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Lagash[4] (/ˈleɪɡæʃ/; cuneiform: 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠 LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: Lagaš) was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about 22 kilometres (14 mi) east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash (modern Al-Hiba in Dhi Qar Governorate) was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East, and the Lagash state incorporated the cities of Lagash, Girsu, Nina.[5] Girsu (modern Telloh), about 25 km (16 mi) northwest of Lagash, was the religious center of the Lagash state, with its main temple, the E-ninnu, dedicated to the god Ningirsu. The ancient site of Nina (Tell Zurghul), around 10 km (6.2 mi) away, marks the southern limit of the state.

Key Information

History

[edit]

Though some Uruk period pottery shards were found in a surface survey, significant occupation at the site of Lagash began early in the 3rd Millennium BC, in the Early Dynastic I period (c. 2900–2600 BC). Surface surveys and excavations show that the peak occupation, with an area of about 500 hectares occurred during the Early Dynastic III period (c. 2500–2334 BC). The later corresponds with what is now called the First Dynasty of Lagash.[6] Lagash then came under the control of the Akkadian Empire for several centuries. With the fall of that empire, Lagash had a period of revival as an independent power during the 2nd Dynasty of Lagash before coming under the control of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur. After the fall of Ur, there was some modest occupation in the Isin-Larsa and Old Babylonian periods.[7] Lagash was then largely deserted until a Seleucid era fortress was built there in the 2nd century BC.[8]

Location of Lagash before the expansion of the Akkadian Empire (in green). The territory of Sumer appears in orange. Circa 2350 BC

First dynasty of Lagash (c. 2520 – c. 2260 BC)

[edit]
Relief of Ur-Nanshe. At the top he creates the foundation for a shrine, at the bottom he presides over the dedication (Louvre).
Entemena's inscribed silver vase, c. 2400 BC (Louvre)

The dynasties of Lagash are not found on the Sumerian King List (SKL) despite being a power in the Early Dynastic period and a major city in the centuries that followed. One tablet, from the later Old Babylonian period and known as The Rulers of Lagash, was described by its translator as "rather fanciful" and is generally considered to be a satirical parody of the SKL. The thirty listed rulers, in the style of the SKL, having improbable reigns, include seven known rulers from the 1st Dynasty of Lagash, including Ur-Nanshe, "Ane-tum", En-entar-zid, Ur-Ningirsu, Ur-Bau, and Gudea.[9][10]

Little is known of the first two rulers of Lagash. En-hegal is believed to be the first ruler of Lagash. A tablet with his name describes a business transaction, in which a possible King En-hegal buys land.[11] Both his status and date are disputed.[12] He was followed by Lugalshaengur about whom also little is known.[13] Mesilim, who called himself King of Kish though it is uncertain which city he was from, named Lugalshaengur as an "ensi" of Lagash on a mace head.[14]

Ur-Nanshe

[edit]

While many details like the length of reign are not known for the next ruler, Ur-Nanshe, a number of his inscriptions have been found, most at Lagash with one stele at Ur, which along with Umma, he claimed to have conquered in battle.[15] Almost all deal with the construction of temples, one details how he "built the wester[n] channel at the side of Sa[la]/ channel at the side of S[al] (against) the Amorites". He is described as the "son of Gu-NI.DU" (occasionally as "son of Gur:SAR"), and his inscriptions list a number of sons and daughters.[16] Several inscriptions say "He [had the ships of Dil]mun sub[mit] [timber] (to Lagaš) as tribute." His son Akurgal ruled briefly after him.[17]

Eannatum

[edit]

The next ruler, Eannatum (earlier referred to as "Eannadu"), son of Akurgal and grandson of Ur-Nanshe, turned Lagash into a major power extending throughout large areas of Mesopotamia and to the east as well. In an inscription found at ancient Adab:

"Eannatum, ruler of Lagash, granted strength by Enlil, nourished with special milk by Ninhursag, nominated by Ningirsu, chosen in her heart by Nanshe, son of Akurgal ruler of Lagash, defeated mountainous Elam, defeated Urua, defeated Umma, defeated Ur. At that time, he built a well of fired bricks for Ningirsu in his (Ningirsu’s) broad courtyard. His personal god is Shulultul. Then, Ningirsu loved Eannatum."[18]

Eannatum, King of Lagash, riding a war chariot (detail of the Stele of the Vultures). His name "Eannatum" (𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺) is written vertically in two columns in front of his head. Louvre Museum.

Another inscription detail his destruction of "Kiš, Akšak, and Mari at a place named Antasur". He also claimed to have taken the city of Akshak and killed its king, Zuzu.[19] Eannatum took the city of Uru'az on the Persian Gulf, and exacted tribute as far as Mari; however, many of the realms he conquered were often in revolt.[20] During his reign, temples and palaces were repaired or erected at Lagash and elsewhere and canals and reservoirs were excavated.[21] During his reign, Dilmun was a major trading partner.[22]

A long running border dispute, dating back at least to the time of Lugalshaengur, existed between the city-states of Umma and Lagash.[23] In the time of Umma ruler Enakalle a formal border was established, mediated by Mesilim, “king of Kish”. Eannatum restored the border, including the boundary markers of Mesilim.

"Eanatum, ruler of Lagash, uncle of Enmetena ruler of Lagash, demarcated the border with Enakalle, ruler of Umma. He extended the [boundary-]channel from the Nun-channel to Guʾedena, leaving a 215-nindan [= 1,290 meters] [strip] of Ningirsu’s land under Umma’s control, establishing a no-man’s land there. He inscribed [and erected] monuments at that [boundary-]channel, and restored the monument of Mesilim, but did not cross into the plain of Umma. "[24]

Vase of King Gishakidu, king of Umma, and son of Ur-Lumma, giving the city of Umma's account of its long-running border dispute with Lagash. The vase redefines the frontier by recording the locations of stelae to the god Shara, as well as the distances between them. Circa 2350 BC. From Umma, Iraq. Ref. 140889, British Museum, London.[25]

In c. 2450 BC, Lagash and the neighboring city of Umma fell out with each other after a border dispute over the Guʾedena, a fertile area lying between them. As described in Stele of the Vultures, of which only a portion has been found (7 fragments), the current king of Lagash, Eannatum, inspired by the patron god of his city, Ningirsu, set out with his army to defeat the nearby city.[26] According to the Stele's engravings, when the two sides met each other in the field, Eannatum dismounted from his chariot and proceeded to direct his men on foot. After lowering their spears, the Lagash army advanced upon the army from Umma in a dense phalanx.[27] After a brief clash, Eannatum and his army had gained victory over the army of Umma. This battle is one of the earliest depicted organised battles known to scholars and historians.[28]

Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, En-anna-tum I. Given the many inscriptions his reign is assumed to be of some length. Most of them detailed the usual temple construction. On long tablet described the continued conflict with Umma:

"For the god Hendursag, chief herald of the Abzu En-anatum, [ru]ler of [Laga]š ... When the god Enlil(?)], for the god [Nin]g[ir]s[u], took [Gu'edena] from the hands of Gisa (Umma) and filled En-anatum’s hands with it, Ur-LUM-ma, ruler of Gisa (Umma), [h]i[red] [(mercenaries from) the foreign lands] and transgressed the boun[da]ry-channel of the god Ningirsu (and said): ... En-anatum crushed Ur-LUM-ma, ruler of Gisa (Umma) as far as E-kisura (“Boundary) Channel”) of the god Ninœirsu. He pursued him into the ... of (the town) LUM-ma-girnunta. (En-anatum) gagged (Ur-LUM-ma) (against future land claims)"[14]

The conflict from the Umma side of things from its ruler Ur-Lumma:

"Urlumma, ruler of Umma, diverted water into the boundary-channel of Ningirsu and the boundary-channel of Nan-she. He set fire to their monuments and smashed them, and destroyed the established chapels of the gods that were built on the boundary-levee called Namnunda-kigara. He recruited foreigners and transgressed the boundary-ditch of Ningirsu."[29]

Entemena

[edit]

The next ruler, Entemena increased the power of Lagash during his rule. A number of inscriptions from his reign are known.[30][31] He was a contemporary of Lugalkinishedudu of Uruk.[32]

Entemena was succeeded by his brother Enannatum II, with only one known inscription where he "restored for the god Ningirsu his brewery".[14] He was followed by two more minor rulers, Enentarzi (only one inscription from his 5 year reign, which mentions his daughter Gem[e]-Baba), and Lugalanda (several inscriptions, one mentions his wife Bara-namtara) the son of Enentarzi. The last ruler of Lagash, Urukagina, was known for his judicial, social, and economic reforms, and his may well be the first legal code known to have existed.[33][34] He was defeated by Lugalzagesi, beginning when Lugalzagesi was ruler of Umma and culminating as ruler of Uruk, bringing an end to the First Dynasty of Lagash.[35] About 1800 cuneiform tablets from the reigns of the last three rulers of Lagash, of an administrative nature, have been found, mostly.[36][37][38] The tablets are mostly from the "woman’s quarter" also known as the temple of the goddess Babu. It was under the control of the Queen.[39]

  • The cuneiform text states that Enannatum I reminds the gods of his prolific temple achievements in Lagash. Circa 2400 BC. From Girsu, Iraq. The British Museum, London
    The cuneiform text states that Enannatum I reminds the gods of his prolific temple achievements in Lagash. Circa 2400 BC. From Girsu, Iraq. The British Museum, London
  • The name "Lagash" (𒉢𒁓𒆷) in vertical cuneiform of the time of Ur-Nanshe.
    The name "Lagash" (𒉢𒁓𒆷) in vertical cuneiform of the time of Ur-Nanshe.
  • The Anzû, symbol of Lagash, in a Master of Animals motif, at the time of Entemena.
    The Anzû, symbol of Lagash, in a Master of Animals motif, at the time of Entemena.
  • The armies of Lagash led by Eannatum in their conflict against Umma.
    The armies of Lagash led by Eannatum in their conflict against Umma.
  • Lancers of the army of Lagash against Umma
    Lancers of the army of Lagash against Umma

