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Bas-relief (probably) of an Apkallu figure from the temple of Ninurta at Nimrud.[1]

Apkallu or and Abgal (𒉣𒈨; Akkadian and Sumerian, respectively[2]) are terms found in cuneiform inscriptions that in general mean either "wise" or "sage".

In several contexts the Apkallu are seven demigods, sometimes described as part man and part fish or bird, associated with human wisdom; these creatures are often referred to in scholarly literature as the Seven Sages. Sometimes the sages are associated with a specific primeval king. After the Great Flood (see Epic of Gilgamesh), further sages and kings are listed. Post-deluge, the sages are considered human, and in some texts are distinguished by being referred to as Ummanu, not Apkallu. Another use of the term Apkallu is when referring to figurines used in apotropaic rituals; these figurines include fish-man hybrids representing the seven sages, but also include bird-headed and other figures. In a later work by Berossus describing Babylonia, the Apkallu appear again, also described as fish-men who are sent by the gods to impart knowledge to humans. In Berossus, the first one, Oannes (a variant of Uanna), is said to have taught humans the creation myth, the Enūma Eliš.

Etymology, names, and meaning

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The term apkallu has multiple uses, but usually refers to some form of wisdom; translations of the term generally equate to English language uses of the terms "the wise", "sage" or "expert".[3] Additionally, the term is used when referring to human "priests" (also "exorcists", "diviners").[4] However, Mesopotamian human sages also used the term ummianu (ummânù) "expert".[5][6]

As an epithet, prefix, or adjective it can mean "the wise"; it has been used as an epithet for the gods Ea and Marduk, simply interpreted as "wise one amongst gods" or similar forms. It has also been applied to Enlil, Ninurta, and Adad.[7]

The term also refers to the "seven sages",[8] especially the sage Adapa,[9] and also to apotropaic figures, which are often figurines of the 'seven sages' themselves.[10] A collation of the names and "titles" of theses seven sages in order can be given as:[11]

Uanna, "who finished the plans for heaven and earth",
Uannedugga, "who was endowed with comprehensive intelligence",
Enmedugga, "who was allotted a good fate",
Enmegalamma, "who was born in a house",
Enmebulugga, "who grew up on pasture land",
An-Enlilda, "the conjurer of the city of Eridu",
Utuabzu, "who ascended to heaven".

Uanna (Oannes) or Adapa?

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See also: Adapa

The first of these legendary fish-man sages is known as Oan/Oannes, Sumerian Uanna/U-An; on a few cuneiform inscriptions this first sage has "adapa" appended to his name.[12][13] Borger notes, however, that it is difficult to believe that the half-man half-fish Adapa is the same as the fisherman of the Adapa myth, the son of the god Ea.[12][14] A potential solution was given by W. G. Lambert[15]—evidence that "adapa" was also used as an appellative meaning "wise".[12]

Kvanvig 2011 considers the case for Adapa being one of or a name of one of the Apkallu. They note that while some texts contain plays on words between the terms "adapa" and "uan" and posit that "adapa" may be an epithet, though in the Adapa myth itself it is likely a proper name. In terms of the name of the first Apkallu they consider that both terms "adapa" ("wise") and "ummanu" ("craftsman") together form the whole proper name. Additionally, they note closer similarities between the 7th Apkallu Utuabzu, who is said to have ascended to heaven (in the Bit Meseri), and the myth of Adapa who also visited heaven. Both Adapa and the Apkallu have legends that place them halfway between the world of men and gods; but additionally just as Oannes in the Greek version passes all the knowledge of civilization to humans, so Adapa is described as having been "[made] perfect with broad understanding to reveal the plans of the land." However, despite some clear parallels between Adapa stories and both the first and last Apkallu, Kvanvig finally notes that the name used for the first Apkallu is given in both Berossus, and in the Uruk King list—that is Uan.[16]

Oannes was once conjectured to be a form or another name of the ancient Babylonian god Ea.[17] It is now thought that the name is the Greek form of the Babylonian Uanna, an Apkallu.[18]

Literary evidence

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Uruk List of Kings and Sages

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These Sages are found in the "Uruk List of Kings and Sages" (165 BC) discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid era temple of Anu in Bit Res; The text consisted of list of seven kings and their associated sages, followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see Gilgamesh flood myth), followed by eight more king/sage pairs.[19][20][21]

A tentative translation reads:


During the reign of Ayalu, the king, [Adapa]† was sage.

During the reign of Alalgar, the king, Uanduga was sage.

During the reign of Ameluana, the king, Enmeduga was sage.

During the reign of Amegalana, the king, Enmegalama was sage.

During the reign of Enmeusumgalana, the king, Enmebuluga was sage.

During the reign of Dumuzi, the shepherd, the king, Anenlilda was sage.

During the reign of Enmeduranki, the king, Utuabzu was sage.

After the flood, during the reign of Enmerkar, the king, Nungalpirigal was sage, whom Istar brought down from heaven to Eana. He made the bronze lyre [..] according to the technique of Ninagal. [..] The lyre was placed before Anu [..], the dwelling of (his) personal god.

During the reign of Gilgamesh, the king, Sin-leqi-unnini was scholar.

During the reign of Ibbi-Sin, the king, Kabti-ili-Marduk was scholar.

During the reign of Isbi-Erra, the king, Sidu, a.k.a. Enlil-ibni, was scholar.

During the reign of Abi-esuh, the king, Gimil-Gula and Taqis-Gula were the scholars.

During the reign of [...], the king, Esagil-kin-apli was scholar.

During the reign of Adad-apla-iddina, the king, Esagil-kin-ubba was scholar.

During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, the king, Esagil-kin-ubba was scholar.

During the reign of Esarhaddon, the king, Aba-Enlil-dari was scholar, whom the Arameans call Ahiqar.

