species.[1]

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Yellow stingray

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from Grokipedia
The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) is a small species of belonging to the family , characterized by its nearly circular pectoral disc, bluntly rounded snout, and a slender bearing a venomous stinging spine near the base and a well-developed caudal . The upper surface of the disc is typically yellowish to tan or brown, adorned with dark vermiculations, spots, or greenish-yellow markings, while the underside is pale yellowish, greenish, or brownish-white, often with dark spots on the ; adults reach a maximum total length of about 76 cm, with newborns around 6 cm. This bottom-dwelling elasmobranch inhabits shallow coastal waters, favoring sandy or muddy flats, beds, areas, bays, estuaries, and areas adjacent to coral reefs, from the down to depths of around 25–70 m, though records extend to 160 m. Native to the western , the yellow stingray ranges from , , southward through the , the , and to northern , including , and is particularly abundant around inshore reefs and insular shelves. It is ovoviviparous with a biannual reproductive cycle and 5–6 month gestation period, producing litters of 1–7 pups and reaching before 1 year of age at a disc width of 15–16 cm; mating involves the male grasping the female's disc margin, sometimes with biting. The feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates such as worms, shrimps, clams, and small mollusks, supplemented by occasional small fishes, often raising its disc to lure prey. Its venomous spine can inflict painful wounds to humans, though it is generally non-aggressive and easily approached by divers if not disturbed. Despite facing threats from coastal habitat degradation due to development and , as well as collection for the aquarium trade, the yellow stingray's populations remain stable and it is classified as Least Concern by the (as of 2021), with no evidence of . It supports small-scale fisheries and is commonly displayed in public aquariums due to its docile nature and striking appearance.

Taxonomy and classification

Nomenclature

The yellow stingray was originally described by French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1816 as Raia jamaicensis, based on specimens collected from the type locality in Jamaica. This initial classification placed it within the skate genus Raia, reflecting early taxonomic understandings of elasmobranchs. The current accepted binomial name is Urobatis jamaicensis, and the species is classified in the family Urotrygonidae, commonly known as round rays, within the order Myliobatiformes. Historical synonyms include Urolophus jamaicensis, Trygonobatus torpedinus, Urolophus torpedinus, Urobatis sloani, and Urobatis vermiculatus, arising from reclassifications driven by morphological studies that emphasized disc shape, tail features, and fin structure to distinguish round rays from other stingray groups. Common names for U. jamaicensis include yellow stingray, yellow-spotted stingray, and round stingray in English, reflecting its coloration and body form. In Spanish-speaking regions of its range, such as Mexico and parts of Central America, it is known as raya redonda de estero (round estuary ray), raya pintada (painted ray), or tembladera (shiverer), with variations like raya amarilla (yellow ray) used locally.

Phylogenetic relationships

A morphological phylogenetic analysis conducted in 1996 positioned the yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) as the basal member of a that includes Pacific Urobatis species and the genus Urotrygon, supported by synapomorphies such as the dichotomous branching of anterior subpleural tubules and the presence of a spiracular . This arrangement rendered the genus Urobatis paraphyletic, with U. jamaicensis diverging early from its Pacific congeners and Urotrygon, prompting suggestions of potential pending further genetic investigation to clarify interrelationships within the group. Within the broader context of Atlantic Urolophidae and Urotrygonidae (now recognized as ), U. jamaicensis represents a key lineage among amphi-American round rays, with biogeographic patterns indicating divergence between Atlantic and Pacific forms linked to vicariance events associated with the evolving . Fossil records of myliobatiform rays, including early representatives of urolophoid-like taxa, suggest that such divergences occurred around the , aligning with tectonic changes that separated Atlantic and eastern Pacific populations. A 2013 synoptic review incorporated these findings while emphasizing ongoing taxonomic uncertainties in , including the historical placement of U. jamaicensis under synonyms like Urolophus jamaicensis and calls for additional molecular studies to resolve genus-level boundaries and confirm . Subsequent molecular phylogenies have supported the monophyly of , including Urobatis, as a distinct Atlantic-Pacific sister to other myliobatiforms, though debates persist on finer-scale relationships.