Under the Akkadian Empire

[edit]

In his conquest of Sumer circa 2300 BC, Sargon of Akkad, after conquering and destroying Uruk, then conquered Ur and E-Ninmar and "laid waste" the territory from Lagash to the sea, and from there went on to conquer and destroy Umma, and he collected tribute from Mari and Elam. He triumphed over 34 cities in total.[40]

Sargon's son and successor Rimush faced widespread revolts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur, Umma, Adab, Lagash, Der, and Kazallu from rebellious ensis.[41]

Rimush introduced mass slaughter and large scale destruction of the Sumerian city-states, and maintained meticulous records of his destruction.[41] Most of the major Sumerian cities were destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous: for the cities of Ur and Lagash, he records 8,049 killed, 5,460 "captured and enslaved" and 5,985 "expelled and annihilated".[41][42]

A Victory Stele in several fragments (three in total, Louvre Museum AO 2678)[43] has been attributed to Rimush on stylistic and epigraphical grounds. One of the fragments mentions Akkad and Lagash.[44] It is thought that the stele represents the defeat of Lagash by the troops of Akkad.[45] The stele was excavated in ancient Girsu, one of the main cities of the territory of Lagash.[44]

  • Fragments of the Victory Stele of Rimush. The Victory Stele also has an epigraphic fragment, mentioning Akkad and Lagash.[44] It suggests the stele represents the defeat of Lagash by the troops of Akkad.[45]
    Fragments of the Victory Stele of Rimush. The Victory Stele also has an epigraphic fragment, mentioning Akkad and Lagash.[44] It suggests the stele represents the defeat of Lagash by the troops of Akkad.[45]
  • Possible victory stele of king Rimush (front).[46] Generally attributed to Rimush on stylistic grounds.[47]
    Possible victory stele of king Rimush (front).[46] Generally attributed to Rimush on stylistic grounds.[47]
  • Detail
    Detail
  • Man of Lagash, circa 2270 BC, from the Victory Stele.[48] The same hairstyle can be seen in other statues from Lagash.[49]
    Man of Lagash, circa 2270 BC, from the Victory Stele.[48] The same hairstyle can be seen in other statues from Lagash.[49]

Second dynasty of Lagash (c. 2260 – c. 2023 BC)

[edit]
Gudea of Lagash (ruled c. 2144–2124 BC). Diorite statue found at Girsu (Louvre Museum)

During the reigns of the first two rulers of this dynasty Lugal-ushumgal (under Naram-Sin and Shar-Kali-Sharri) and Puzur-Mama (under Shar-kali-shari), Lagash was still under the control of the Akkadian Empire. It has been suggested that another governor, Ur-e, fell between them.[50] After the death of Shar-Kali-shari Puzur-Mama declared Lagash independent (known from an inscription that may also mention Elamite ruler Kutik-Inshushinak). This independence appears to have been tenuous as Akkadian Empire ruler Dudu reports taking booty from there.[14]

With the fall of Akkad, Lagash achieved full independence under Ur-Ningirsu I (not to be confused with the later Lagash ruler named Ur-Ningirsu, the son of Gudea). Unlike the 1st Dynasty of Lagash, this series of rulers used year names. Two of Ur-Ningirsu are known including "year: Ur-Ningirsu (became) ruler". His few inscriptions are religious in nature.[51] Almost nothing is known of his son and successor.[52] The next three rulers, Lu-Baba, Lugula, and Kaku are known only from their first year names. The following ruler, Ur-Baba, is notable mainly because three of his daughters married later rulers of Lagash, Gudea, Nam-mahani, and Ur-gar.[53] His inscriptions are all of a religious nature, including building or restoring the "Eninnu, the White Thunderbird".[54] Five of his year names are known. At this point Lagash is still at best a small local power. In some case the absolute order of rulers is not known with complete certainty.[55]

Gudea

[edit]

While the Gutians had partially filled the power vacuum left by the fall of the Akkadian Empire, under Gudea Lagash entered a period of independence marked by riches and power.[56] Thousands of inscriptions of various sorts have been found from his reign and an untold number of statues of Gudea.[57] A number of cuneiform tablets of an administrative nature, from Gudea's rule were found at nearby Girsu.[58] Also found at Girsu were the famous Gudea cylinders which contain the longest known text in the Sumerian language.[59][60] He was prolific at temple building and restoring.[61] He is known to have conducted some military operations to the east against Anshan and Elam.[62][63] Twenty of Gudea's year names are known. All are of a religious nature except for one that marks the building of a canal and year six "Year in which the city of Anszan was smitten by weapons".[64] While the conventional view has been that the reign of Gudea fell well before that of Ur-Nammu, ruler of Ur, and during a time of Gutian power, a number of researchers contend that Gudea's rule overlaps with that of Ur-Nammu and the Gutians had already been defeated.[65] This view is strengthened by the fact that Ur-Baba appointed Enanepada as high preiestess of Ur while Naram-Sin of Akkad had appointed her predecessor Enmenana and Ur-Namma of Ur appointed her successor Ennirgalana.[66]

Gudea was succeeded by his son Ur-Ningirsu, followed by Ur-gar. Little is known about either aside from an ascension year name each and a small handful of inscriptions. It has been suggested that two other brief rulers fit into the sequence here, Ur-ayabba and Ur-Mama but the evidence for that is thin.[67] Two tablets dated to the reign of Ur-Nammu of Ur refer to Ur-ayabba as "ensi" of Lagash, meaning governor in Ur III terms and king in Lagash.[66]

Nam-mahani

[edit]

Little is known of the next ruler aside from his ascension year name and a handful of religious inscriptions. Nam-mahani is primarily known for being defeated by Ur-Nammu, first ruler of the Ur III empire and being considered the last ruler of the second dynasty of Lagash (often called the Gudean Dynasty). In the prologue of the Code of Ur-Nammu it states "He slew Nam-ha-ni the ensi of Lagash".[68] A number of his inscriptions were defaced and the statues of Nam-mahani and his wife were beheaded (the head were not found with the statues by Ur-Nammu in what is usually called an act of Damnatio memoriae.[57]

Under the Ur III Empire

[edit]

Under the control of Ur, the Lagash state (Lagash, Girsu, and Nigin) were the largest and most prosperous province of the empire. Such was its importance that the second highest official in the empire, the Grand Vizier, resided there.[69][70][71][72] The name of one governor of Lagash under Ur is known, Ir-Nanna. After the fifth year of the last Ur III ruler, Ibbi-Sin, his year name was no longer used at Lagash, indicating Ur no longer controlled that city.[73]

Archaeology

[edit]
At the time of Hammurabi, Lagash was located near the shoreline of the gulf.
Goddess Nisaba with an inscription of Entemena, ruler of Lagash (2430 BC), steatite, Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin

Lagash is one of the largest archaeological sites in the region, measuring roughly 3.5 kilometers north to south and 1.5 kilometers east to west though is relatively low being only 6 meters above the plain level at maximum. Much of the older area is under the current water table and not available for research. A drone survey posited that Lagash developed on four marsh islands some of which were gated,[74] but the notion that the city was marsh-based is in contention.[75] Estimates of its area range from 400 to 600 hectares (990 to 1,480 acres). The site is divided by the bed of a canal/river, which runs diagonally through the mound. The site was first excavated, for six weeks, by Robert Koldewey in 1887.[76]

"To be sure, the difficulties involved were known, at least after Koldewey’s disaster in el-Hibba where, unprepared to deal with structures of unbaked material, he did not recognize the walls but only those baked bricks which had been used for lining graves, leading him to conclude that el-Hibba was nothing but an extended burial place."[77]

It was inspected during a survey of the area by Thorkild Jacobsen and Fuad Safar in 1953, finding the first evidence of its identification as Lagash.[78] The major polity in the region of al-Hiba and Tello had formerly been identified as ŠIR.BUR.LA (Shirpurla).[79]

Remains of the ancient city of Lagash

Tell Al-Hiba was again explored in five seasons of excavation between 1968 and 1976 by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Institute of Fine Arts of New York University. The team was led by Vaughn E. Crawford, and included Donald P. Hansen and Robert D. Biggs. Twelve archaeological layers were found with the bottom 9 being Early Dynastic and the lowest under the water table. The primary focus was the excavation of the temple Ibgal of Inanna and the temple Bagara of Ningirsu, as well as an associated administrative area.[80][81][82][83] The team returned 12 years later, in 1990, for a sixth and final season of excavation led by D. P. Hansen. The work primarily involved areas adjacent to an, as yet, unexcavated temple Ibgal of the goddess Inanna in the southwest edge of the city. The Bagara temple of Ningirsu was also worked on. Both were built by Early Dynastic III king Eannatum. Temples to the goddesses Gatumdag, Nanshe, and Bau are known to have existed but have not yet been found. A canal linked the E-ninnu temple of Ningirsu at Girsu, the E-sirara temple of Nanshe at Nigin, and the Bagara temple at Lagash, the three cities being part of one large state.[84][85][86] In 1984 a surface survey found that most finds were from the Early Dynastic III period. Small amounts of Uruk, Jemdet Nasr, Isin-Larsa, Old Babylonian and Kassite shards were found in isolated areas.[87]

The name Lagash Ki (𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠, "Country of Lagash") on inscriptions of Gudea, in monumental linear script and cuneiform script on clay.

