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Vachellia tortilis
Vachellia tortilis
Vachellia tortilis
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Umbrella thorn acacia
Specimen of the nominate subspecies in Serengeti National Park
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
Clade: Mimosoid clade
Genus: Vachellia
Species:
V. tortilis
Binomial name
Vachellia tortilis
(Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi[2]
Subspecies and varieties[3]
  • Vachellia tortilis subsp. heteracantha (Burch.) Kyal. & Boatwr.
  • Vachellia tortilis subsp. raddiana (Savi) Kyal. & Boatwr.
    • var. pubescens (A.Chev.) Kyal. & Boatwr.
    • var. raddiana (Savi) Kyal. & Boatwr.
  • Vachellia tortilis subsp. spirocarpa (Hochst. ex. A.Rich.) Kyal. & Boatwr.
    • var. crinita (Chiov.) Kyal. & Boatwr.
    • var. spirocarpa (Hochst. ex. A.Rich.) Kyal. & Boatwr.
  • Vachellia tortilis subsp. tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi
Range of Vachellia tortilis
Synonyms
  • Acacia raddiana Savi
  • Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne
  • Mimosa tortilis Forssk.
  • Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb.

Vachellia tortilis, widely known as Acacia tortilis but now attributed to the genus Vachellia in the Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae,[4] is the umbrella thorn acacia, also known as umbrella thorn and Israeli babool,[5] a medium to large canopied tree native to most of Africa, primarily to the savanna and Sahel of Africa (especially the Somali peninsula and Sudan), but also occurring in the Middle East.

Distribution and growing conditions

[edit]

Vachellia tortilis is widespread in Africa, being found in countries like Tunisia, Morocco, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe, Djibouti, and Botswana. It tends to grow in areas where temperatures vary from 0 to 50 °C (32 to 122 °F) and rainfall is anywhere from about 100–1,000 mm (3.9–39.4 in) per year.[6]

Characteristics

[edit]

In extremely arid conditions, it may occur as a small, wiry bush. In good conditions, it grows up to 21 m (70 ft) in height.[7] The tree carries leaves that grow to approx. 2.5 cm (1 in) in length with between 4 and 10 pair of pinnae each with up to 15 pairs of leaflets. Its most interesting feature is that it has pairs of thorns; one long, straight and pale, the second short, curved and dark.[8] The flowers are small and white, highly aromatic, and occur in tight clusters. The seeds are produced in pods which are flat and coiled into a springlike structure.

The plant is known to tolerate high alkalinity, drought, high temperatures, sandy and stony soils, strongly sloped rooting surfaces, and to withstand sandblasting too. Also, plants older than two years have shown a degree of frost resistance.[9]

Importance

[edit]

The pods and foliage, which grow prolifically on the tree, are used as fodder for desert grazing animals. The bark is often used as a string medium in Tanzania, and is a source for tannin. Gum from the tree is edible and can be used as gum arabic. Parts of the tree including roots, shoots, and pods are also often used by natives for a vast number of purposes including decorations, weapons, tools, and medicines.[10]

The Umbrella thorn is also an important species for rehabilitation of degraded arid land; it tolerates drought, wind, salinity and a wide range of soil types, and has the additional benefit of fixing nitrogen, an essential plant nutrient, in the soil via its interaction with symbiotic root bacteria.

  • The pods are curled.
    The pods are curled.
  • It has a combination of paired straight and paired hooked thorns, from which the Afrikaans name derives, meaning "hook and prick".
    It has a combination of paired straight and paired hooked thorns, from which the Afrikaans name derives, meaning "hook and prick".
  • The southern subspecies heteracantha, here seen in flower, is smaller and often without a spreading crown.
    The southern subspecies heteracantha, here seen in flower, is smaller and often without a spreading crown.