Physical description

Morphology

The yellow stingray, Urobatis jamaicensis, exhibits a classic batoid characterized by a nearly circular pectoral disc formed by the fusion of the pectoral fins to the head and trunk, with a rounded and no sharp angles along the disc margins. The disc width reaches a maximum of approximately 36 cm, while the total length attains up to 70-76 cm, with females generally growing larger than males. This compact form supports its demersal lifestyle, with the ventral mouth positioned for bottom-dwelling feeding habits. The is short and slender, typically measuring about as long as the disc width (48-52% of total length), and tapers gradually without a . It bears one serrated venomous caudal spine located near the base, which is periodically shed and replaced, and terminates in a leaf-shaped caudal fin formed by the joining of dorsal and ventral finfolds around the tail tip. Five pairs of gill slits are present on the ventral surface, facilitating respiration, while dorsally positioned spiracles serve as the primary intake for oxygenated water. Internally, the yellow stingray possesses a typical of elasmobranchs, including a lightweight chondrocranium and vertebral column adapted for flexibility. Males feature modified pelvic fins known as claspers, which are short and stout structures composed of calcified segments used for .

Coloration and camouflage

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) displays a base coloration typically ranging from yellowish-brown to olive-green, often accented by darker mottling, reticulate patterns, or small spots that facilitate blending into sandy, , or substrates. This cryptic patterning is particularly effective on its nearly circular disc-shaped body, allowing the ray to remain concealed while resting or ambushing prey on shallow coastal bottoms. These rays possess a remarkable ability to alter their coloration rapidly for enhanced , adjusting to match diverse backgrounds such as light sand, dark rubble, or algae-covered reefs through physiological mechanisms involving granule movement in chromatophores. In experimental settings, individuals darkened their skin by approximately 96% in dark environments and lightened by 142% in pale ones, with adjustments occurring within days to evade predators via background matching. Biofluorescence was first documented in the yellow stingray in 2014, revealing species-specific patterns where blue light (around 450 nm) excites vivid green fluorescent emissions across the dorsal disc and . These patterns may serve functions such as intraspecific communication for or species recognition, or additional by mimicking fluorescing elements like and corals.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) inhabits tropical and subtropical waters of the western , with a distribution extending from , , southward to . This range encompasses the and the , as well as insular shelves including and the . The species is commonly encountered in the and the , where it ranks among the most frequently sighted elasmobranchs in reef surveys. North of , occurrences are rarer, constrained by the species' preference for warmer waters typically between 25.8°C and 28.1°C. There is no evidence of long-distance migration in this species; however, local seasonal movements occur in response to water temperature variations, with individuals shifting positions to maintain optimal thermal conditions. Historical records from the early align with recent sightings through 2020, indicating range stability as of the 2021 IUCN assessment, though northward expansion remains limited by cold water barriers at the northern extent.

Preferred habitats

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) is a benthic species inhabiting shallow inshore waters across its western Atlantic range. It occurs at depths from 1 to 70 meters, though it is most commonly observed between 5 and 25 meters. These rays favor soft-bottom substrates such as , mud, or beds, which support their predation strategy and provide suitable conditions for burial. Yellow stingrays preferentially occupy microhabitats in proximity to coral reefs, mangroves, and estuaries, utilizing these areas for shelter and access to prey resources while avoiding open ocean and deeper offshore environments. They exhibit a strong affinity for loose sand or silt substrates, into which they bury themselves during daylight hours to evade predators and conserve energy, emerging nocturnally to forage. While predominantly marine, yellow stingrays demonstrate tolerance to fluctuating salinities within estuarine habitats, enabling their presence in brackish coastal zones near mangrove fringes.