† Note the root for this word is the same (Iu4-4+60) as that for the following sage Uanduga (Iu4-4+60-du10-ga) ie the translation to Adapa is interpretive, not literally 'phonetic'
(Lenzi 2008, pp. 140–143)

Lenzi notes that the list is clearly intended to be taken in chronological order. It is an attempt to connect real (historic) kings directly to mythologic (divine) kingship and also does the same connecting those real king's sages (ummanu) with the demi-godly mythic seven sages (apkallu).[22]

Though the list is taken to be chronological, the texts do not portray the Sages (nor the kings) as genealogically related to each other or their kings. There is some similarity between the sages' and kings' names in the list, but not enough to draw any solid conclusions.[23]

Bit meseri

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A list (similar to the Uruk list) of the seven sages followed by four human sages is also given in an apotropaic incantation the tablet series Bit meseri.[22] The ritual involved hanging or placing statues of the sages on the walls of a house. A translation of the cuneiform was given by Borger:

Incantation. U-Anna, who accomplishes the plans of heaven and earth,

U-Anne-dugga, who is endowed with comprehensive understanding,

Enmedugga, for whom a good destiny has been decreed,

Enmegalamma, who was born in a house,

Enmebulugga, who grew up in pasture land,

An-Enlilda, the conjurer of the city of Eridu,

Utuabzu, who ascended to heaven,

the pure puradu-fishes, the puradu-fishes of the sea, the seven of them,

the seven sages, who have originated in the river, who control the plans of heaven and earth.

Nungalpiriggaldim, the wise (King) of Enmerkars, who had the goddess Innin/Ishtar descend from heaven into the sanctuary,

Piriggalnungal, who was born in Kish, who angered the god Ishkur/Adad in heaven, so that he allowed neither rain nor growth in the land for three years,

Piriggalabzu, who was born in Adab/Utab, who hung his seal on a "goat-fish"† and thereby angered the god Enki/Ea in the fresh water Sea, so that a fuller struck him dead with his own seal,

fourth Lu-Nanna, who was two-thirds a sage, who drove a dragon out of the temple E-Ninkiagnunna, the Innin/Ishtar Temple of (King) Schulgi,

(altogether) four Sages of human descent, whom Enki/Ea, the Lord, endowed with comprehensive understanding.

† Goatfish were associated with Enki/Ea
Translated to English in Hess & Tsumura 1994, pp. 230–231, original german translation Borger 1974, p. 186

Borger found the Uruk and bit meseri lists to be in agreement.[24]

The Twenty-One "Poultices"

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Nudimmud became angry and summoned the seven sages of Eridu in high tones,

"Bring the document of my Anuship that it may be read before me,

That I may decree the destiny for Mu'ait,

The son who makes me happy, and grant him his desire."

They brought and read the tablet of destinies of the great gods,

He decreed the destiny for him and gave him ..

Anenlildam the purification priest of Eridu,

Made twenty-one "poultices" and gave them to him


LKA 146 Obverse, Lines 5-12. (Lambert 1980, p. 79)

A text giving the story known as the Twenty-One "Poultices" (ref. no. LKA No.76) contains duplications of much of the Bit meseir text concerning the seven sages - it was analyzed by Reiner 1961. Another text from Uruk was later found that duplicated and further completed the coverage of Reiner's text.[25]

In the twenty-one poultices text the seven sages (of Eridu) are entrusted with the reading "tablets of destiny." Additionally the sage Anenlilda is the maker of the 'twenty-one poultices' -- these items are then given to Nudimmud to bring to the "upper world" to gain merit.[26]

The Poem of Erra

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I made those ummanus [apkallus] go down to the apsu

and I said they were not to come back up

Poem of Erra; Tablet 1, line 147.(Kvanvig 2011, pp. 161–2)

The seven sages are also mentioned in the Epic of Erra (aka 'Song of Erra', or 'Erra and Ishum'); here again they are referenced as paradu-Fish.[12][27] In this text is described how after the Flood, Marduk banished them back to Abzu.[28] Once the apkallu are banished, Marduk's phrasing becomes rhetorical (left):

Where are the seven apkallu of the apsu, the holy carp†,

who are perfect in lofty wisdom like Ea's their lord,

who can make my body holy?

† Usually translated as "pure puradu-fishes"
Poem of Erra; Tablet 2, line 162 (Kvanvig 2011, p. 162)

Finally Erra persuades Marduk to leave his temple and fetch back the apkallu from their banishment, reassuring that he will keep order whilst Marduk is away. However, chaos breaks out; though some of the text is missing it seems that the subsequent outcome was that instead, earthly ummanus are given the task of cleansing Marduk's shrine.[29] Kvanvig infers from this text that the mythological role of the apkallu was to aid the god (Marduk) in keeping creation stable by maintenance of Marduk's idol.[30]

According to Scott B. Noegel this epic also contains several clever etymological wordplays on the names of apkallu, both textual and phonetic.[31]

This text appears to have a completely different role for the apkallu from that given in the lists of sages and kings—essentially, Kvanvig proposes that the pre-deluge king-sage list was retroactively inserted onto a Sumerian king list, so to combine the historical record with the flood legend. In doing so it creates a pre-flood origin story for the Sumerian kings.[32]

Building stories

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The Seven Sages have enlarged it for you from the south to the uplands [north].