Religious connotations

[edit]

Timber from the tree is used for furniture, wagon wheels, fence posts, cages, and pens. Vachellia wood was also used exclusively by the Israelites in the bible in the building of the tabernacle and the tabernacle furniture, including the Ark of the Covenant.[citation needed]

It is also the tree under which the historic pledge of allegiance of Hudaybiya of Muhammad was held, as God says in the Quran, "Allah's Good Pleasure was on the Believers when they swore Fealty to thee under the Tree: He knew what was in their hearts, and He sent down Tranquillity to them; and He rewarded them with a speedy Victory;"[11] Abu Zubayr said in Sahih Muslim that, "Umar was holding the latter's hand (when he was sitting) under the tree (called) Samura[12]."[13]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Vachellia tortilis

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Vachellia tortilis, commonly known as the umbrella thorn or umbrella acacia, is a resilient, drought-tolerant in the family, characterized by its distinctive flat-topped, umbrella-like canopy formed by spreading branches armed with paired straight and hooked thorns. Native to arid and semi-arid regions across Africa—from the to —the , and parts of the , it thrives in and dry biomes, tolerating sandy, rocky, or alkaline soils with annual rainfall as low as 100 mm and temperatures ranging from below 5°C in winter to over 40°C in summer. This evergreen to semi-deciduous or shrub typically grows 4–21 meters tall, with a deeply penetrating system that enables survival in harsh environments, and it plays a crucial ecological role by fixing atmospheric through root nodules, stabilizing soils, and providing and in savannas and woodlands. Renowned for its , V. tortilis individuals can live up to 650 years in the wild, making it one of the longest-lived in arid ecosystems, with age estimates confirmed through . Morphologically, it features bipinnate leaves with 2–10 pairs of pinnae and 6–19 pairs of small leaflets (0.5–6 mm long), creamy-white spherical flower heads on peduncles, and spirally twisted or contorted pods containing olive- to red-brown seeds. The exhibits high genetic diversity, particularly in populations across Kenya's arid and semi-arid lands, where it forms distinct genetic clusters influenced by geographical barriers like the , supporting its adaptability and resilience against environmental stresses. V. tortilis holds significant socioeconomic and cultural value, serving as a multipurpose resource in traditional communities. Its pods and seeds are , used to make or as a nutrient-rich source high in fatty acids like , while the gum exudate provides a source of monosaccharides for medicinal preparations. In across North, East, and as well as Yemen, various parts—such as bark decoctions for and stomach ailments, root infusions for , and stem extracts for —demonstrate antibacterial, , , , and antiproliferative properties, with scientific studies confirming activities like 92.13% radical scavenging against and inhibition zones up to 25 mm against pathogens. Additionally, the wood is valued for timber and , bark for and fiber, and the tree for applications including and livestock , underscoring its importance in sustaining livelihoods and in dryland ecosystems. Classified as Least Concern by conservation assessments, ongoing emphasizes the need for further pharmacodynamic studies to harness its bioactive compounds fully.

Taxonomy

Nomenclature and classification

Vachellia tortilis was originally described by Peter Forsskål in 1775 as Mimosa tortilis in his Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica, based on specimens collected during an expedition to and Arabia. The species was later transferred to the genus by Friedrich Gottlob Hayne in 1827 as Acacia tortilis, reflecting the broader circumscription of Acacia at the time that encompassed diverse thorny with bipinnate leaves and capitate inflorescences. The genus was revived by David S. Seigler and John E. Ebinger in 2005 to accommodate species previously placed in subgenus , driven by molecular phylogenetic studies demonstrating the of and the distinct evolutionary lineage of these taxa. This reclassification was further supported and extended to African species following the 2011 in , where the Nomenclature Section, including input from the World Wide Wattle working group, conserved the name for the Australian type species A. penninervis, necessitating the transfer of non-Australian lineages like Vachellia tortilis to separate genera based on phylogenetic divergence from . The specific combination Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi was formally published in 2008. Within the family, Vachellia tortilis is classified in subfamily and tribe Acacieae, a placement supported by both morphological and molecular data that highlight shared traits such as bipinnate leaves and nitrogen-fixing root nodules among tribe members. Key morphological features distinguishing from sensu stricto include capitate (head-like) inflorescences and spinescent stipules, alongside a calyx typically composed of free or basally united sepals, contrasting with the often spike-like inflorescences and phyllodinous leaves prevalent in the latter. The species is known by several common names, including umbrella thorn (reflecting its distinctive flat-topped canopy), umbrella , and Israeli babool, the latter a regional variant in parts of the and . The specific epithet "tortilis" derives from the Latin word for "twisted" or "coiled," alluding to the characteristic spirally twisted pods of the species.

