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Bitterroot
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Bitterroot
Lewisia rediviva var. rediviva in Wenas Wildlife Area, Washington
Secure
Secure  (NatureServe)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Montiaceae
Genus: Lewisia
Species:
L. rediviva
Binomial name
Lewisia rediviva
Varieties[2]
  • L. rediviva var. minor
  • L. rediviva var. rediviva
Synonyms[3][4]
List
    • Lewisia alba Kellogg
    • Lewisia minor Rydb.
    • Lewisia rediviva subsp. minor (Rydb.) A.H.Holmgren

Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) is a small perennial herb in the family Montiaceae. Its specific epithet rediviva ("revived, reborn") refers to its ability to regenerate from dry and seemingly dead roots.[5]

The genus Lewisia was moved in 2009 from the purslane family (Portulacaceae) with adoption of the APG III system, to the family Montiaceae.

Description

[edit]
Bitterroot flower

Lewisia rediviva is a low-growing perennial plant with a fleshy taproot and a simple or branched base and a low rosette of thick fleshy linear leaves with blunt tips. The leaves are roughly circular in cross section, sometimes somewhat flattened on the adaxial (top) surface. The absence of an adaxial groove on the leaves distinguishes this from other Lewisia species with overlapping ranges. The leaves often wither before flowers open.

The very short flower stems are leafless, 1–3 centimetres (3⁄8–1+1⁄8 in) tall, bearing at the tip a whorl of 5–6 linear bracts which are 5–10 mm long. A single proportionally huge flower appears on each stem with 5–9 oval-shaped sepals and many petals.[6] Each flower has between ten and nineteen petals that measure 15 to 35 millimetres (5⁄8 to 1+3⁄8 in) long.[7] They range in color from whitish to deep pink or lavender. Flowering occurs from April through July.[8] At maturity, the bitterroot produces egg-shaped capsules with 6–20 nearly round seeds.[6]

Distribution

[edit]

The plant is native to western North America from low to moderate elevations on grassland, open bushland, forest in dry rocky or gravelly soils. Its range extends from southern British Columbia, through Washington and Oregon west of the Cascade Range to southern California, and east to western Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, northern Colorado and northern Arizona.[8][9][6][10]

Uses

[edit]

The thick roots come into season in spring[11] and can survive extremely dry conditions. If collected early enough in the season,[12] they can be peeled, boiled, and made into a jelly-like food.[11]

History and culture

[edit]

French trappers knew the plant as racine amère (bitter root).[13] Native American names include spetlum/sp̓eƛ̓m̓ or spetlem ("hand-peeled"), nakamtcu (Ktanxa: naqam¢u),[14] and mo'ôtáa-heséeo'ôtse (Cheyenne, "black medicine").[15]

The roots were consumed by tribes such as the Shoshone and the Flathead Indians as an infrequent delicacy. Traditionally, the Ktunaxa cooked bitterroot with grouse. For the Ktunaxa, bitterroot is eaten with sugar; other tribes prefer eating it with salt.[16] The Lemhi Shoshone believed the small red core found in the upper taproot had special powers, notably being able to stop a bear attack.[13] Plains Indians peeled and boiled the root prior to its consumption.[12]

L. rediviva var. rediviva, Glass Mountain, Owens Valley, California
Before flowering

Meriwether Lewis ate bitterroot in 1805 and 1806 during the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The specimens he brought back were identified and given their scientific name, Lewisia rediviva, by a German-American botanist, Frederick Pursh.[13] Based on Lewis and Clark's manuscript, Pursh labeled it "spatlum"; this apparently was actually a Salishan name for "tobacco".[17]

The bitterroot was selected as the Montana state flower in 1895.[18]

Three major geographic features – the Bitterroot Mountains (running north–south and forming the divide between Idaho and Montana), the Bitterroot Valley, and the Bitterroot River (which flows south–north, terminating in the Clark Fork river in the city of Missoula) – owe the origins of their names to this flower.[13][19]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bitterroot

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) is a small, low-growing perennial herb in the Montiaceae family, native to western , characterized by its succulent, finger-like leaves that emerge in winter and wither before its pale pink to deep rose (or occasionally white) flowers bloom in late spring, featuring up to 18 petals and measuring 1.5 to 2 inches across on leafless stems. Its cylindrical, starchy roots, which have a hard black rind and a bitter that softens when boiled, can revive from a dried state, inspiring the species name rediviva from Latin meaning "reviving." Thriving in well-drained, gravelly or sandy soils of dry shrublands, steppes, piñon-juniper woodlands, savannas, and coniferous forests, the plant occurs from and southward to , , and , typically at elevations between 2,500 and over 10,000 feet. In , where it is widespread across western and southern regions in sparsely vegetated grasslands and montane valleys, it holds global as secure (G5) and state status as apparently secure to secure (S4S5). Culturally significant to numerous Native American tribes including the Flathead (Salish), , , Paiute, , and , the Bitterroot's roots were traditionally harvested in spring—often marked by ceremonial first-root gatherings—dried for storage and trade, and cooked as a nutritious staple, mixed with or berries to counter their inherent bitterness and aid digestibility. Medicinally, it was employed to increase milk flow in nursing mothers, soothe sore throats, neutralize rashes, and alleviate symptoms, though modern analysis reveals low caloric content (about 3.87 calories per gram dry weight) and limited nutritional . The plant gained prominence during the when first noted it in August 1805 near the Lemhi Pass and collected specimens in July 1806 at Travelers' Rest in Montana's , describing its bitter roots in his journal before sending samples to President . Botanist Frederick Pursh formally named it Lewisia rediviva in 1814 in honor of Lewis, recognizing its resilience. Designated Montana's state flower in 1895, the Bitterroot symbolizes the region's rugged landscapes and indigenous heritage, though Euro-American settlement has reduced its habitat through agriculture and development since the .