(Temple hymn) The house of Asarluhi at Kuar-Eridu; line 193.[33]

A Sumerian temple hymn states the seven sages (here as abgal) enlarged a temple.[27]

The seven sages were also associated with the founding of the seven cities of Eridu, Ur, Nippur, Kullab, Kesh, Lagash, and Shuruppak; and in the Epic of Gilgamesh (Gilg. I 9; XI 305) they are credited with laying the foundations of Uruk.[34]

Berossus' Babyloniaca

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Main article: Babyloniaca (Berossus)

Berossus wrote a history of Babylon in around 281 BC, during the Hellenistic period. According to his own account, he was a Chaldean priest of Bel (Marduk). His Babyloniaca was written in Greek, probably for the Seleucid court of Antiochus I.[35] His work gives a description of the wise men, their names, and their associated kings.[36][21] Berossus' original book is now lost,[37] but parts have survived via the abridgment and copying of historians including Alexander Polyhistor, Josephus, Abydenus, and Eusebius.[38][37] Mayer Burstein suggests that Berossus' work was partly metaphorical, intended to convey wisdoms concerning the development of man—a nuance lost or uncommented on by later copyists.[37]

What remains of Berossos' account via Apollodorus begins with a description on Babylonia, followed by the appearance of a learned fish-man creature named Oannes.[39] Truncated account:


This is the history which Berossus has transmitted to us. He tells us that the first king was Alorus of Babylon, a Chaldaean; he reigned ten sari: and afterwards Alaparus, and Amelon who came from Pantibiblon: then Ammenon the Chaldaean, in whose time appeared the Musarus Oannes the Annedotus from the Erythraean sea. (But Alexander Polyhistor anticipating the event, has said that he appeared in the first year; but Apollodorus says that it was after forty sari; Abydenus, however, makes the second Annedotus appear after twenty-six sari.) Then succeeded Megalarus from the city of Pantibiblon; and he reigned eighteen sari: and after him Daonus the shepherd from Pantibiblon reigned ten sari; in his time (he says) appeared again from the Erythraean sea a fourth Annedotus, having the same form with those above, the shape of a fish blended with that of a man. Then reigned Euedoreschus from Pantibiblon, for the term of eighteen sari; in his days there appeared another personage from the Erythraean sea like the former, having the same complicated form between a fish and a man, whose name was Odacon. (All these, says Apollodorus, related particularly and circumstantially whatever Oannes had informed them of: concerning these Abydenus has made no mention.) Then reigned Amempsinus, a Chaldaean from Laranchae; and he being the eighth in order reigned ten sari. Then reigned Otiartes, a Chaldaean, from Laranchae; and he reigned eight sari. And upon the death of Otiartes, his son Xisuthrus reigned eighteen sari: in his time happened the great deluge. So that the sum of all the kings is ten; and the term which they collectively reigned an hundred and twenty sari.


Berossus via Apollodorus recorded in Eusebius and Syncellus (translated from the Greek).[40]

Truncated account via Abydenus:

So much concerning the wisdom of the Chaldeans.

It is said that the first king of the country was Alorus, who gave out a report that he was appointed by God to be the Shepherd of the people: he reigned ten sari: now a sarus is esteemed to be three thousand six hundred years; a neros six hundred; and a sossus sixty.

After him Alaparus reigned three sari: to him succeeded Amillarus from the city of Pantibiblon, who reigned thirteen sari; in his time a semidaemon called Annedotus, very like to Oannes, came up a second time from the sea: after him Ammenon reigned twelve sari, who was of the city of Pantibiblon: then Megalarus of the same place eighteen sari: then Daos, the shepherd, governed for the space of ten sari; he was of Pantibiblon; in his time four double-shaped personages came out of the sea to land, whose names were Euedocus, Eneugamus, Eneuboulus, and Anementus: after these things was Anodaphus, in the time of Euedoreschus. There were afterwards other kings, and last of all Sisithrus: so that in the whole, the number amounted to ten kings, and the term of their reigns to an hundred and twenty sari. [follows an account of a deluge]

[followed by an account essentially similar to that of Babel, followed by a war "between Chronus and Titan"]


Berossus via Abydenus recorded in Eusebius and Syncellus (translated from the Greek).[41]

Truncated account via Alexander Polyhistor:


[Background of Berossus, followed by an introduction to the accounts of Babylon, and a geographical description of it]

In the first year there made his appearance, from a part of the Erythraean sea which bordered upon Babylonia, an animal (...) who was called Oannes. (According to the account of Apollodorus) the whole body of the animal was like that of a fish, and had under a fish head another head, and also feet below, similar to those of a man, subjoined to the fish tail. His (...) language was (...) human; and a representation of him is preserved even to this day.

This being in the day-time used to converse with men; but took no food at that season; and he gave them an insight into letters and sciences, and every kind of art. He taught them to construct houses, to found temples, to compile laws, and explained to them the principles of geometrical knowledge. He made them distinguish the seeds of the earth, and shewed them how to collect fruits (...). From that time, so universal were his instructions, nothing has been added material by way of improvement. When the sun set, it was the custom of this being to plunge again into the sea, and abide all night in the deep; for he was amphibious.

After this there appeared other animals like Oannes, of whom Berossus promises to give an account when he comes to the history of the kings.

Moreover Oannes wrote concerning the generation of humans; of their different ways of life, and of their civil polity; and the following is the purport of what he said:

[follows a truncated account of what is essentially the enuma elis]

In the second book was the history of the ten kings of the Chaldeans, and the periods of each reign, which consisted collectively of an hundred and twenty sari, or four hundred and thirty-two thousand years; reaching to the time of the Deluge. For Alexander, as from the writings of the Chaldteans, enumerating the kings from the ninth Ardates to Xisuthrus,

[an account essentially the same as that of the Biblical Flood]

[Accounts then follow of Abraham, of Nabonasar, of the Destruction of the Jewish Temple, of Nebuchadnezzar, of the Chaldean Kings after Nebuchadnezzar, and of the Feast of Sacea]


Berossus from Alexander Polyhistor recorded in Eusebius and Syncellus (translated from the Greek).[42]
Summary
via Apollodorus via Abydenus via Polyhistor
King Fish-Man King Fish-Man King Fish-Man
Alorus Alorus An account of Oannes, and a claim he was followed by others similar
Alaparus Alaparus
Amelon Amillarus [2nd Fish-Man]
Ammenon Musarus Oannes Ammenon
Maglarus Megalarus
Daonus the Shepherd [4th fish-man] Daos the Shepherd Euedocus, Eneugamus, Eneuboulus, and Anementus
Euedoreschus Odacon Euedoreschus Anadophus
Amempsinus [unnamed]
Otiartes [unnamed] Ardates
Xisuthrus [deluge] Sisithrus Xisuthus
All accounts give ten kings, followed by a deluge