Vachellia tortilis is classified into five accepted , primarily distinguished by variations in pod morphology, such as width, pubescence, and degree of twisting, along with differences in crown shape and stature. These are recognized based on morphological and distributional evidence, as outlined in taxonomic revisions. The nominate , V. tortilis subsp. tortilis, features pods that are 3–5 mm wide, shortly pubescent, and lacking glands, with the typically occurring as a or reaching 2–6 m tall and exhibiting a flattened crown. It is distributed from and through to and the , including . V. tortilis subsp. raddiana (Savi) Kyal. & Boatwr. is characterized by broader pods measuring 6–9 mm wide, which are glabrous and eglandular, and the subspecies forms trees up to 10 m tall with a more rounded crown. Its range spans the region from and eastward to and the , including and Sinai. V. tortilis subsp. heteracantha (Burch.) Kyal. & Boatwr. has pods 4–9 mm wide that are glabrous, and it is notable for its particularly long straight thorns reaching up to 10 cm, alongside shorter hooked ones; the plants grow as shrubs or trees up to 15 m with a flattened crown. This is restricted to , occurring in , , , and adjacent areas like and . V. tortilis subsp. spirocarpa (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Kyal. & Boatwr. possesses the widest pods at 6–13 mm, which are tomentellous with short hairs up to 0.75 mm and glands present, exhibiting a highly spirally twisted form, with trees attaining heights of 2–21 m and a flattened crown. It is primarily found in northeastern tropical , including , , , and extending southward to and . V. tortilis subsp. campoptila (Schweinf.) Ragup., Seigler, Ebinger & Maslin is a tree growing primarily in the or dry . Originally described as a separate , it was reduced to subspecies status. It is native to . Diagnostic traits across the subspecies include pod shape, which is generally contorted or spirally twisted (with variations in tightness and surface texture), thorn length combining long straight spines (1.2–10 cm) and short hooked ones (up to 5 mm), and leaflet dimensions of 0.5–6 mm long by 0.2–1.5 mm wide. These features align with classifications from authoritative databases emphasizing pod and spine characteristics for identification.

Description

Physical characteristics

Vachellia tortilis is a small to medium-sized or that attains a mature height of 5–21 m, often developing a distinctive flat-topped, umbrella-shaped canopy that spreads widely, sometimes reaching up to 15 m in diameter. The trunk may be single or multi-stemmed, with branches forming a rounded or flattened crown supported by well-developed boles. The bark is rough, fissured, and dark brown to black in color, providing a textured appearance on mature trees. Paired stipular spines, typically white and straight, measure 5–10 cm in length and serve as a primary defense mechanism against herbivores; shorter, hooked brownish spines may also occur alongside them. The leaves are bipinnate, 2–7 cm long, with 2–10 pairs of pinnae and 6–22 pairs of small, grey-green leaflets (0.5–6 mm long) per pinna; unlike some related , Vachellia tortilis lacks phyllodes. Flowers are creamy-white, fragrant, and arranged in axillary globose heads 5–10 mm in diameter on peduncles 0.4–2.4 cm long, typically blooming at the start of the rainy season. The fruits are indehiscent, spirally twisted pods measuring 5–20 cm in length and 0.8–1.5 cm wide, each containing 10–20 flattened seeds. The wood features a hard, durable heartwood that is reddish-brown, with a density of approximately 580 kg/m³, making it suitable for fuel and ; the bark and heartwood contain high levels of , contributing to its resistance to decay and use in traditional tanning processes.