In March–April 2019, field work resumed as the Lagash Archaeological Project[88] under the directorship of Dr. Holly Pittman of the University of Pennsylvania's Penn Museum in collaboration with the University of Cambridge and Sara Pizzimenti of the University of Pisa. A second season ran from October to November in 2021. A third season ran from March 6 to April 10, 2022.[89] The work primarily involved the Early Dynastic Period Area G and Area H locations along with Geophysical Surveying and Geoarchaeology. The focus was on an industrial area and associated streets, residences, and kilns. Aerial mapping of Lagash, both using UAV drone mapping and satellite imagery was performed.[90] In the fall of 2022 a 4th season of excavation resumed. Among the finds were a public eatery with ovens, a refrigeration system, benches, and large numbers of bowls and beakers.[91][92][93][94]

Archaeological remains

[edit]

Area A (Ibgal of Inanna)

[edit]

Though commonly known as Area A or the Ibgal of Inanna, this temple complex was actually named Eanna during the Ur periods, while Inanna’s sanctuary within Eanna was known as Ibgal.[95]

Level I architecture

[edit]
3-D reconstruction of Area A by Keifuhui (Front)

Level I of Area A was occupied from Early Dynastic (ED I) to Ur III.[95] It was used for both daily worship activities and festive celebrations, particularly for the queen of Lagash during the Barley and Malt-eating festivals of Nanše.[95][96]

Level I consists of an oval wall on the Northeast end, surrounding an extensive courtyard. The fragments, together comparison to another Sumerian temple at Khafajah, show that the wall should originally be approximately 130m long.[97]

For the temple-building, it is connected to the courtyard with steps. Twenty-five rooms have been excavated inside the building, in which the western ones would open up to the outside of the temple with corridors and form a tripartite entrance.[95] Both the temple-building and the oval wall were built with plano-convex mud bricks, which was a very common material up to the late Early Dynastic III period. Additionally, foundations are found under the temple-building. They are composed of rectangular areas of various sizes, some as solid mud bricks and some as cavities of broken pieces of alluvial mud and layers of sand, then capped again with mud bricks.[97]

3-D reconstruction of Area A by Keifuhui

Level II and Level III architecture

[edit]

Two more levels are present beneath Level I. All of them are similar to each other in terms of layout and construction materials. During the process of building on top of each other, workers at that time would choose to destroy some portions while keeping some others, leading to much open speculation as to the rationales behind.[98]

Area B (3HB Building and 4HB Building at Bagara of Ningirsu)

[edit]

The 3HB Building

[edit]

Three building levels were discovered and 3HB III is the earliest and most well-preserved level. 3HB II and 3HB I shared the same layout with 3HB III. All three levels have a central niched-and-buttressed building which is surrounded by a low enclosure wall with unknown height.[95]

Building Level Building Material[95] Occupation Period[95] Notes[95]
3HB III Plano-convex bricks, mud plaster ED IIIB

(Eannatum’s rule or later)

Dimensions:

3HB Building: 24 x 20m

Enclosure Wall:

approximately 31m x 25m

3HB II Plano-convex bricks, mud plaster ED IIIB – Late Akkadian
3HB I Plano-convex bricks, mud plaster Late – Post-Akkadian
3-D reconstruction of Area B by Dcldeobi (Front)

An excavator believes that the 3HB Building was a “kitchen temple” that aimed at meeting some of the god’s demands.[99] Alternatively, it has been suggested that the building was a shrine in the Bagara complex as it shared more similarities with other temples than kitchens in terms of layout, features and contents.[95]

The 4HB Building

[edit]
3-D reconstruction of Area B by Dcldeobi (Back)

The excavators discovered five building levels. The layout of 4HB V cannot be obtained due to limited exploration. 4HB IV-4HB I shared the same layout. 4HB IVB was the first level that was exposed completely.[95]

Building Level Building Material[95] Occupation Period[95] Notes[95]
4HB V Plano-convex bricks ED III

(Evidence from pottery)

4HB IVA Plano-convex bricks ED III

(Evidence from pottery)

4HB IVB Plano-convex bricks ED IIIB Dimensions:

4HB Building: 23 x 14m

4HB III Plano-convex bricks ED IIIB – Late Akkadian
4HB II Plano-convex bricks Late – Post-Akkadian
4HB I Plano-convex bricks

and flat, square bricks

Gudea’s rule

It has been suggested that the 4HB Building is a brewery as ovens and storage vats and a tablet mentioning “the brewery” and “a brewer” were found.[99] An alternate proposal is that 4HB building is a kitchen as it shared lots of similarities with temple kitchens at Ur and Nippur.[95]

Area C

[edit]

Located 360 meters southeast of Area B. It contains a large Early Dynastic administrative area with two building levels (1A and 1B). In level 1B were found sealing and tablets of Eanatum, Enanatum I, and Enmetena.[100]

Area G

[edit]
3-D reconstruction of Area G by Nic9137

Area G is located at the midway of Area B in the North and Area A in the South. First excavated by Dr Donald P. Hansen in season 3H, Area G consists of a building complex and a curving wall which are separated by around 30-40m.[95]

Western Building Complex

[edit]
3-D reconstruction of Area G by Nic9137

5 building levels are found in the area. There is little information about Levels I and IIA as they were poorly preserved without sealed floor deposits.[101] In Levels IIB, III and IV, changes can be found in the building complex with reconstructions. In Level III, benches are built near the eastern and northern courtyards. Sealings made in the “piedmont” style which are found in the rooms share a resemblance with the Seal Impression Strata of Ur and sealings from Inanna Temple at Nippur,[101] indicating the administrative nature of the buildings. Apart from institutional objects, fireplaces, bins and pottery were found in the rooms as well.[99]

Curving Wall (Eastern Zone)

[edit]

A 2-m wide wall that runs from the south to the north is found on the eastern part of Area G. The features of the curving wall and the rooms found near it are determined to be different from other oval temples built in the Early Dynastic in other major states. Intrusive vertical drains are found at the base of the plano-convex foundation.[99] Archaeologists excavated further deeper to the water level during season 4H and found extensive Early Dynastic I deposits.[95]

List of rulers

[edit]

Although the first dynasty of Lagash has become well-known based on mentions in inscriptions contemporaneous with other dynasties from the Early Dynastic (ED) III period; it was not inscribed onto the Sumerian King List (SKL). The first dynasty of Lagash preceded the dynasty of Akkad in a time in which Lagash exercised considerable influence in the region. The following list should not be considered complete:

Portrait or inscription Ruler Approx. date and length of reign Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Early Dynastic IIIa period (c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC)
Predynastic Lagash (c. 2600 – c. 2520 BC)
(En-hegal)
𒂗𒃶𒅅 		reigned c. 2570 BC
(MC)
  • Historicity certain
  • Held the title of, "King of Lagash"
  • One inscription known, recording a purchase of land[12]
(Lugalshaengur)
𒈗𒊮𒇉 		r. c. 2530 BC
(MC)
Portrait or inscription Ruler Approx. date and length of reign (MC) Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2500 – c. 2350 BC)
First dynasty of Lagash / Lagash I dynasty (c. 2520 – c. 2260 BC)
Ur-Nanshe (Ur-nina)
𒌨𒀭𒀏 		r. c. 2520 BC
(MC)
Akurgal
𒀀𒆳𒃲 		r. c. 2500 BC
(MC)
(9 years)
  • Son of Ur-Nanshe
  • Held the title of, "King of Lagash"
  • temp. of Ush[102]
Eannatum
𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺 		r. c. 2450 BC
(MC)
(27 years)
Enannatum I
𒂗𒀭𒈾𒁺 		r. c. 2425 BC
(MC)
(4 years)
  • Brother of Eannatum (?)
  • Held the title of, "Governor of Lagash"
  • temp. Ur-Lumma[102]
Entemena
𒂗𒋼𒈨𒈾 		r. c. 2420 BC
(MC)
(27 years)
  • Son of Enannatum I
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".[102]
  • temp. Il of Umma (r. c. 2420 BC).[102]
Enannatum II
𒂗𒀭𒈾𒁺 		r. c. 2400 BC
(MC)
(5 years)
Enentarzi
𒂗𒇷𒋻𒍣 		r. c. 2400 BC
(MC)
(5 years)
  • A priest of Lagash.[102]
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".[102]
  • temp. Meanedu of Umma (r. c. 2400 BC).[102]
Lugalanda
𒈗𒀭𒁕 		r. c. 2400 BC
(MC)
(6 years and 1 month)
Proto-Imperial period (c. 2350 – c. 2260 BC)
Urukagina
𒌷𒅗𒄀𒈾 		r. c. 2350 BC
(MC)
(11 years)
  • Held the title of "King of Lagash".[102]
  • Issued a proclamation of social reforms.[102]
  • temp. Lugalzagesi of Umma (r. c. 2355 – c. 2316 BC).[102]
Meszi Uncertain; these two rulers may have r. c. 2342 – c. 2260 BC sometime during the Proto-Imperial period.[102]
Kitushi
Portrait or inscription Ruler Approx. date and length of reign Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Akkadian period (c. 2260 – c. 2154 BC)
Second dynasty of Lagash / Lagash II dynasty (c. 2260 – c. 2023 BC)
Ki-Ku-Id r. c. 2260 BC
(MC)
Engilsa r. c. 2250 BC
(MC)
Ur-A r. c. 2230 BC
(MC)
(Lugal-ushumgal)
𒈗𒃲𒁔 		r. c. 2230 – c. 2210 BC
(MC)
  • Historicity certain.
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".
  • temp. Naram-Sin of Akkad (r. c. 2254 – c. 2218 BC).
(Puzer-Mama)
𒂗𒃶𒅅 		Uncertain; these seven rulers may have r. c. 2210 – c. 2164 BC sometime during the Akkadian period.
  • Held the title of "King of Lagash".
  • temp. Shar-Kali-Sharri of Akkad (r. c. 2218 – c. 2193 BC).
  • Wrested independence from the Akkadian empire.
Ur-Ningirsu I[103]
𒌨𒀭𒎏𒄈𒍪
Ur-Mama
Ur-Utu
Lu-Baba[103]
Lugula[103]
𒇽𒄖𒆷
Kaku[103]
𒅗𒆬
Ur-Baba
𒌨𒀭𒁀𒌑 		r. c. 2164 – c. 2144 BC
(MC)

r. c. 2093 – c. 2080 BC
(SC)