In summary, Berossus' Babylonian history recounts ten kings before a deluge (followed by the reigns of later kings), with a record or myth of prehistoric man receiving civilization via the Oannes; it also contains a paraphrasing of the myth the Enuma Elis, which was said to have been recounted by the Oannes.[37] Though Berossus' history contains obvious historical errors, parts of it have convincing matches with ancient cuneiform texts, suggest he was recreating accounts known from ancient Mesopotamian texts. Mayer Burstein considers that the text was not well written in a "Greek style", but was essentially a transliteration of Mesopotamian myths into Greek. Helpfully for future historians, Berossus does not seem to have altered the myths or narratives to suit a Greek audience.[43]

In terms of his relevance to the Apkallu: his lists match fairly well with the Uruk King/Apkallu list, though there are differences and variations.[44] Oannes is paired with the king Alorus, and by comparison can be considered equivalent to Adapa [Uanna].[45] Matches between Berossus and the kings and apkallu in the Uruk King List have been proposed.[46]

Other references

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Various other cuneiform texts have references to these seven sages. There are texts that associates a set of seven sages with the city Kuar-Eridu or Eridu, while in the Epic of Gilgamesh there is a reference to seven counselors as founders of Uruk. Another list of seven sages used in a ritual differs from the description and names give in the Bit meseri text.[27]

Several of named apkulla are listed on inscriptions as authors, notably Lu-Nanna is recorded as author of the Myth of Etana.[47]

Depictions in ancient art

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Representations of 'apkallu' were used in apotropaic rituals; in addition to fish-headed ones (similar to descriptions of the seven sages), other hybrids were used as 'apkallu' in this context (generally bird-headed humans).[48]

Apkallu reliefs appear prominently in Neo-Assyrian palaces, notably the constructions of Ashurnasirpal II of the 9th century BC. They appear in one of three forms, bird-headed, human-headed or dressed in fish-skin cloaks. They have also been found on reliefs from the reign of Sennacherib.[1] The form taken of a man covered with the 'pelt' of a fish is first seen the Kassite period, continuing is used to the period of Persian Babylonia – the form was popular during the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods.[49]

[edit]

Probable depictions of Apkallu

  • Wall relief depicting an eagle-headed and winged man, Apkallu, from Nimrud.
    Wall relief depicting an eagle-headed and winged man, Apkallu, from Nimrud.
  • A pair of protective spirits, Apkallu, from Nimrud.
    A pair of protective spirits, Apkallu, from Nimrud.
  • Nimrud Apkallu
    Nimrud Apkallu
  • Detail of the embroidered dress of a male Apkallu, showing a kneeling winged Apkallu. From Nimrud, Iraq. 883-859 BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
    Detail of the embroidered dress of a male Apkallu, showing a kneeling winged Apkallu. From Nimrud, Iraq. 883-859 BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
  • Detail of the embroidered dress of an Apkallu, showing a kneeling winged eagle-headed Apkallu. From Nimrud, Iraq. 883-859 BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
    Detail of the embroidered dress of an Apkallu, showing a kneeling winged eagle-headed Apkallu. From Nimrud, Iraq. 883-859 BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
  • "Apkallu" relief from Khorsabad
    "Apkallu" relief from Khorsabad

Possible Biblical influence

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The spread of the 'seven sage' legend westwards during the 1st and 2nd millennia has been speculated to have led to the creation of the tale of the Nephilim (Genesis 6:1-4) as recounted in the Old Testament,[50][51] and may have an echo in the text of the Book of Proverbs (Prov 9:1): "Wisdom built her house. She set out its seven pillars." The story of Enoch ("seventh from Adam") and his ascension to heaven has also been proposed to be a variant or influenced by the seventh apkallu Utuabzu who is also said to have ascended to heaven in the bit meseri.[50]

See also

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  • Atra-Hasis, meaning "very wise": in the eponymous legend he is the survivor of a deluge
  • Ašipu, Mesopotamian vocation of scholar/doctor/magician, sometimes referred to as exorcists
  • Dagon, Mesopotamian and Canaanite deity associated with clouds and fertility, sometimes mischaracterized as fish-like.
  • Kulullû, a different type of Mesopotamian fish-human hybrid
  • Saptarishi, seven sages of Vedic literature
  • Sumerian king list

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Apkallu

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from Grokipedia
The Apkallu (Sumerian: abgal) were seven legendary antediluvian sages in Mesopotamian mythology, depicted as semi-divine figures endowed with extraordinary wisdom and sent by the god Enki (Akkadian: Ea) to impart essential knowledge, arts, and social order to early humanity before the Great Flood. Often portrayed in art and texts as anthropomorphic beings, bird-like hybrids, or fish-men with human heads and bodies—such as the figure Oannes described by the Babylonian priest Berossus—they served as culture heroes who founded key aspects of civilization, including crafts, omens, and the establishment of seven ancient cities like Eridu and Ur. Originating from Sumerian traditions traceable to the third millennium BCE, the Apkallu were closely tied to Enki's court in the Apsû (the subterranean freshwater realm), where they acted as divine mediators of knowledge and protective spirits against evil forces. In Akkadian incantations and rituals, such as the bīt mēseri series, they were invoked through clay figurines buried under buildings for apotropaic purposes, symbolizing their role as guardians of wisdom and order. Post-flood, their legacy continued through human counterparts known as ummânu (master scholars), who were seen as mythic forebears maintaining sacred textual traditions for kings and priests, as evidenced in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions from rulers like and . The Apkallu narrative influenced broader ancient Near Eastern lore, paralleling figures like the biblical Enoch or the Watchers in Jewish pseudepigrapha, where antediluvian sages transmitted forbidden or divine insights, though Mesopotamian accounts emphasize benevolent instruction rather than rebellion. Key texts, including the Adapa myth, portray one Apkallu—Adapa himself—as a prototype sage who gained wisdom but declined immortality, underscoring themes of human limits and divine favor in Mesopotamian cosmology. Their iconography, featuring vigilant eyes and hybrid forms, persisted in Aramean and Arabian contexts, highlighting the enduring cultural impact of these wisdom-bringers across the ancient world.