Reproduction and growth

Vachellia tortilis bears hermaphroditic flowers in small, scented globose heads measuring 0.5–1.1 cm in diameter, primarily pollinated by insects including bees and beetles, with flies and butterflies serving as secondary vectors. Flowering occurs from May to June, followed by fruiting from June to September in the northern hemisphere, producing spirally twisted pods that contain multiple seeds. Seeds of Vachellia tortilis demonstrate orthodox storage behavior with high viability, retaining up to 85% viability after 5 years under hermetic conditions at low temperatures and levels. is limited by a hard impermeable seed coat causing physical , but rates can increase significantly—from around 26% to 75% or higher—through mechanical or chemical , or exposure to , which cracks the coat and promotes water . The exhibits slow initial growth, with seedlings achieving approximately 1.5 m in over the first 2 years under favorable conditions (about 0.75 m per year), accelerating to 1–2 m per year once established. Mature trees can reach heights of 5–21 m, supported by deep root systems that enable survival in water-scarce environments. Lifespans typically range from 100 to 200 years, though some individuals may exceed 200 years, with estimates up to 650 years based on and wood anatomy analyses. Vegetative propagation is uncommon in Vachellia tortilis, occurring primarily through vigorous after felling or damage, and occasionally via suckers in response to pressure, which allows limited asexual regeneration.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Vachellia tortilis is native to a vast area across and the , spanning sub-Saharan regions from in the west to in the east, and extending southward to , as well as North African countries from to . In the , it occurs in and . The species is particularly abundant in semi-arid savannas and dry shrublands throughout these regions. The tree has been introduced outside its native range for and land rehabilitation purposes. In , it was introduced to from in 1958 and has since been promoted for its adaptability in arid conditions. Introductions have also occurred in parts of , where it is established in some areas, and in the , including and , for similar ecological and economic benefits. According to the assessment, the extent of occurrence for V. tortilis is approximately 35 million km², reflecting its broad distribution across diverse arid and semi-arid landscapes.

Environmental requirements

Vachellia tortilis thrives in arid and semi-arid climates with mean annual rainfall ranging from 100 to 1,000 mm, enabling its survival in regions with prolonged dry seasons. Its extensive root system, featuring a deep that can extend up to 50 m to access , allows the species to endure in these environments. The species tolerates a broad temperature range of 0 to 50 °C, with mature trees demonstrating resilience to light frost down to approximately -4 °C, although seedlings are highly susceptible to cold damage. It prefers well-drained soils such as sandy or rocky substrates and adapts to alkaline and saline conditions, with a soil pH tolerance of 6.5 to 8.5. Salinity tolerance extends to soil electrical conductivity levels of 15-25 dS/m, supporting growth in coastal or irrigated arid zones. Drought resistance is further enhanced by physiological adaptations, including seasonal leaf shedding to reduce during extended dry periods. Vachellia tortilis occurs from to altitudes of 2,000 m, reflecting its versatility across varied topographic and hydrological contexts in its native range.