  • Historicity certain.
  • Held the title of "King of Lagash".
  • temp. Shu-turul of Akkad (r. c. 2168 – c. 2154 BC).
Gutian period (c. 2154 – c. 2119 BC)
Gudea
𒅗𒌤𒀀 		r. c. 2144 – c. 2124 BC
(MC)

r. c. 2080 – c. 2060 BC
(SC)

  • Son-in-law of Ur-Baba.
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".
  • temp. Ishtup-Ilum of Mari (r. c. 2147 – c. 2136 BC).
Ur-Ningirsu II
𒌨𒀭𒎏𒄈𒍪 		r. c. 2124 – c. 2119 BC
(MC)

r. c. 2060 – c. 2055 BC
(SC)

  • Son of Gudea.
  • Historicity certain.
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".
Pirig-me
𒊊𒀞 		r. c. 2119 – c. 2117 BC
(MC)

r. c. 2055 – c. 2053 BC
(SC)

  • Son of Ur-Ningirsu.[103]
  • Historicity certain.
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".
Ur-gar
𒌨𒃻 		r. c. 2117 – c. 2113 BC
(MC)

r. c. 2053 – c. 2049 BC
(SC)

  • Son-in-law of Ur-Baba.
  • Historicity certain.
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".
Ur III period (c. 2119 – c. 2004 BC)
Nam-mahani
𒉆𒈤𒉌 		r. c. 2113 – c. 2110 BC
(MC)

r. c. 2049 – c. 2046 BC
(SC)

  • Grandson of Kaku.
  • Held the title of "Governor of Lagash".
  • temp. Ur-Nammu of Ur (r. c. 2112 – c. 2094 BC).
Ur-Ninsuna r. c. 2090 – c. 2080 BC
(MC)
Ur-Nikimara r. c. 2080 – c. 2070 BC
(MC)
Lu-Kirilaza r. c. 2070 – c. 2050 BC
(MC)
Ir-Nanna r. c. 2050 – c. 2023 BC
(MC)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lagash

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Lagash (cuneiform: 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠) was an ancient Sumerian city-state located in southern Mesopotamia at modern Tell al-Hiba, incorporating nearby settlements such as Girsu (Telloh) and Niĝin (Tell Zurghul), connected by canals and flourishing as a major political and economic power during the Early Dynastic period (c. 2900–2334 BCE). The city-state's territory spanned approximately 600 hectares, supporting advanced agriculture, trade, and craft production amid a landscape of rivers and marshes that facilitated early urban development. Its patron deity was Ningirsu, a god of war, agriculture, and storms, whose temples, particularly the Eninnu at Girsu, formed central religious and political foci. The First Dynasty of Lagash, beginning around 2500 BCE under founder , marked a period of territorial expansion and conflict, notably with neighboring over boundary canals and fertile lands. , grandson of , achieved military dominance, defeating and establishing Lagash's influence across through victories commemorated in the , an early limestone monument depicting phalanx warfare and divine favor. Subsequent rulers like maintained these gains via treaties and constructions, but Lagash fell to of and then around 2334 BCE, ending its independence until a brief resurgence in the Second Dynasty (Lagash II, c. 2150 BCE). Gudea, the most renowned ruler of the Second Dynasty (c. 2144–2124 BCE), oversaw extensive temple restorations and building projects, producing numerous statues and inscriptions that detail administrative efficiency and piety, providing invaluable insights into Sumerian governance and religion. Lagash's archaeological legacy includes thousands of administrative tablets revealing a sophisticated , alongside artifacts like royal stelae and sculptures that highlight its contributions to early Mesopotamian art, , and statecraft before its absorption into successive empires.

Geography and Environment

Location and Physical Setting

Lagash was an ancient Sumerian city-state situated in southern Mesopotamia, within the modern Dhi Qar Governorate of Iraq, approximately 24 kilometers east of the town of Shatra. The primary archaeological site associated with Lagash proper is Tell al-Hiba, located at coordinates 31.4025° N latitude, amid the flat alluvial plains formed by sediment deposits from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. These plains characterized the physical setting, providing fertile soil for agriculture through seasonal inundations and engineered irrigation systems, though the region also featured extensive marshes and watercourses that influenced urban development. The Lagash city-state encompassed multiple discrete urban centers, including (modern Telloh) and Nina, interconnected by canals such as the Going-to-Niĝin Canal, which facilitated transportation and in the deltaic environment. This marsh-based landscape, with its levees, lagoons, and estuaries, supported a multi-centric where settlements were bounded by walls and natural or artificial waterways, adapting to the dynamic of the lower Mesopotamian . The , marked by hot summers and reliance on river flooding for water, underscored the environmental challenges and opportunities that shaped Lagash's growth during the Early Dynastic period (c. 2900–2350 BCE).

Natural Resources and Environmental Challenges

Lagash occupied marshy alluvial plains in southern , where fertile silt from the and rivers enabled intensive supported by canals. The region's primary natural resources encompassed abundant freshwater for crop cultivation, clay-rich soils suitable for brick-making and , and marsh vegetation including reeds exploited for , mats, and boats. Early Sumerian farmers in the Lagash area utilized tidal flows from the via short canals to irrigate fields efficiently, fostering surplus production of staples like without requiring large-scale initially. Environmental challenges arose from the region's low rainfall, compelling dependence on river inundation and artificial , which promoted salinization through salt accumulation in poorly drained clay soils. Archaeological investigations at Tell al-Hiba reveal evidence of a catastrophic around 2350 BCE, depositing thick layers and causing site-wide destruction, likely linked to intensified river dynamics under rulers like of . Compounding this, the late third-millennium BCE saw worsening in Lagash's fields, diminishing yields as evaporated salts into the . Hydrological shifts, including the recession of Gulf due to delta progradation, triggered ecological instability with erratic ing, prolonged droughts, and heightened , straining the city's adaptive capacity.

Historical Overview

Pre-Dynastic and Early Foundations

The site of Lagash, identified with modern Tell al-Hiba in Dhi Qar Governorate, southern Iraq, shows evidence of early occupation during the Ubaid period (c. 5500–4000 BCE), when small villages emerged in the Tigris-Euphrates floodplain. Ubaid remains recovered from secondary contexts at Tell al-Hiba, including painted pottery, indicate modest settlements reliant on marsh-based subsistence economies featuring fish, birds, and mollusks. These early communities were part of a broader pattern of self-sufficient hamlets in estuarine environments, preceding more complex social structures. Settlement continuity extended into the (c. 4000–3100 BCE), marked by the and river stabilization following sea level changes, which facilitated agricultural intensification and . At Lagash, this saw the initial formation of a multi-centric , with Tell al-Hiba developing alongside nearby centers like (Tell Lo) and Niĝin (Tell Zurghul), linked by canals such as the Going-to-Niĝin. The polity encompassed several urban centers, including Lagash proper (Tell al-Hiba), the religious and administrative hub Ĝirsu (Tello), Niĝin (Tell Zurghul), and the seaport Gu'abba. The site's expansion to approximately 600 hectares reflects emerging urbanism in a fertile delta zone, though primary Uruk layers remain sparsely documented compared to Early Dynastic remains. By the Early Dynastic period (c. 2900–2350 BCE), prior to the First Dynasty under (c. 2520 BC), Lagash had coalesced into a large with distinct walled neighborhoods, temples, and administrative complexes. In the Early Dynastic IIIa period, Ĝirsu served as the capital, with its tutelary god Ninĝirsu as the chief deity of the local pantheon. Excavations at Tell al-Hiba, including those by the and (1968–1990), uncovered evidence of religious and craft activities in marsh-adapted urban sectors, highlighting foundational economic and ideological systems. and surface surveys confirm spatial organization bounded by walls and watercourses, underscoring adaptive urbanism in a dynamic hydrological . This pre-dynastic phase laid the groundwork for Lagash's political prominence through integrated temple economies and territorial control.