Etymology and Terminology

Names and Variations

The primary term for these figures in Akkadian is apkallu, meaning "sage" or "wise one," with the form apkallū. This term derives from Sumerian abgal, an equivalent meaning "sage" or "wise one," often rendered in as 𒉣𒈨. In Mesopotamian texts, apkallu and abgal are used interchangeably to refer to semi-divine advisors, particularly in lists of seven sages associated with the god /Ea. The seven sages bear specific names that blend Sumerian and Akkadian elements, with variations in transliteration across texts. These include Uanna (also Uan), equated with ; Uannedugga; Enmedugga (or En-me-dug-ga); Enmegalamma (or En-me-gal-am-ma); Enmebulugga (or En-me-bùlug-ga); An-Enlilda (or An-en-líl-da); and Utuabzu (or Utu-abzu). These names appear in bilingual formats in sources like the Bīt Mēseri ritual text (early BCE), where Sumerian forms are glossed with Akkadian equivalents, such as apkallu (abgal). Cuneiform spellings of apkallu vary slightly by period and dialect, often using the logogram AB.GAL or phonetic syllabograms like ap-kal-lu, while abgal is consistently 𒉣𒈨. In later Hellenistic transmissions, the first sage Uanna is transliterated into Greek as Oannes by the Babylonian priest Berossus (c. 3rd century BCE), who describes him in his Babyloniaca as a fish-like revealer of knowledge. Regional differences in usage appear between Assyrian and Babylonian traditions, though the core terminology remains consistent. In Neo-Assyrian contexts, apkallu often denotes protective figures in royal inscriptions and art, with names like those of sages invoked in building rituals. Babylonian texts, such as king lists from , emphasize scholarly lineages, pairing apkallu with rulers in bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian formats, reflecting a more ritualistic emphasis.

Meanings and Interpretations

The term apkallu derives from the Sumerian abgal ("sage"), with components ab ("" or "deep") and gal ("great") evoking their aquatic or primordial origins associated with the god /Ea, who created these beings from the Apsû to impart ; the Akkadian apkallu retains the connotation of "wise one" or "expert." Scholars interpret the apkallu as semi-divine intermediaries who bridge the realms of gods and humans by transmitting essential of , such as , laws, and rituals, during the era. Over time, their portrayal evolved from mythical, otherworldly figures—often depicted as - or bird-like hybrids—to more historical human advisors (ummanu) in post-flood contexts, reflecting a shift from origins to institutionalized wisdom traditions. This evolution highlights their function as culture heroes who not only civilize humanity but also perform apotropaic roles, warding off chaos through and purification rites. A key debate centers on the identity of the first apkallu, Uanna (also known as Oannes in later Hellenistic accounts), and its relation to , the sage of who refuses the food of offered by the gods, remaining mortal despite his wisdom. Some scholars argue they represent the same figure, with Uanna/Oannes embodying the primordial teacher who imparts cosmic order, while illustrates the limits of human divinity; others view as a distinct mortal exemplar, emphasizing the apkallu's transition from divine to human spheres. Thorkild Jacobsen, in his of Mesopotamian myths, portrays the apkallu as foundational culture heroes who establish societal order, linking them to antediluvian kings like and underscoring their role in humanity's moral and intellectual awakening.

Mythological Role

Civilizing Sages

In Mesopotamian mythology, the Apkallu served as the primary agents of , emerging from the Apsu—the freshwater abyss and abode of wisdom—to instruct early humanity in essential arts and sciences. These semi-divine sages, dispatched by the god (also known as Ea), taught writing, , laws, city-building, temple construction, crafts, and various scholarly disciplines such as , , astronomy, lamentation, and , thereby transforming primitive humankind into an ordered society. The tradition emphasizes seven primary Apkallu, whose names—Uanna, Uannedugga, Enmedugga, Enmegalamma, Enmebulugga, An-Enlilda, and Utuabzu—are preserved in texts like the Bīt Mēseri incantation, each corresponding to one of the seven antediluvian kings listed in sources such as the Uruk List of Kings and Sages. This pairing underscores their role in establishing civilized order during the pre-flood era, with the sages advising and elevating the kings' reigns through imparted knowledge, as created by Enki to embody divine wisdom. Post-flood, the Apkallu are said to have withdrawn to the Apsu, but their legacy persisted through human ummânū (master scholars), who functioned as advisors to kings on governance, rituals, and the preservation of sacred lore.

Divine Associations

The Apkallu, revered as semi-divine sages in Mesopotamian mythology, were primarily under the patronage of Ea (also known as ), the god of wisdom, fresh waters, and incantations, who dispatched them as his agents to impart essential knowledge to humanity. As extensions of Ea's benevolence, the Apkallu functioned as intermediaries, channeling his divine revelations in areas such as , , and , thereby reinforcing Ea's role as the ultimate source of cosmic order and protection. In some traditions, they were created by Ea, emerging from the Apsu, his subterranean watery abode, which underscored their inherent connection to the divine realm of creation and purification. Within the broader Mesopotamian divine hierarchy, the Apkallu served as advisors to kings and intermediaries between the gods—particularly under Ea's —and the human realm, bridging celestial and earthly affairs to maintain harmony. This positioning elevated their status as bridges between the divine pantheon and earthly realms, where they advised kings and supported divine oversight of fate and . Their advisory roles extended to contexts, where invocations of the Apkallu reinforced authority to stabilize cosmic balance against disruptive forces. The Apkallu also held prominent apotropaic functions as protective spirits, deployed in rituals to avert evil, demons, and misfortune from individuals, households, and sacred spaces. In Neo-Assyrian practices, their figurines were ritually buried at thresholds or placed in temples to serve as guardians, embodying Ea's purifying powers to neutralize malevolent influences and ensure ritual purity. These protective roles transformed the Apkallu into invoked deities in ceremonies, where they were besought alongside Ea to shield against supernatural threats. Over time, the Apkallu evolved from purely mythical, antediluvian beings—semi-divine culture heroes tied directly to Ea's primordial interventions—to deified sages in later Babylonian and Assyrian traditions, where their legacy merged with human scholars known as ummânū. This shift, particularly post-Flood narratives, demythologized their origins while preserving their deified essence, allowing them to be venerated as eternal advisors in ongoing divine-human interactions. By the first millennium BCE, this evolution solidified their place as enduring protective intermediaries within the pantheon, blending mythical prestige with ritual efficacy.