Ecology

Interactions with animals and plants

_Vachellia tortilis forms symbiotic relationships with bacteria in root nodules, facilitating biological that enriches the surrounding with nitrogen. This process enhances , particularly benefiting understory herbaceous such as grasses by increasing their production in semi-arid savannas. The plant's foliage and pods serve as a key food source for large herbivores, including African elephants (Loxodonta africana), giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis), and livestock such as goats and cattle, which browse on leaves and pods for their nutritional value. Leaves and pods contain high levels of crude protein, typically ranging from 15% to 20% on a dry matter basis, making them a valuable forage in arid environments. The paired thorns on branches provide defense against browsing, though giraffes circumvent this by feeding on higher, less protected branches. Seeds of V. tortilis face predation primarily from nocturnal , such as gerbils and mice, which consume a significant portion of fallen pods and seeds in ecosystems, reducing seedling recruitment. Additionally, predispersal by , including bruchid beetles, affects up to 9% of seeds, further impacting . Conversely, mammals including and other ruminants contribute to through endozoochory, ingesting pods and excreting viable seeds in dung, which promotes over distances. V. tortilis exhibits allelopathic effects through exudates and soil leachates that inhibit the and growth of nearby competing plant , particularly in nutrient-poor arid soils where is intense. These chemical interactions, often involving from secretions, suppress competitors like grasses and invasive shrubs, aiding V. tortilis establishment.

Ecosystem role

_Vachellia tortilis serves as a in Acacia-dominated savannas and arid , where its umbrella-shaped canopy creates shaded microhabitats that significantly enhance local . Studies indicate that species and diversity are notably higher beneath the canopy compared to open areas, with estimators showing up to 11% greater species richness under the tree due to improved and nutrient availability. This facilitation effect supports a more complex structure, contributing to overall ecosystem stability in semi-arid regions. The tree plays a critical role in and fertility enhancement through its deep root system and symbiotic , which reduces in semi-arid zones and enriches nutrients. levels under the canopy are elevated, leading to increased primary of herbaceous , with often significantly higher than in surrounding open grasslands—up to 60% greater in some cases around mature or remnant trees. This nutrient cycling boosts overall ecosystem by supporting grass growth and preventing in . In terms of carbon storage, mature stands of V. tortilis sequester substantial amounts of CO₂, with biomass carbon stocks reaching approximately 15 tons per in woodlands dominated by the species, equivalent to around 55 tons of CO₂ per . Its fire resilience, including resprouting capability after burns, aids in post-fire recovery by maintaining canopy cover and facilitating vegetation regrowth. Additionally, the tree's extensive roots promote hydrological functions such as improved in drylands by enhancing soil infiltration and reducing during intense rainfall events.

Uses and cultural significance

Economic and practical uses

Vachellia tortilis serves as a vital source of in arid and semi-arid regions, particularly the , where its leaves and pods provide high-protein for during dry seasons when other is scarce. The pods contain approximately 12.4% crude protein on a basis (range 8.6–16.2%), while leaves offer about 17.5% crude protein (range 14.6–24.9%), making them suitable for camels, , and to support pastoralist livelihoods by enhancing animal and resilience in resource-limited environments. The dense wood of Vachellia tortilis is valued for timber applications, including furniture, tools, poles, and house construction, due to its moderate strength and durability under cover. Additionally, it is a preferred species for fuelwood and charcoal production, with the wood exhibiting a high heating value of around 20.45 MJ/kg, which contributes to its economic importance in rural communities reliant on biomass energy.[](https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Vachellia tortilis) Gum exudate from Vachellia tortilis is harvested as a moderate-quality arabic gum, serving as an emulsifier in the and pharmaceutical industries for products like and medications. Annual yields typically range from 1 to 2 kg per under tapping conditions, supporting local and international markets while providing for harvesters in dryland ecosystems.[](https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Vachellia tortilis) In , bark decoctions of Vachellia tortilis are used to treat and wounds, acting as astringents and antiseptics, with stem bark extracts demonstrating activity against pathogens like . The pods exhibit antidiabetic properties, attributed to such as identified in analyses, which contribute to blood glucose regulation through mechanisms like α-glucosidase inhibition. Vachellia tortilis plays a key role in systems, where its thorny branches form effective live fences to protect crops from and windbreaks to reduce and enhance microclimates in the . Through and dune stabilization, it integrates into silvopastoral practices, promoting sustainable land use and in arid landscapes.