First Dynasty (c. 2520–2260 BC)

The First Dynasty of Lagash, spanning approximately 2520–2260 BC, marked the city's emergence as an independent power in southern during the Early Dynastic III period. Founded by around 2500 BC, the dynasty's rulers asserted control through temple construction, administrative reforms, and military campaigns, particularly against neighboring over the fertile Gu'edena ("The Edge of the Plains") region sacred to the god Ningirsu. This border conflict is the earliest well-documented case of a war between states, consisting of intermittent fighting over generations amid the division of Sumer into competing city-states vying for agricultural land and water resources in a period of dense urbanization. Primary sources are royal inscriptions from Lagash, introducing a Lagash-centric bias to the historical record. The feud predated the dynasty, with relations already tense during the reign of Mesilim, king of Kish, who acted as arbiter and demarcated the border. In Sumerian ideology, land was conceptualized as the property of the gods, with the ruler serving as its administrator. The border between Lagash and Umma was regarded as having divine origin: inscriptions claim that Enlil, chief god of the Sumerian pantheon, divided the land between Ninĝirsu (patron of Lagash) and Shara (patron of Umma). Lagashite rulers portrayed their campaigns as a divine mission to retrieve territory belonging to Ninĝirsu, who was described in inscriptions as intervening directly on the battlefield in their favor. Inscriptions from sites like (Telloh), al-Hiba, and Zurghul provide primary evidence of their activities, including building projects and territorial claims. Ur-Nanshe, credited as the dynasty's initiator, transitioned Lagash from tributary status under to dynastic kingship (ensi). His limestone reliefs and inscriptions record the importation of materials like from the east and the erection of temples dedicated to deities such as Nanše and Ningirsu, emphasizing economic networks and religious patronage. His son Akurgal briefly ruled before , Ur-Nanshe's grandson, ascended circa 2450 BC and expanded Lagash's influence through conquests. Eannatum's reign featured decisive victories over , culminating in the imposition of a boundary treaty enforced by oaths to the gods. The , erected around 2450 BC, commemorates his triumph, depicting formations—among the earliest visual records of organized —and vultures devouring the enemy dead, symbolizing divine favor from and Ningirsu. This monument, found fragmented at and housed in the (AO 16), underscores the dynasty's martial prowess and the role of in legitimizing rule. Eannatum's campaigns reportedly extended to cities like and Kish, though sustained control remains debated due to limited corroborating evidence beyond Lagashite texts. Successors Enannatum I and maintained defenses against 's incursions. Enannatum I, active mid-24th century BC, clashed with Umma's Ur-Lumma, reinforcing territorial markers and temple dedications like the Ibgal to Nanše. , circa 2400 BC, repelled Il of Umma, as detailed in inscriptions on a silver fragment (Louvre AO 2674) and the Cone of Entemena, which narrate the conflict's resolution through Ningirsu's intervention and a subsequent pact. These artifacts highlight ongoing disputes central to Sumerian rivalries, where control of canals determined agricultural surplus. The dynasty waned under (circa 2350–2300 BC), whose inscriptions detail anti-corruption edicts abolishing certain fees and restoring temple lands to curb elite abuses, reflecting internal administrative strains. However, Lagash fell to Lugalzagesi of Umma (who later ruled Uruk), whose offensives sacked , dismantled the dynasty's monuments, and reduced Urukagina's control to a diminished territory centered on Ĝirsu. Lugalzagesi claimed control over all of Sumer and adopted the title "king of the land," contextualized by emerging traditions of kingship and political unification. This collapse, evidenced by destruction layers at archaeological sites, illustrates the fragility of Sumerian polities amid resource competition and shifting alliances.

Akkadian Domination (c. 2334–2154 BC)

Sargon of Akkad initiated the domination of Lagash circa 2334 BC by defeating Lugalzagesi of Umma, who had previously conquered and sacked the city-state, thereby incorporating Lagash into the emerging Akkadian Empire that unified much of Mesopotamia under centralized Semitic rule. This conquest followed Sargon's victories over other Sumerian centers like Uruk and Ur, marking the end of Lagash's independence after its First Dynasty and integrating it into a vast territorial system extending from the Persian Gulf to northern Syria. During the Akkadian period (c. 2334–2154 BC), Lagash was governed by local officials titled ensi, appointed or overseen by Akkadian authorities to ensure loyalty and tribute extraction, with examples including Lugalushumgal as a ensi around 2200 BC. Archaeological evidence from Tell al-Hiba, the main urban center of Lagash, indicates a contraction of settlement toward the center-west area, suggesting reduced or economic activity amid imperial oversight and resource redirection to Akkad. Administrative reforms under Sargon and successors like and emphasized Akkadian personnel in key roles, fostering bilingual administration where Akkadian script and language supplemented Sumerian traditions, though local temple cults such as those of Ningirsu persisted under imperial . The period saw cultural and artistic influences from Akkad, including the adoption of imperial iconography in seals and monuments, but Lagash's integration contributed to the empire's overextension, exacerbated by rebellions and environmental stresses. By circa 2193 BC, amid Gutian incursions that weakened Akkadian control, the ensi Puzer-Mama asserted independence, transitioning Lagash toward its Second Dynasty revival, though nominal imperial dominance lingered until the empire's collapse around 2154 BC.

Second Dynasty and Independence (c. 2144–2047 BC)

Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire circa 2154 BC and the ensuing Gutian incursions that weakened central authority, Lagash reasserted its autonomy under local ensi (governors or priest-rulers), initiating the Second Dynasty around 2144 BC. This period marked a revival of Sumerian cultural and religious traditions amid regional fragmentation, with Lagash functioning as an independent city-state free from imperial oversight. Archaeological evidence, including inscriptions and architectural remnants from sites like Girsu (modern Telloh), attests to intensified temple construction and economic activity, reflecting rulers' emphasis on divine favor and legitimacy through piety rather than conquest. The dynasty's most prominent ruler, , governed from approximately 2144 to 2124 BC, succeeding his father-in-law Ur-Baba and focusing on monumental building projects without recorded military campaigns. Gudea's inscriptions detail the importation of raw materials from distant regions, such as cedar wood from the Amanus Mountains (modern ), copper from northern , and stone from Magan (likely ), to reconstruct temples like the E-ninnu dedicated to the city-god Ningirsu. Over twenty surviving statues of , many inscribed with prayers and dedications, portray him in seated or standing poses with hands clasped in supplication, underscoring his self-presentation as a devout intermediary between gods and people. These artifacts, excavated primarily at and now housed in museums like the , provide direct evidence of artistic sophistication and resource networks sustaining Lagash's prosperity. Gudea was succeeded by his son Ur-Ningirsu, who ruled circa 2124 to 2118 BC and perpetuated the dynasty's policies of temple patronage and administrative continuity. Ur-Ningirsu's inscriptions record further dedications and , including expansions at Ningirsu's , maintaining the economic momentum through and supported by Lagash's systems. Later rulers, such as Nammahani (circa 2113–2110 BC), navigated alliances with lingering Gutian influences but faced external pressures, culminating in Lagash's subjugation by of around 2112 BC, which integrated the into the Ur III polity by 2047 BC. This era's emphasis on religious infrastructure and peaceful governance contributed to a cultural zenith, evidenced by texts and votive objects, before broader Neo-Sumerian consolidation.

Integration into Ur III and Decline (c. 2112–2004 BC)

Following the end of the Second Dynasty of Lagash circa 2047 BC, the city-state was incorporated into the Third Dynasty of Ur through military conquest led by , the empire's founder (r. c. 2112–2095 BC). defeated and killed Namkhani, the last independent ruler of Lagash, thereby eliminating its autonomy and redirecting its trade networks—particularly access to resources from , Magan, and —toward Ur. This integration transformed Lagash from a sovereign entity into a provincial district under centralized Ur III administration, with emerging as a primary center for governance and record-keeping. During the Ur III period (c. 2112–2004 BC), Lagash functioned as one of the empire's most vital provinces, second in administrative output only to , yielding thousands of tablets documenting grain production, labor allocation, and . (governors) appointed by Ur III kings oversaw extensive agricultural operations, leveraging Lagash's fertile plains and canal systems to supply the empire's food requirements, effectively positioning it as a "breadbasket" for the capital at . These archives reveal a highly bureaucratized system, with detailed tracking of labor, temple estates, and taxation, underscoring Lagash's economic subordination yet infrastructural importance within the Neo-Sumerian state's redistributive . Lagash's decline coincided with the broader collapse of Ur III circa 2004 BC, triggered by Elamite invasions that sacked and disrupted imperial control across southern . Without reasserting independence, Lagash fragmented amid the ensuing power vacuum, as authority shifted to emerging dynasties in and ; its urban centers, including , saw reduced political centrality and eventual abandonment by the late third millennium BC. This marked the terminal phase of Lagash's prominence, with no subsequent revival as a major , reflecting the empire's overextension and vulnerability to external pressures rather than localized factors alone.