Literary Sources

Early King Lists

The earliest literary attestations of the Apkallu appear in Mesopotamian king lists that integrate mythological sages into historical chronologies, particularly those associating the seven Apkallu with rulers before the great . These lists portray the Apkallu as divine advisors who facilitated the establishment of kingship and in the primordial era. A key example is the Uruk List of Kings and Sages, a tablet (W 20030, 7) that pairs each of the seven pre- Apkallu with corresponding kings, such as the first sage (also Uanna) with , the inaugural king of . The enumerates the Apkallu by Sumerian names—Uan, Uandugga, Enmedugga, Enmegalamma, Enmebulugga, An-Enlilda, and Utuabzu—emphasizing their roles in completing divine plans for heaven and earth, as echoed in related texts like Bīt Mēseri. Following the , the transitions to ten postdiluvian human scholars (ummânū), marking a shift from divine to mortal wisdom-bearers under kings like . This tradition was adapted in the by the Babylonian priest in his work Babyloniaca (c. 290 BCE), where he describes Oannes—identified as the Greek rendering of —as a fish-human hybrid emerging from the sea to instruct primitive humanity in writing, laws, , , city-building, and all civilized arts. presents Oannes as the foremost of the seven Apkallu, sent by the god (Enki) to civilize mankind before the flood, thereby framing Babylonian history as a continuum of revealed knowledge. His account, drawn from temple traditions, served to assert Babylon's antiquity to a Greek audience. These king lists hold significant chronological importance in Mesopotamian , bridging mythological origins with dynastic sequences to legitimize royal authority and scholarly lineages as extensions of primeval divine . By associating Apkallu with specific kings and eras, they construct a framework that integrates cosmic order, flood narratives, and historical progression, influencing later Assyrian and Babylonian records. Archaeologically, the Apkallu traditions in king lists trace back to Old Babylonian period tablets (c. 18th century BCE), including Sumerian temple hymns from and fragments from Tell Haddad that reference sage figures like in antediluvian contexts, predating the compiled List (164/165 BCE) but informing its structure. These early sources, recovered from sites like and , underscore the sages' integration into foundational historical narratives.

Ritual and Incantation Texts

In Mesopotamian ritual , the Apkallu play a prominent role in apotropaic designed to protect against malevolent forces, particularly in the series Bīt mēseri ("House of Confinement"), a multi-tablet collection of spells and rituals performed by exorcists (āšipu) to safeguard homes and their inhabitants from demons. This series invokes the seven Apkallu as protective sages, with specific naming figures like Enmegalama and Utuabzu to expel intrusive spirits and ensure purity during house-building or consecration ceremonies. The rituals involve the placement of clay figurines representing the Apkallu—often depicted as - or bird-like beings—buried in foundations or positioned at doorways to ward off evil, emphasizing their function as intermediaries between the divine and human realms. Another key text is the of the "Twenty-One Poultices," a medical-ritual where the seven of , also termed the Apkallu of the Apsu, serve the god Ea () by transporting healing substances from the subterranean waters to the upper world for human use. These poultices symbolize remedial knowledge bestowed by the sages, invoked in incantations to cure ailments attributed to demonic influence, blending mythological narrative with practical exorcistic formulas. In foundation rituals, the Apkallu are depicted as purifiers who sanctify structures, with incantations calling upon them to lay the groundwork for cities like and to repel subterranean threats during construction. Specific formulas, such as those in Bīt mēseri Tablet III, name individual Apkallu like Uanna-adapa to "bind" and expel evil spirits, often accompanied by the ritual handling of purification tools like the mullilu cone and sacred bucket. This protective invocation underscores the Apkallu's enduring role in maintaining cosmic order through ritual action.

Epic and Poetic Mentions

In the Poem of Erra, an Akkadian epic composed around the 8th century BCE, the apkallu are depicted as the seven "pure fish" sages endowed with sublime wisdom akin to their patron deity Ea, serving as guardians of cosmic stability amid the god Erra's rampage of destruction across the land. As prepares to abandon his temple in , he recalls the apkallu from their subterranean abode in the Apsu to assist in restoring order, but ultimately sends them back, severing their direct influence over human affairs and allowing Erra's rage to proceed unchecked, thereby highlighting their role in averting widespread calamity. This narrative underscores the apkallu's function as intermediaries who, through their counsel, seek to mitigate divine wrath and preserve societal harmony against existential perils. References to the apkallu in building stories appear in Mesopotamian epics, where they act as expert advisors on monumental constructions symbolizing renewed civilization after cataclysmic events. For instance, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the sages are termed "muntalkū" (counselors) responsible for laying the foundational plans of , embodying their broader tradition of imparting technical knowledge for temple and city edifices that reaffirm human-divine bonds. Such portrayals align with the apkallu's legacy as civilizing figures who guide rulers in erecting structures that ward off chaos, reflecting their advisory prowess in narratives of recovery and order. Throughout these epics and poems, the apkallu emerge as archetypal wise counselors confronting cosmic threats, such as floods or divine upheavals, by upholding the "designs of heaven and earth" (uṣurāt šamê u erṣeti) through esoteric wisdom derived from Ea. Their interventions emphasize a stabilizing force against existential disruptions, often invoked to realign the universe's equilibrium when gods like Erra threaten annihilation. Numerous textual fragments preserving these epic and poetic mentions of the apkallu derive from Neo-Assyrian royal libraries, particularly those of in , dating to the 7th century BCE, where tablets integrated the sages into literary traditions of kingship and .