Religious and cultural importance

Vachellia tortilis, known historically as the "shittah" tree in biblical texts, holds significant religious importance in and . Its durable wood is described in the as the material used for constructing the , the , and related furnishings, symbolizing purity and due to the tree's resilience in arid environments (Exodus 25–27). In Islamic tradition, Vachellia tortilis, referred to as "samura," is associated with the Pledge of al-Ridwan (also known as the Pledge of the Tree), a pivotal event during the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 CE, where companions of the Prophet Muhammad swore allegiance under its shade. The tree's pods, valued as fodder in arid regions, align with hadith references to similar acacia species for sustenance, while its broad canopy embodies hospitality in Bedouin culture, providing essential shade for travelers and gatherings in the desert. Among African indigenous groups, Vachellia tortilis features prominently in and rituals. The Maasai and related Samburu peoples use its thorns in protective structures and view the species as a of and ancestral continuity. In Zulu , known locally as "umsasane," the tree is linked to themes of and spiritual safeguarding in traditional narratives, though specific ancestral protection motifs are more broadly tied to symbolism across southern African lore. As a modern , Vachellia tortilis—formerly classified as —often symbolizes Kenya's landscapes central to East African identity. Its distinctive umbrella-shaped form inspires depictions in , such as evocations of resilience and wilderness in works exploring human-nature bonds, and in , where it symbolizes the continent's arid beauty and ecological heritage. Recent research highlights its potential in modern pharmacology, with studies as of confirming bioactive compounds for antibacterial and applications.

Conservation status

Threats and protection

Vachellia tortilis is assessed as Least Concern by the (as of 2020), owing to its extensive range across arid and semi-arid regions of and the , with an estimated extent of occurrence exceeding 34 million km². However, local populations face vulnerability from driven by expanding human settlements and agricultural expansion, which disrupts genetic connectivity and reduces resilience. Key threats to the species include by , which suppresses establishment and natural regeneration by compacting and consuming young shoots. for fuelwood and production, especially in the , exacerbates habitat loss and contributes to regional woodland decline. poses additional risks through prolonged droughts and shifting precipitation patterns that may alter suitable habitats, with modeling in some regions projecting range expansion despite local vulnerabilities. The species is not listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (). Protective measures include its occurrence within protected areas such as in , where it contributes to ecosystems. Reforestation initiatives in , guided by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, promote the planting of V. tortilis to rehabilitate degraded . Community-based in pastoral regions emphasizes sustainable grazing rotations and awareness campaigns to curb overexploitation. These efforts help safeguard the species' role in providing services like shade, , and . While globally Least Concern, regional assessments vary; for example, it is Endangered in .

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  56. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/343
  57. https://bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu/resources/fuelwood-characteristics-of-six-acacia-species-growing-wild-in-the-southwest-of-saudi-arabia-as-affected-by-geographical-location/
  58. https://www.fao.org/4/v5360e/v5360e08.htm
  59. https://www.biblegateway.com/resources/encyclopedia-of-the-bible/Shittah-Tree
  60. https://en.wikishia.net/view/Pledge_of_al-Ridwan
  61. https://qbg.org.qa/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/The-Names-of-Plants-Cited-in-the-Holy-Quran-and-the-Sunnah-.pdf
  62. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331332505_The_Tree_of_Everything_Acacia_Tortilis_and_the_Origins_of_the_Aesthetic_Mind
  63. https://www.tingatingaart.com/blogs/articles/acacia-trees-in-african-paintings
  64. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332776366_Evidence_of_high_genetic_diversity_and_significant_population_structuring_in_Vachellia_tortilis_Forsk_Galasso_Banfi_population_in_Kenya
  65. https://journals.ug.edu.gh/index.php/wajae/article/view/3650
  66. https://oneserengeti.commons.gc.cuny.edu/plants/
  67. https://www.ead.gov.ae/-/media/Project/EAD/EAD/Documents/Resources/EAD_AD-Species-Redlist-Report_LoRes_1.pdf
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