Governance and Administration

Rulership Structure

The rulership of Lagash centered on the ensi, a title for the chief governor or ruler who served as the terrestrial agent of the city's patron deity, Ningirsu, overseeing both sacred and profane affairs. This position integrated religious authority with administrative, military, and judicial functions, reflecting the theocratic nature of Sumerian city-states where the ensi derived legitimacy from divine favor, often confirmed through omens or oracles. Unlike the broader (king) title more common in expansive empires, Lagash consistently employed ensi for its independent rulers, emphasizing local governance tied to temple institutions rather than distant overlordship. The ensi's powers encompassed command of the military, as demonstrated by Eannatum's victories over around 2450 BC, management of systems vital for , and of disputes, including boundary conflicts resolved via stelae and treaties. Temple complexes like the É-ningirsu served as economic hubs under ensi supervision, where land allocations, labor drafts, and tribute collections supported state operations; for instance, Lugalanda's corrupt administration in the mid-24th century BC involved expropriating temple properties, prompting reforms under . Subordinate officials, including scribes and overseers (nu-banda), executed daily governance, recording transactions on clay tablets that reveal a bureaucratic focused on to the ensi and gods. Succession typically followed familial lines, with sons or relatives inheriting the role after demonstrating piety and competence, as seen in the dynasty from (c. 2520 BC) to , though divine selection via dreams or rituals could intervene. exemplified ideal rulership by prioritizing temple construction—erecting over 15 structures—and legal equity, issuing edicts against and ensuring fair weights, which fostered prosperity amid post-Akkadian recovery around 2144–2124 BC. During periods of external domination, such as Akkadian rule (c. 2334–2154 BC), local operated as vassals, but regained by adapting to imperial demands while preserving core Lagashite traditions. This structure persisted until integration into the Ur III empire (c. 2112 BC), where Lagash yielded to centralized kingship. Urukagina, the last ensi of Lagash's First Dynasty (c. 2350–2330 BC), promulgated edicts inscribed on clay cones that addressed widespread abuses by powerful officials and temple authorities, marking the earliest known proclamations of social and economic restoration in Mesopotamian history. These texts detail how previous rulers had imposed excessive levies, such as treating citizens' goods as if owed to the palace, and exploiting vulnerable groups including s and s by seizing their property or oxen for minor debts. Urukagina's measures restored protections, declaring that the house of a or could no longer be seized for debt, and limited fees for services like boat usage from one of silver to one ban of , approximately one-sixth the prior amount. The edicts also abolished debt-based enslavement, granting amnesty to debtors and freeing those bound into servitude, while prohibiting elites from forcibly acquiring the homes, fields, or livestock of commoners without consent. Punishments for crimes like theft and murder were maintained, but administrative corruption was curtailed by dismissing corrupt overseers (maškim) and reducing the influence of tax collectors. Scholarly analysis of the cone inscriptions, preserved in fragments from Girsu, interprets these as restorative justice decrees rather than a comprehensive legal code, aimed at reestablishing equilibrium after perceived moral and economic decay under prior governance. The term ama-gi ("return to mother" or freedom), first appearing here, signified liberation from bondage, influencing later Mesopotamian concepts of emancipation. Under of the Second Dynasty (c. 2144–2124 BC), administrative policies emphasized equity in land distribution and , though evidence is sparser and derived mainly from dedicatory inscriptions rather than explicit reform texts. permitted daughters to inherit family estates in the absence of male heirs, diverging from stricter patrilineal norms and promoting familial stability amid post-Akkadian recovery. These actions supported broader social welfare, including canal maintenance for equitable irrigation access, but lacked the detailed proclamations of , focusing instead on pious governance intertwined with temple-building. Overall, Lagash's reforms reflected a hierarchical society—comprising ensi, priests, scribes, free farmers, and dependents—where rulers periodically intervened to mitigate overreach, fostering short-term stability without establishing enduring statutory .

Economy and Daily Life

Agricultural Systems and Irrigation

The economy of ancient Lagash depended heavily on irrigated , which transformed the arid Mesopotamian plain into productive fields capable of supporting dense urban populations. Primary crops included as the staple , valued for its drought tolerance and use in production and , supplemented by and for diversified yields. Date palms were widely grown for fruit, fiber, and structural materials, while subsidiary crops encompassed chickpeas, lentils, onions, and other cultivated in shaded orchards or flood-irrigated plots. Early agricultural systems in Lagash and broader leveraged tidal dynamics in the marshy delta, where semi-diurnal tides facilitated natural through short primary s (1–2 km long) aligned with river channels, allowing flood-recession farming without massive until around the mid-third millennium BC. This tidal regime supported intensive cultivation by timing plantings to tidal inundations, yielding multiple irrigations per season as noted in Sumerian agronomic texts. As tidal influences diminished due to river avulsion and sediment buildup, Lagash transitioned to engineered river-based systems, necessitating communal labor for dike maintenance and excavation to mitigate salinization risks from over-. Archaeological evidence from , the religious center of Lagash, documents extensive canal networks, including regulators—stone or brick sluices that diverted and measured water flows into secondary distributaries for field-level . of organic sediments in these canals confirms construction phases from the Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2500–2340 BC) onward, with intensification under Ur III administration (c. 2112–2004 BC) integrating waterways into economic accounting via records of labor allocations. Such systems, while enabling surplus production, sparked interstate conflicts, as evidenced by Early Dynastic disputes with over shared canal boundaries, where rulers like Enmetena inscribed claims to water rights on stelae.

Trade, Crafts, and Labor Organization

The economy of Lagash was predominantly managed through its temples and palaces, which coordinated production, distribution, and labor allocation via administrative records. These institutions oversaw workshops where artisans produced ranging from ceramics and textiles to metalwork and stone sculpture, with raw materials often sourced locally or imported to support temple construction and elite demands. Labor was stratified, including dependent temple personnel, workers mobilized for maintenance and building projects, and skilled specialists like stonecutters and metal smiths whose outputs are attested in archaeological finds such as diorite statues and vessels. Crafts flourished under rulers like (c. 2144–2124 BC), who commissioned high-quality artworks including over 20 surviving statues and vases, requiring advanced techniques in quarrying, transport, and polishing hard stones unavailable locally. Artisans operated in temple-attached ateliers, as evidenced by inscriptions detailing material procurement for the Eninnu temple at , where laborers included bricklayers and sculptors organized hierarchically under overseers. Earlier, under (c. 2350 BC), reforms curbed exploitative practices by elites, such as reducing boat taxes on wood transport and freeing debt-bound laborers, aiming to restore balance between temple obligations and commoner burdens without evidence of formal guilds. Trade networks extended internally via riverine routes along the and , exchanging Lagash's agricultural surplus—, , and dates—for timber and metals from neighboring regions, and internationally under , who dispatched expeditions to acquire cedar from , from , from , and from the Magan region (likely or Indus periphery). These ventures, documented in cylinder seals and inscriptions, emphasized over conquest, with imports funneled into sacred rather than widespread commercialization, reflecting a redistributive system where palace-temple elites controlled surplus flows. Preceding rulers like (c. 2494–2465 BC) secured wood tribute from (), underscoring Lagash's integration into Gulf trade circuits by the Early Dynastic period.

Religion and Cult Practices

Deities and Temples

Ningirsu served as the patron of Lagash, revered as a warrior god embodying thunder, rain, , and , with his primary cult center in the district of . The E-ninnu, or "House of the White Thunderbird," formed the core of his temple complex in , functioning as the state's chief sanctuary from the Early Dynastic period onward, where rulers dedicated victories and resources to honor him. Archaeological excavations have uncovered multiple phases of this temple, including a 4,500-year-old structure linked to Ningirsu as a mighty thunder god, underscoring its enduring religious prominence. Bau, a goddess associated with healing, protection, and fertility, held significance in Lagash as a local deity, often depicted with canine attributes symbolizing her therapeutic role. Her worship integrated into the broader pantheon, with temples dedicated to her in the region, though specific sites remain unlocated amid the city's ruins. Rulers like Gudea of the Second Dynasty undertook extensive temple constructions and renovations across Lagash, including expansions to the Eninnu for Ningirsu and shrines for associated deities such as Ningishzida, reflecting the ensi's role as divine intermediary responsible for maintaining cultic infrastructure. These efforts involved importing materials like cedar and diorite for sacred buildings, as documented in Gudea's inscriptions emphasizing piety and prosperity under divine favor. Nanše, an oracle goddess and daughter of , received veneration in Lagash's coastal district of Sirara, where her temple facilitated prophetic consultations and justice rituals, highlighting the city's diverse sacred landscape beyond Girsu's martial focus. The bird, emblematic of Ningirsu, appeared in temple as a motif, symbolizing divine power and protection over Lagash. Overall, the religious system prioritized Ningirsu while incorporating a network of subsidiary cults, with temples serving as economic hubs distributing offerings and sustaining priestly hierarchies.

Rituals and Religious Artifacts

Rituals in Lagash centered on the worship of Ningirsu, the patron deity, through sacrifices, , and offerings performed in temples like the Eninnu (House of the White Thunderbird). The central act of divine service involved presenting food, drink, and animal sacrifices at the god's cult statue in the temple , with ancillary spaces for prayers and processions. Rulers such as (c. 2144–2124 BC) enacted consecration rites during temple foundations, including city purification, bans on burials and debt enforcement, and incubation dreams seeking divine blueprints for construction. Gudea's cylinders detail extensive rituals for the Eninnu rebuild, encompassing material transport ceremonies, labor organization under divine oversight, and dedication festivals culminating in the god's symbolic entry into the completed structure. Annual observances featured communal feasting tied to Ningirsu, evidenced by favissae—ritual pits—containing over 1,000 caprine bones and nearly 300 vessels, primarily conical beakers (84%) and bowls (9%), suggesting standardized liquid offerings and shared sacrifices involving broad participation beyond elites. Strontium isotope analysis confirms locally sourced animals, aligning with practices of regional provisioning for cultic events. Key religious artifacts comprised foundation deposits like inscribed clay cones embedded in walls to channel divine power, pegs symbolizing stability and held by horned figures, and dedicatory tablets buried beneath structures. vases, such as Entemena's (c. 2400 BC), facilitated pouring offerings, while votive in prayer postures—hands clasped, often holding a vessel—served as perpetual intercessors for the ruler's piety and the city's prosperity. Excavations at yielded cultic jars, offering bowls, and burnt surfaces indicative of ongoing sacrificial activity in the sacred precinct.