Biology and ecology

Behavior and feeding

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) leads a primarily benthic and sedentary lifestyle, remaining largely inactive during the day while often burying itself in sand or mud substrates to avoid detection and conserve energy. This cryptic behavior allows it to blend seamlessly with the seafloor, with individuals typically maintaining a confined home range of approximately 0.02 km². Activity levels increase during crepuscular and nocturnal periods, when the ray becomes more mobile to engage in foraging, potentially covering larger spaces within its territory. Its diet consists mainly of small benthic invertebrates, dominated by polychaete worms (such as ) and decapod crustaceans (including and ), which together comprise over 87% of consumed prey items by number; mollusks like bivalves and rarer items such as sipunculids or small bony fishes make up the remainder. The ray employs a generalist carnivorous strategy with high selectivity for polychaetes despite their low abundance in the environment, showing little seasonal or sexual variation in feeding preferences. To capture prey, it uses a combination of feeding facilitated by rapid protrusion and pectoral undulation to uncover or disturb buried items, often positioning itself above potential food sources after partial burial. Foraging typically involves ambush tactics from concealed positions, enhanced by acute electroreception through the , which detect the weak bioelectric fields of hidden prey buried in sediment. The ray may also lift its snout to create temporary shelters that attract small invertebrates, further aiding prey capture without extensive movement. Socially, yellow stingrays are generally solitary but can occur in loose aggregations near reef structures or beds, where interactions are minimal; agonistic displays, such as tail whipping, may occur during territorial disputes or defense, though such behaviors are infrequently observed.

Reproduction and life history

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) exhibits with direct development, in which embryos develop internally without a and are born live after hatching from thin-walled eggs within the . occurs via the male's , with mating behaviors including male pursuit of the female, biting of her disc margin to her, and alignment of their abdomens for clasper insertion into the . In tropical and subtropical regions, the species has a biannual reproductive cycle, with breeding occurring twice per year. Gestation lasts 5–6 months, during which embryos receive initial from a and supplemental histotroph—a - and protein-rich uterine —resulting in substantial growth and a weight increase of approximately 4,600% from ovum to term . Litters range from 1 to 7 pups, with an average of 3–4; larger females in spring and summer produce bigger broods (mean 3.1) compared to autumn and winter (mean 1.4). Pups are born at a disc width of 75–85 mm, fully formed and independent. Sexual maturity is reached at a small size and young age, with males maturing at approximately 154 mm disc width (around 0.7 years) and females at 148–160 mm disc width (around 0.7 years for initial maturity, with first maternity at larger sizes). Growth follows a von Bertalanffy model for males (asymptotic disc width 184 mm) and a Gompertz model for females (asymptotic 201 mm), continuing post-maturity but slowing thereafter, with sexual dimorphism evident in larger female sizes. Lifespan estimates from vertebral band analysis indicate up to 5 years for males and 6 years for females, though updated analyses suggest maxima of 7.2 years for males and 14.3 years for females.

Predators and defenses

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) faces predation primarily from larger elasmobranchs and bony fishes in its coastal habitats. Known or potential predators include lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris), nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum), , and Nassau groupers (Epinephelus striatus), which target stingrays during foraging in shallow waters. To deter attacks, the yellow stingray relies on a venomous caudal spine located on its tail, which it deploys through stabbing or slashing motions to inflict painful wounds on approaching threats. This spine, periodically shed and regrown, delivers a that causes localized pain and swelling, though its effectiveness against larger predators remains limited. Additionally, the exhibits biofluorescence, re-emitting blue light as green patterns on its dorsal surface, which may serve as a distraction or enhance in low-light conditions to evade detection. Complementing these traits, cryptic coloration with dark spots and reticulate patterns allows brief integration with the substrate, though it is most effective when the ray is stationary. When threatened, yellow stingrays employ rapid escape responses, including into or using undulations of the disc margins to conceal themselves quickly. If burial fails, they burst into motion via pectoral undulation for swift propulsion, often ascending to the surface, spinning, or even swimming upside down or backward to disorient pursuers. Juveniles, typically smaller and residing in shallower inshore areas, show heightened to these predators due to their size and limited mobility, with field observations indicating lower survival rates compared to adults in predator-rich environments.