Late Babylonian Accounts

In the , the Babylonian priest compiled the Babyloniaca around 290–278 BCE, providing one of the most detailed Greek-language accounts of Apkallu traditions under Seleucid patronage. He describes seven sages, beginning with Oannes, who emerged from the in the form of a man with a fish-like body, to impart civilization's foundational arts—such as writing, laws, , and temple construction—to the first , Aloros. Subsequent sages appeared during the reigns of later kings: Odacon to Ammenon, Uannedon to Daos, and four unnamed figures to Euedorachos, marking a structured transmission of wisdom tied to royal eras. Late Babylonian sources, including chronicles and texts from the Seleucid era (circa 312–63 BCE), further link Apkallu to historical kings, portraying them as authors of esoteric knowledge in fields like and . A key example is the Uruk list (W 20030,7), dated to 165 BCE, which enumerates seven pre-Flood Apkallu alongside kings, transitioning to seven post-Flood human scholars (ummânū) serving Neo-Assyrian rulers up to Ahiqar under , thus bridging mythic origins with documented history. These texts, part of the bīt mēseri series, attribute foundational compilations to the sages, emphasizing their in cosmic order. Seleucid-era scholarship preserved Apkallu lore through a network of ummânū experts who advised rulers and safeguarded traditions amid cultural , as seen in temple archives at and where sages' teachings informed rituals and kingship . This continuity is evident in the between Babylonian priests and Seleucid administrators, ensuring the transmission of wisdom into the Hellenistic world. Notable discrepancies exist between Berossus' Greek synthesis and lists, such as the tradition, where sages are assigned one per (seven total), whereas Berossus distributes seven sages unevenly across ten s—one to the first, one to the fourth, four to the sixth, and one to the seventh—possibly reflecting a Babylonian-centric substituting for as the sages' origin. These variations highlight interpretive shifts in late compilations, with Berossus streamlining the narrative for a Greco-Roman while drawing from earlier lists.

Iconography

Artistic Representations

Apkallu are commonly depicted in ancient Mesopotamian art as hybrid figures blending and or aquatic elements. Scholarly classification identifies three main types: -figured (umu-apkallu), -cloaked (), and bird-of-prey-headed apkallu. Prominent forms include the -cloaked humanoid known as and bird-headed or eagle-headed beings. The type features a bearded upper body emerging from a or cloak draped over the head and back, often holding a (banduddu) and (mullilu) for purification rites, symbolizing their aquatic origins tied to the Ea. Bird-headed variants, typically with four wings, curved beaks, and feathered attire, appear in dynamic poses pollinating sacred trees or performing rituals, emphasizing wisdom and protection. In Neo-Assyrian art from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE, Apkallu frequently appear in monumental s adorning walls at sites like and , where they flank doorways or sacred trees in symmetrical pairs to ward off evil. For instance, a large eagle-headed Apkallu from Ashurnasirpal II's Northwest at (ca. 883–859 BCE) shows the figure with outstretched wings, a fringed , and tools, carved in low with traces of for vivid effect. Smaller-scale representations include baked clay figurines of fish-cloaked Apkallu buried under floors for apotropaic purposes, as seen in deposits from the 9th–8th centuries BCE, and cylinder seals or impressions depicting them in . These contexts at (ancient Kalhu) and highlight their role as divine intermediaries in royal architecture. Depictions of Apkallu evolved across periods. Iconographic evidence begins in the late BCE. By the Neo-Babylonian period (626–539 BCE), representations shifted toward more humanoid genii forms, often wingless or with two wings, in glazed brick reliefs and terracotta figurines from and , such as in foundation deposits in temples like Eanna. These variations underscore adaptations in , from rudimentary aquatic hybrids to sophisticated protective attendants integrated into urban sacred spaces.

Symbolic Motifs

The bucket (banduddû) and cone (mullilu), ubiquitous attributes of Apkallu figures in Mesopotamian art, embody purification rituals essential to exorcism and the bestowal of life. The cone, often interpreted as a sprinkler, is dipped into the bucket—containing sacred water, pollen, or purifying substances—and used to anoint sacred trees, kings, or spaces, symbolizing the expulsion of malevolent forces and the infusion of divine vitality. This motif underscores the Apkallu's role as intermediaries in rituals that maintain ritual purity and fertility, as evidenced in Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs where the figures perform these acts to sanctify the environment. Hybrid animal-human forms of the Apkallu—such as fish-cloaked (), bird-of-prey-headed apkallu, or winged human-figured (umu-apkallu)—represent the synthesis of drawn from aquatic and avian realms, bridging earthly and divine knowledge. The fish-cloaked variant, evoking the primordial waters of the Apsu associated with the god Ea (), symbolizes ancient, subterranean emerging to civilize , while avian elements like eagle heads and wings denote celestial insight and transcendence over chaos. These composite depictions affirm the Apkallu's embodiment of primordial sagacity, linking the chaotic depths of sea and sky to ordered through their hybrid . In their apotropaic roles, Apkallu figures ward off chaos and reinforce cosmic order, functioning as guardians against demonic incursions that threaten stability. Placed as clay figurines in building foundations or depicted flanking portals in art, they neutralize evil spirits like , ensuring the harmony of the cosmos as established by deities such as in the . This protective symbolism ties the Apkallu to the broader Mesopotamian worldview, where their presence at thresholds—physical and metaphysical—upholds the divine structure against primordial disorder. The motifs associated with Apkallu evolved from textual antecedents in Sumerian abgal (AB.GAL) sages of the late third millennium BCE, though iconographic appearances began in the late second millennium BCE without early elaborate hybrids, to more complex forms in the Neo-Assyrian (911–612 BCE) and Neo-Babylonian (626–539 BCE) periods, incorporating wings and composite features for enhanced symbolic potency. By the Achaemenid era (550–330 BCE), fish-cloaked variants persisted in western Iranian art, reflecting Mesopotamian influences on Persian iconography and maintaining themes of purification and guardianship amid cultural synthesis.