Art, Culture, and Material Legacy

Sculpture and Iconography

Sculpture from Lagash, primarily votive in nature, emphasized rulers' religious devotion and temple-building activities, often carved from imported hard stones to symbolize permanence. Early Dynastic III examples include the perforated relief of (c. 2550–2500 BCE), excavated at , depicting the ensi carrying a of clay for temple , followed by his spouse and sons in , underscoring communal labor in sacred architecture dedicated to Ningirsu. This motif of the ruler as builder recurs in Lagashite art, reflecting the city's theocratic governance where ensi legitimized power through divine service. The (c. 2500–2350 BCE), a fragmented monument from , exemplifies early war iconography while integrating religious elements, commemorating I's victory over . Its upper register portrays the Ningirsu enveloping enemies in a net, with vultures carrying severed heads symbolizing and battlefield scavenging; the lower panels depict phalanx formations of Lagashite spearmen, the earliest known representation of organized , and Eannatum borne on a by the , blending human triumph with celestial endorsement. Such reliefs employed composite perspectives and hierarchical scaling, with larger figures denoting superiority, to convey causal narratives of conflict resolved through godly favor. In the Neo-Sumerian period, of Lagash (c. 2144–2124 BCE) commissioned approximately 27 surviving statues, sourced from distant quarries in , portraying him seated or standing with hands clasped in , often inscribed with dedications to deities like Ningirsu and Bau for temple restorations. These works, characterized by serene facial features, stylized musculature under fringed robes, and occasional attributes like temple plans or water vessels, served as perpetual intercessors in shrines, prioritizing static piety over dynamism. Uniform iconographic conventions across the corpus—such as the turbaned head and forward gaze—reinforced the ensi's role as mediator between people and gods, with 's durability mirroring the intended eternal worship. Lagashite iconography featured recurring motifs like the Anzû (Imdugud) bird, a lion-headed eagle embodying Ningirsu, often in master-of-animals poses grasping lions to signify dominion over chaos. Other elements included intertwined lions and gazelles on vases, such as Entemena's (c. 2400 BCE), symbolizing and royal prowess, and heraldic emblems on boundary stones affirming territorial claims under divine protection. These symbols, rooted in empirical temple dedications and inscriptions, prioritized causal links between , , and power without unsubstantiated narrative embellishments.

Inscriptions and Literary Contributions

The royal inscriptions of Lagash, primarily in Sumerian on stelae, cones, vases, and foundation deposits, document rulers' military campaigns, temple dedications, and territorial claims from the Early Dynastic period onward. Eannatum I's , dated circa 2450 BCE, features an inscription invoking Ningirsu’s favor in the victory over , describing formations and divine protection amid battlefield carnage. Enannatum I, circa 2400 BCE, inscribed texts boasting temple constructions to affirm divine reciprocity for his piety. Entemena's foundation cones and vase, around 2400 BCE, record arbitration of the Gu'edena border dispute by Umma's submission and the cancellation of debt-slavery obligations, marking early instances of economic amnesty. In the Lagash II period, (circa 2144–2124 BCE) produced the era's most voluminous and literarily sophisticated texts, including the paired terracotta cylinders exceeding 1,300 lines each. Cylinder A details a divine dream commissioning the Eninnu temple's reconstruction, of cedars from Amanus mountains and stones from Magan and , while Cylinder B enumerates rituals, hymns to Ningirsu, and the temple's inauguration, blending , , and mythic elements in archaic Sumerian. These cylinders represent peak Early Dynastic literary form, influencing later Mesopotamian temple-building hymns. Lagash's scribal output extended to administrative archives at , yielding approximately 1,700 Early Dynastic tablets on grain allocations, labor, and temple estates, alongside dozens of royal inscriptions that preserve phonetic and lexical innovations in Sumerian writing. Later Lagash II texts, including Gudea's cones and dedications, further exemplify standardized inscriptional formulas for legitimacy and , with over 50 known exemplars from his reign alone. These contributions illuminate causal links between rulership, divinity, and statecraft, unmediated by later interpretive biases.

Conflicts and Interstate Relations

Border Disputes with Umma

The border disputes between Lagash and Umma, also known as the Umma–Lagash war or Gu-edena war, constituted a prolonged series of conflicts, skirmishes, and diplomatic disputes during the Early Dynastic III period (ca. 2500–2350 BCE). Centered on control of the fertile Gu-edena ("Edge of the Plains") plain—rich agricultural land and irrigation canals vital for both city-states—this is considered the earliest well-documented interstate war in history. The conflict is known almost exclusively from Lagash sources, including royal inscriptions, boundary stelae, foundation cones, and the Stele of the Vultures, which portray Umma as repeated aggressors violating divine borders set by the god Enlil. Umma's perspective remains largely absent due to the scarcity of surviving texts from that city. The two city-states shared a long border in southern Mesopotamia, with the Gu-edena plain as the principal disputed territory. Early arbitration by Mesilim, king of Kish (c. 2500 BCE), established boundary stones allocating the land to Ningirsu (patron deity of Lagash) while requiring Umma to pay a share of barley yields from the district. Violations recurred due to disputes over water rights, land fertility, and prestige. During the era of Ur-Nanshe (c. 2500–2450 BCE), Lagash asserted independence from external dominance and engaged in early clashes with Umma. The conflict intensified under Eannatum (c. 2450–2425 BCE), when Umma's ruler Ush (or Il) violated the agreement by removing boundary steles and encroaching on Lagash territory. Eannatum's forces defeated Umma at multiple sites, including Umma itself, capturing prisoners and imposing tribute. This victory is commemorated on the Stele of the Vultures (c. 2450 BCE), the oldest known war monument, which depicts the god Ningirsu holding a net of defeated Umma soldiers, Eannatum leading a phalanx formation (among the earliest evidence of organized infantry tactics), and vultures carrying away severed heads and limbs, symbolizing divine favor. The inscriptions detail the battle, tribute, and divine sanction. Renewed hostilities occurred under Enannatum I and Entemena (c. 2425–2375 BCE). Umma's rulers Ur-Lumma and Illi (Il) attacked again, with Ur-Lumma diverting water to flood Lagashite fields and seizing lands. Entemena defeated Illi in battle, slaying him, and enforced a new treaty reaffirming the Mesilim boundary. The agreement mandated Umma's annual payment of 180,000 sila of barley from Gu-edena yields and required mutual oaths before the gods Enlil and Ningirsu; inscribed on foundation cones, this is one of the oldest surviving peace treaties. Entemena also restored contested canals, including the Nanše canal, to ensure water flow for Lagash. In the final phase (c. 2370–2350 BCE), Lagash weakened internally under Lugalanda. Uruinimgina (also known as Urukagina) introduced reforms but was defeated by Lugal-zage-si of Umma (who also controlled Uruk), who conquered Lagash and ended its independence until later revival. Archaeological evidence from sites like Girsu corroborates textual accounts through boundary markers and military artifacts, though interpretations rely heavily on Lagashite sources portraying Umma as the perennial aggressor. The conflict illustrates resource-driven rivalries in early Sumerian city-states, the religious framing of warfare as divine enforcement of borders, and early developments in military tactics, propaganda, and diplomacy.

Broader Military Engagements

, ruler of Lagash circa 2450 BCE, extended the city's influence through expansive military campaigns beyond its immediate borders with . Inscriptions attribute to him victories over Elamite forces and the establishment of dominance over southern Sumerian cities including and (Erech), followed by triumphs in northern . These successes enabled Lagash to claim , with Eannatum adopting the title "King of Kish," a marker of broader Sumerian overlordship typically reserved for rulers controlling multiple city-states. Subsequent rulers like (circa 2400 BCE) focused primarily on consolidating gains from but engaged in diplomacy with , forging a treaty of brotherhood with Lugalkiginedudu to secure alliances amid regional rivalries. This pact reflected Lagash's strategy of balancing military projection with interstate relations to deter threats from expanding powers like Kish or emerging coalitions. In the Second Dynasty, (circa 2144–2124 BCE) conducted a limited eastern campaign against , an Elamite stronghold, reportedly smiting it with weapons and securing tribute in timber, stone, and metals essential for Lagash's temple constructions. His inscriptions record this as the primary military action of his reign, emphasizing divine favor from Ningirsu rather than sustained conquest, with year formulas noting the event alongside peaceful building projects. Gudea's approach prioritized economic and religious consolidation over aggressive expansion, contrasting earlier militarism, though it positioned Lagash to import resources from subdued eastern territories until the rise of the Ur III dynasty circa 2112 BCE disrupted its autonomy.

Archaeology and Modern Investigations

Principal Excavation Sites

The primary archaeological site associated with Lagash is Girsu, modern Tello (or Telloh) in Dhi Qar Governorate, southern Iraq, serving as the city's religious and administrative hub dedicated to the god Ningirsu. Excavations commenced in 1877 under French auspices and persisted intermittently until 1933, exposing monumental temples, sanctuaries, and an administrative center known as Tablet Hill, alongside artifacts linking to Lagash's dynastic rulers. These efforts yielded foundational insights into Sumerian temple architecture and yielded thousands of cuneiform tablets, though early documentation was often incomplete, leading to modern conservation initiatives like the British Museum's Girsu Project (initiated 2016) to stabilize exposed structures such as the world's earliest known bridge. A second major site is Tell al-Hiba, encompassing over 600 hectares and identified as Lagash's principal urban settlement. In 1953, scholars Thorkild Jacobsen and Fuad Safar confirmed its association with Lagash through surface-collected inscriptions. Systematic digs from 1968 to 1978, directed by Vaughn Crawford and Donald P. Hansen of and the , targeted multiple areas: Area A revealed the oval temple of (Ibgal) with nine Early Dynastic levels, including strata tied to ruler I (c. 2450 BCE); Area B uncovered the Bagara temple of Ningirsu with associated facilities like a and brewery, yielding artifacts from ; Area C exposed an Early Dynastic IIIB administrative and craft complex with seal impressions naming , Enannatum I, and ; and Area G documented Early Dynastic I institutional buildings indicating centralized control. A 1990 season by the , led by Holly Pittman and Hansen, further delineated occupation peaks around 2500–2350 BCE before interruption by conflict. Recent investigations at Tell al-Hiba, under the Lagash Archaeological Project (LAP) since 2019 involving the , , and Iraqi authorities, integrate —such as magnetometry and drone surveys—to map discrete urban neighborhoods, waterways, and industrial zones from the fourth millennium BCE onward, revealing a multi-centric sustained by marshland rather than solely riverine systems. These efforts complement Girsu's focus on elite monuments by illuminating everyday urban dynamics, with findings including tens of thousands of pottery sherds and evidence of prolific . Both sites underscore Lagash's scale as one of southern Mesopotamia's largest polities, though looting and wartime damage have necessitated ongoing site protection.