Human interactions

Fisheries and aquarium trade

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) is not targeted by commercial fisheries but is vulnerable to capture as in artisanal and small-scale industrial operations across the and , where it is typically discarded due to lack of commercial value. Batoids, including this , comprise approximately 36% of elasmobranch catches in western Atlantic shelf fisheries, highlighting their incidental entanglement in regional fishing activities. In the aquarium trade, the yellow stingray experiences small-scale exploitation owing to its compact size (reaching a maximum disc width of about 14 inches) and relative hardiness in captivity, making it suitable for both public aquariums and private displays. Collections often occur via hand nets in nearshore sandy and habitats, particularly in southeast . This trade contributes to localized pressures, though it remains marginal compared to targeted ornamental species. Capture methods like pose significant risks, with elasmobranchs such as stingrays exhibiting high post-release mortality rates—often exceeding 50% in some trawl scenarios—due to stress, , and air exposure during sorting. Regulations governing these interactions vary by jurisdiction; in , the species is classified as a restricted organism under state rules (Chapter 68B-42, F.A.C.), with recreational bag limits of 20 organisms per day (maximum 5 per ), commercial harvest requiring a specialized , and outright bans in protected areas such as to minimize impacts. Live landing is mandated, with requirements for continuously circulating live wells during transport to enhance survival. Historical monitoring from diver surveys (1994–2007) reveals overall stable abundance across the greater but localized declines near fishing grounds, with sighting frequency dropping from 20.5% to 4.7% in the —potentially attributable to combined effects of , aquarium collection, and alteration. These trends underscore the need for targeted mitigation, such as improved gear selectivity, to sustain populations in high-exploitation zones.

Conservation status

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the , with the most recent assessment dated June 21, 2019, as of IUCN Red List Version 2025-1. This status reflects its broad distribution across the western Atlantic from to northern , including the and , where it remains relatively common in shallow coastal habitats. The species' small size (maximum disc width of 36 cm) and productive life history, including early maturity and viviparous , contribute to its resilience against targeted exploitation, as it is not heavily sought in commercial fisheries. However, the assessment notes potential localized threats that warrant monitoring. Despite the global LC designation, evidence of population declines has been documented in specific regions, particularly from habitat degradation and incidental capture. Bycatch in shrimp trawls and artisanal gillnet fisheries poses an additional risk, especially in overfished areas of the Greater Caribbean, where elasmobranch populations face heightened vulnerability due to interactions with multiple threats. Recent biological studies, including a 2023 analysis of age, growth, and maturity using vertebral band counts from 195 individuals, highlight the ' biannual reproductive cycle and rapid early growth, underscoring its potential sensitivity to localized and environmental stressors in degraded habitats. Conservation efforts indirectly benefit the yellow stingray through broader marine protections. It occurs within several marine protected areas (MPAs), such as the National Marine Sanctuary, which safeguards critical and habitats essential for its nursery grounds and foraging. Fisheries management initiatives in the region include bycatch reduction devices, like turtle excluder devices in trawls, which have demonstrated potential to lower elasmobranch capture rates by up to 50% in tested gear configurations, though species-specific data for U. jamaicensis remain limited. Despite these measures, gaps persist in long-term monitoring; quantitative population data are scarce, and there is a need for updated genetic analyses to delineate population structure across its range, as well as assessments of climate change impacts, such as warming-induced decline and range shifts.