Cultural Impact

Mesopotamian Society

The Apkallu, revered as sages who transmitted divine wisdom from the god Ea (), profoundly shaped Mesopotamian scribal and scholarly traditions, particularly from the BCE onward. In scribal schools (ēdubba), legends of the Apkallu inspired the , where their attributed inventions—such as writing, omen interpretation, and cosmology—formed the foundation of priestly sciences like and . Texts like the Catalogue of Texts and Authors (c. 700 BCE) credit the Apkallu, especially , with authoring celestial omen series such as Enūma Enlil, emphasizing secret knowledge (nēmequ) passed down through ummânu (master scholars). This integration elevated scribes as heirs to divine intellect, with higher-level training focusing on mantic arts that echoed Apkallu lore, as seen in Babylonian school texts from the Kassite period (16th–12th centuries BCE). In royal ideology, the Apkallu served as symbols of legitimate kingship, portraying Mesopotamian rulers as successors to their sage-like wisdom and thus divinely sanctioned. Kings such as (c. 1125–1104 BCE) invoked descent from Enmeduranki, the seventh king tutored by the Apkallu in , to bolster claims of authority during political crises. Neo-Assyrian monarchs like (668–627 BCE) further propagated this in inscriptions, boasting mastery of Apkallu-derived lore to legitimize conquests and administration, with ummânu advisors embodying post-Flood continuations of these sages. This propagandistic use reinforced the monarch's role as protector of cosmic order, linking earthly governance to primordial divine counsel across the 2nd–1st millennia BCE. Archaeological evidence underscores the Apkallu's veneration in temples and libraries, where their images functioned as apotropaic guardians from the 3rd millennium BCE through the Neo-Assyrian period. Excavations at Mesopotamian sites such as (9th–7th centuries BCE) uncovered clay figurines of fish- or bird-headed Apkallu buried as foundation deposits beneath buildings, intended to ward off evil and ensure structural sanctity. In palaces and temples, such as those at (Kalhu, 883–859 BCE under ), stone reliefs depict winged Apkallu fertilizing sacred trees or carrying purification buckets, often flanking doorways in libraries like Ashurbanipal's at (7th century BCE), symbolizing protection of knowledge repositories. These artifacts, with roots in 3rd-millennium BCE and continuing through the Kassite era, reflect widespread and cultic reverence for the sages as intermediaries between divine and human realms. The Apkallu played essential social functions in divination and state rituals throughout the 3rd–1st millennia BCE, acting as archetypal mediators of divine will in both elite and communal contexts. In , they were invoked as originators of practices like extispicy (entrail reading) and celestial omens, with texts such as Bīt Mēseri (early 1st millennium BCE) describing their role in revealing secrets from Ea to figures like Enmeduranki for royal consultations. State rituals, including namburbû (omen-countering ceremonies) and river ordeals, employed Apkallu figurines for purification and , as in Neo-Assyrian palace rites where ummânu scholars performed them to avert misfortune during military campaigns or coronations. This enduring role, evident in texts like the Maqlû series (c. BCE) and Berossus' Babyloniaca ( BCE), integrated the sages into societal mechanisms for justice, healing, and cosmic harmony, bridging temple cults and royal courts.

Influences on Later Traditions

Scholars have identified notable parallels between the Apkallu, the Mesopotamian sages, and the Biblical Watchers or described in Genesis 6:1–4 as fallen wise beings who imparted to humanity. In Mesopotamian tradition, the Apkallu were divine intermediaries who brought civilization's arts and sciences before the flood, but later texts portray some as rebellious or demonic figures capable of , a motif inverted in Jewish lore to depict the Watchers as angels who descended, mated with human women, and taught illicit skills like and , leading to corruption and the giants. This inversion reflects a polemical where positive sage figures become agents of downfall. The Apkallu motif also influenced through the figure of Oannes, as preserved in ' Babyloniaca (c. BCE), where the fish-like sage emerges from the sea to teach humanity laws, writing, and agriculture, echoing the Apkallu's role as culture-bringers. This narrative parallels the myth, in which the Titan steals fire and imparts knowledge of crafts, numbers, and survival skills to mortals, often against divine will, highlighting a shared theme of divine-human but adapted to emphasize in the Greek context. ' portrayal of Oannes as a hybrid cultural hero facilitated Hellenistic integration, bridging Babylonian wisdom with Greek heroic archetypes like or . Traces of Apkallu traditions appear in Jewish pseudepigrapha, particularly the (1 Enoch), where the Watchers' story serves as a counter-narrative to Mesopotamian sage myths, elevating as a glorified intermediary who ascends to heaven and receives divine secrets, contrasting the fallen Apkallu-like figures. In the Animal Apocalypse (1 Enoch 85–90), animal symbolism demonizes the Watchers, drawing from Babylonian lore to assert Jewish interpretive authority over wisdom. Early Christian , such as 2 Enoch, further adapt this by paralleling 's heavenly anointing with Adapa's glorification, linking him to angelic figures like and reflecting ongoing engagement with Apkallu-derived motifs of cosmic guardianship. Echoes of Apkallu motifs also persist in later Near Eastern traditions, including where wise or beings transmit hidden knowledge, transmitted via Syriac and Persian intermediaries. Scholarly debates center on the transmission of these Apkallu motifs to Jewish and Greek traditions, primarily through the Babylonian exile in the BCE, when Judean elites encountered Mesopotamian cosmology and firsthand, adapting it into apocalyptic frameworks like the Book of Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36) as a critique of Babylonian influence. While some argue for direct borrowing during the exile, evidenced by shared structural elements like pre-flood sages and postdiluvian giants, others note potential earlier Levantine exchanges or later Hellenistic mediations via , emphasizing the selective demonization of Apkallu as a means of cultural resistance. These discussions highlight the Apkallu's enduring legacy in reshaping ancient Near Eastern wisdom narratives across traditions.

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