Key Discoveries and Artifacts

Excavations at Girsu, the archaeological site associated with Lagash, primarily conducted by French archaeologist Ernest de Sarzec from 1877 to 1900, uncovered thousands of cuneiform tablets, temple structures, and votive artifacts illuminating Sumerian administrative, religious, and military practices. These finds, including over 50,000 clay documents, provided foundational evidence for reconstructing Lagash's dynastic history and economy. The , a fragmented dated to circa 2500 BCE, commemorates Eannatum's victory over and depicts early formations, divine intervention via , and the city's patron god Ningirsu grasping enemies. Discovered in the Eninnu temple at , its bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian inscriptions and reliefs represent one of the earliest detailed war narratives in monumental art. The Vase of , a silver and tripod vessel approximately 35 cm high, inscribed with dedications to Ningirsu and featuring the eagle grasping lions, dates to around 2400 BCE and symbolizes alliances forged post-conflict. Recovered from Telloh (ancient ), it exemplifies advanced metalworking techniques in Lagash. Diorite statues of Gudea, ruler during Lagash II (circa 2144–2124 BCE), number over 30 examples, portraying him in static, prayerful postures with clasped hands, inscribed with temple-building dedications. Carved from imported hard stone, these sculptures, found primarily at Girsu temples like the Eninnu, reflect Gudea's piety and architectural patronage; specimens are held in institutions such as the and . The Gudea Cylinders, two large terracotta objects inscribed with over 1,300 lines of Sumerian text detailing temple renovations and divine encounters, were unearthed at Girsu and constitute early literary epics on kingship and cosmology.

Recent Developments (Post-2000 Excavations)

The Girsu Project, initiated by the British Museum in 2015 in collaboration with the Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, has employed geophysical surveys, 3D modeling, and forensic excavations of looter trenches to document and protect the site at Tell Loh (ancient Girsu), the religious center of the Lagash state. In 2023, excavations uncovered remains of a palace complex dating to circa 2500 BCE, including a large brick structure previously misinterpreted, alongside temple features associated with the god Ningirsu, providing evidence of early state administration and ritual practices. These findings, recontextualizing artifacts from 19th- and early 20th-century digs, highlight Girsu's role as a sanctuary and administrative hub, with ongoing work addressing post-conflict looting damage through conservation and training for Iraqi specialists. The Lagash Archaeological Project (LAP), launched in 2019 by the Museum in partnership with the and Iraqi authorities, resumed fieldwork at Tell al-Hiba (ancient Lagash city proper) after a decades-long hiatus due to regional instability. Seasons from 2019 through spring 2025 have targeted urban areas, yielding tens of thousands of sherds, residential structures, and systems indicative of marsh-based, multi-centric from the fifth millennium BCE onward. This evidence challenges linear models of Mesopotamian urbanization, suggesting decentralized settlement patterns integrated with wetland environments rather than solely temple-centered growth. Parallel efforts by the Italian Archaeological Expedition to Nigin, directed by since 2015 at Tell Zurghul, have excavated areas revealing occupation phases from the Early Dynastic period, including pottery sequences and flood damage layers potentially linked to urban destruction events circa 2350 BCE. The 2025 spring campaign further documented industrial and residential features, contributing to understandings of Lagash's peripheral cities and their integration into the state's hydraulic landscape. These post-2015 initiatives collectively leverage and interdisciplinary analysis to reconstruct Lagash's socio-economic complexity, amid ongoing challenges from and illicit digging.

Rulers of Lagash

First Dynasty Rulers

The First Dynasty of Lagash emerged during the Early Dynastic III period, approximately 2500–2350 BCE, marking the city's rise as a prominent Sumerian centered around temple complexes at and other sites. Founded by , the dynasty's rulers expanded Lagash's influence through military campaigns, temple construction, and administrative reforms, as evidenced by royal inscriptions and votive artifacts. These leaders, often titled ensi (governor or priest-king), emphasized piety toward deities like Ningirsu, Lagash's patron god, while engaging in territorial disputes, particularly with . Ur-Nanshe, the dynasty's founder circa 2520 BCE, is credited with establishing Lagash's independence and initiating major building projects, including temples dedicated to Ningirsu and Bau in , Nina, and Lagash itself. His inscriptions describe importing materials like cedar from distant regions and constructing shrines such as the A-edin and E-gidri, underscoring his role in economic and religious consolidation. A perforated portrays him carrying a of for temple foundations, symbolizing royal piety and labor oversight. Succeeding Ur-Nanshe was his son Akurgal, whose brief reign is sparsely documented but served as a bridge to more expansionist rule. Akurgal's son , reigning around 2450 BCE, achieved Lagash's greatest territorial extent through conquests against , , and cities like and Kish. The , erected to commemorate his victory over Umma's king Ush, depicts formations and divine intervention by Ningirsu, portraying vultures devouring the slain—an early example of historical war in monumental art. Eannatum's inscriptions claim hegemony over southern , enforced by tribute and alliances. Eannatum's brother Enannatum I continued these policies, focusing on temple endowments and military assertions, as recorded in texts reminding gods of his prolific constructions in Lagash. Entemena, Eannatum's nephew reigning circa 2400 BCE, restored borders with after encroachments, digging canals per Enlil's decree and forging a brotherhood with Uruk's Lugal-kiginedudu. His clay inscriptions detail conflicts, including Umma's flooding of Lagash fields, and affirm divine favor through Ningirsu. Artifacts like his votive highlight ongoing patronage of temples. The dynasty waned under Enannatum II and culminated with , circa 2350 BCE, whose inscriptions proclaim reforms curbing elite abuses: abolishing exorbitant fees on , freeing debt prisoners, and limiting official corruption, such as preventing powerful men from seizing commoners' property. These measures, framed as restoring under Ningirsu's guidance, represent early socio-economic interventions but alienated elites, contributing to Lagash's conquest by Uruk's , ending the dynasty. Scholarly analysis views these as cultic and administrative adjustments rather than a unified legal code, based on fragmented cone inscriptions.
RulerApproximate ReignKey Achievements
Ur-Nanshec. 2520 BCEFounded dynasty; temple constructions in and Nina.
Akurgalc. 2520–2500 BCETransitional rule; father of .
Eannatumc. 2450 BCEConquests of , ; .
Enannatum Ic. 2450–2440 BCETemple endowments; continuity.
Entemenac. 2400 BCEBorder restoration with ; treaty with .
Enannatum IIc. 2400–2350 BCEDefensive rule amid declining power.
Urukaginac. 2350 BCEReforms against ; .

Second Dynasty Rulers

The Second Dynasty of Lagash emerged around 2193 BC following the collapse of Akkadian control and Gutian incursions, restoring local rule under ensi who prioritized religious and economic revival. This period, spanning until circa 2110 BC, is best attested through inscriptions and statues emphasizing piety toward Ningirsu, the city's patron deity, rather than military conquests. Puzer-Mama, the dynasty's founder circa 2193 BC, declared independence from Gutian overlords as ensi of Lagash. His successor, Ur-Baba (or Ur-Bau), ruled approximately 2164–2144 BC and focused on temple restorations, laying groundwork for later building programs. Gudea, son-in-law of Ur-Baba, governed circa 2144–2124 BC (middle chronology) and epitomized the dynasty's cultural zenith through extensive temple reconstructions, including the grand E-ninnu complex for Ningirsu. He imported from eastern mountains and cedar from for statues and structures, commissioning over thirty surviving diorite statues depicting himself in prayerful poses to invoke divine favor. Gudea's inscriptions detail visionary dreams guiding constructions and administrative reforms fostering and , without recorded wars, suggesting a peaceful consolidation of power. Ur-Ningirsu II, Gudea's son, succeeded around 2124–2119 BC, continuing paternal policies with dedications like statues and temple enhancements, as evidenced by Louvre inscriptions crediting him with offerings to Ningirsu. His brief reign maintained Lagash's autonomy amid Gutian pressures. Subsequent rulers included Ur-Gigir (or Urnig/Ur-GAR), Gudea's younger son, circa 2119–2117 BC; Urabba, circa 2117 BC, who left minimal records; Urmama, circa 2117–2113 BC, possibly aligned with Uruk influences; and Nammahni, circa 2113–2110 BC, whose alliance with Gutians ended in defeat by Ur-Nammu of Ur, incorporating Lagash into the Ur III empire.
RulerApproximate Reign (BC)Key Relations/Notes
Puzer-Mamac. 2193Founder, independence declarer
Ur-Babac. 2164–2144Temple restorer
c. 2144–2124Son-in-law of Ur-Baba; major builder, statue commissioner
Ur-Ningirsu IIc. 2124–2119Son of ; continued dedications
Ur-Gigirc. 2119–2117Son of
Urabbac. 2117Minimal inscriptions
Urmamac. 2117–2113Possible ties
Nammahnic. 2113–2110Son-in-law of prior; defeated by

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