Risks to humans

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) possesses a single venomous spine located on the upper surface of its , which can inflict ful injuries to humans during defensive encounters. The spine is serrated with venom-delivering grooves, causing immediate severe , swelling, discoloration, and potential systemic symptoms such as muscle cramps, , , and lymph node enlargement upon penetration. These stings are rarely fatal in healthy individuals but can lead to secondary infections or require medical intervention if the spine fragment embeds in the tissue, necessitating irrigation, antibiotics, or surgical removal in severe cases. Human injuries from yellow stingrays most commonly occur when individuals accidentally step on or disturb the ray while it is buried in shallow sandy bottoms during wading, , or diving in coastal waters. The ray deploys its spine in a rapid upward or slashing motion as a defense mechanism, typically targeting the lower extremities like feet or ankles. for such stings involves immediately immersing the affected area in hot water (as hot as tolerable, around 110–113°F or 43–45°C) for 30–90 minutes to denature the and alleviate pain, followed by thorough cleaning of the with or saline to remove debris and prevent ; tetanus prophylaxis and medical evaluation are recommended if symptoms persist. Despite its venomous capability, the yellow poses a low overall risk to humans due to its small size—reaching a maximum disc width of about 36 cm (14 in) and total length of 76 cm (30 in)—and its docile, non-aggressive nature, with no recorded instances of unprovoked attacks. Encounters are almost always accidental, and the mild potency of its results in injuries that typically resolve within days to weeks without long-term complications. In regions like the , where the species is abundant, hospitals report dozens of minor stingray-related cases annually, often treatable on an outpatient basis, though specific attributions to yellow stingrays are limited. To mitigate risks, educational programs in coastal areas promote the "stingray shuffle"—shuffling feet along the bottom to alert and avoid buried rays—effectively reducing incident rates among beachgoers and divers.

References

  1. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Urobatis-jamaicensis
  2. https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/2755
  3. https://www.sharksandrays.com/yellow-spotted-stingray/
  4. https://saveourseas.com/worldofsharks/species/yellow-stingray
  5. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60109/206646540
  6. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfb.15374
  7. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=283086
  8. https://shark-references.com/species/view/Urobatis-jamaicensis
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273129532_The_Yellow_Stingray_Urobatis_jamaicensis_Chondrichthyes_Urotrygonidae_a_synoptic_review
  10. https://seamap.env.duke.edu/species/621035
  11. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/yellow-stingray/
  12. https://sicb.org/abstracts/environmental-regulation-of-yellow-stingray-camouflage/
  13. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd/1804/
  14. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083259
  15. https://www.biminisharklab.com/sharks-of-bimini-1/yellow-stingray
  16. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/urobatis
  17. https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Urobatis_jamaicensis%20-%20Yellow%20Stingray.pdf
  18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320299821_Comparative_feeding_ecology_of_the_yellow_ray_Urobatis_jamaicensis_Urotrygonidae_from_The_Bahamas
  19. https://www.science.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2024/05/s14rbz16_Fahy-pp131-139.pdf
  20. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=hcas_etd_all
  21. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/hcas_etd_all/52/
  22. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jfb.15374
  23. https://www.fishbase.se/TrophicEco/PredatorList.php?ID=2581&GenusName=Urobatis&SpeciesName=jamaicensis
  24. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/nurse-shark/
  25. https://www.reef.org/sites/default/files/yellowstingray_EBFfulltext.pdf
  26. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jfb.15374
  27. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jfb.13197
  28. https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/com/ac/31/Docs/E-AC31-26-A-R1.pdf
  29. https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2012-046.pdf
  30. https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/ftp/od/library/stingray-ward%2520paige.pdf
  31. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982221011982
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4732448/
  33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323947196_The_kinematics_of_envenomation_by_the_yellow_stingray_Urobatis_jamaicensis
  34. https://www.webmd.com/first-aid/what-to-know-about-stingray-stings
  35. https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/bites-and-stings/stingray-stings
  36. https://www.healthline.com/health/stingray-sting
  37. https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-to-treat-a-stingray-sting-1298267
  38. https://animalia.bio/yellow-stingray
  39. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0215/p885.html
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