Taxonomy

Etymology

The common name "Bitterroot" derives from the plant's fleshy , which has a distinctly bitter taste when eaten raw but becomes more palatable and slightly sweet when properly cooked, such as by boiling or roasting after peeling. This name was popularized by early European explorers and settlers, reflecting the root's unappealing raw flavor contrasted with its nutritious, gelatinous quality post-cooking. The scientific name Lewisia rediviva was established by botanist Frederick Pursh in 1814, based on specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis during the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The genus Lewisia honors Meriwether Lewis for his contributions to North American botany, while the specific epithet rediviva comes from the Latin word meaning "revived" or "reborn," alluding to the plant's remarkable ability to sprout new growth from dry, seemingly lifeless roots after dormancy. Alternative historical names include the French "racine amère," meaning "bitter root," which was used by French-Canadian trappers and in the early to describe the plant's root characteristics. This term influenced regional nomenclature, such as the naming of the Bitterroot River and Valley in .

Classification

The Bitterroot, Lewisia rediviva, belongs to the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order , and family Montiaceae (formerly included in ). The genus honors of the and encompasses about 18 species of perennial herbs endemic to western . L. rediviva is the type species of the genus, originally described by Frederick Pursh in 1814. Compared to congeners like L. cotyledon, L. rediviva features deep pink flowers and occupies drier, open gravelly habitats, whereas L. cotyledon typically displays white petals with pink veins in moist, rocky sites near streams.

Botanical Description

Morphology

Lewisia rediviva, commonly known as bitterroot, is a low-growing, stemless that forms a compact basal rosette and typically reaches 5–10 cm in during flowering. The plant develops from a thick, fleshy that is often branched and can extend up to 32 cm in length, gradually ramifying distally to anchor in rocky substrates and store carbohydrates for surviving periods of during summer . Its leaves are basal, sessile, and succulent, arising in a dense rosette; they are linear to clavate in shape, subterete or adaxially grooved, 0.5–5 cm long with entire margins and obtuse to subacute apices, and typically wither at or soon after the onset of flowering. Although stemless in its vegetative state, bitterroot produces leafless, erect or ascending scapes 1–5 cm tall, each bearing a whorl of 4–8 subulate to linear-lanceolate bracts 4–10 mm long below the flower. Flowers are solitary or occasionally few per scape, pedicellate with pedicels 3–15 long, and measure 3–5 in ; they feature (4–)6–9 broadly elliptic to ovate sepals 10–25 long that become scarious post-anthesis, 10–19 elliptic to narrowly oblanceolate petals 15–35 long in to (sometimes lavender) with paler centers or wholly , 20–50 stamens, and a pistil with 4–9 stigmas; blooming occurs from March to June. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule 5–6 mm long, containing 6–25 small, shiny, minutely papillate black each 2–2.5 mm in size.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) is a geophyte characterized by an ephemeral above-ground life cycle adapted to arid environments. The plant emerges from its fleshy in spring, typically late April to May, producing a rosette of succulent, linear leaves that photosynthesize rapidly before the onset of summer . Flowering occurs shortly thereafter, from May to early June in most regions, with buds forming as leaves begin to wither. After production, the above-ground portions senesce completely by mid-summer, entering a period of that lasts through late summer and early fall, sustained by stored carbohydrates in the root. breaks with the arrival of autumn , often in September or October, initiating new leaf growth and preparing for the next spring cycle; this results in a of approximately seven months, interrupted by summer . Reproduction in bitterroot is primarily sexual, with limited vegetative propagation. Flowers, which feature both male and female parts in a single structure, open for only two to three days under direct sunlight and are pollinated mainly by native bees, ensuring cross-pollination between plants. Following pollination in May or June, the ovary develops into a capsule containing 6-25 small, round seeds that mature rapidly within three weeks. Vegetative reproduction occurs occasionally through root fragments or transplanting of root sections, though it is not the dominant mode and can be disrupted by harvesting. As primary reproduction relies on seeds, the plant's strategy emphasizes efficient seed production during its brief active period. Seed dispersal is passive, primarily via gravity and wind, with capsules splitting open by late June to July and releasing lightweight seeds that travel short distances, often accumulating under nearby vegetation at densities up to 52.7 seeds per square foot. Germination requires cold stratification, typically 60 to 90 days of moist, cool conditions, which mimics winter and promotes radicle emergence; optimal germination occurs in fall under moist, disturbed soils following rains, leading to initial taproot development before the next dormancy. Seed viability persists for at least five years under cool, dry storage. Individuals of L. rediviva reach maturity within three to four years and can persist for several years as perennials, with the robust taproot enabling survival through prolonged droughts and dormancy periods. This longevity, combined with the plant's seed-based recruitment, supports population stability in suitable habitats despite the short annual active phase.

Habitat and Distribution

Geographic Range

The bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), a perennial herb native to western North America, has a distribution centered in the interior regions of the continent. Its range extends from southern British Columbia and Alberta in Canada southward through the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, reaching as far east as Wyoming and Colorado, and as far south as northern Arizona, with occurrences also in California, Nevada, and Utah. This distribution is primarily east of the Cascade Range and within the Rocky Mountain system, reflecting its adaptation to continental climates. The plant occurs across a broad elevational , typically from about 300 to 2,500 meters (1,000 to 8,200 feet), though populations have been documented up to 3,000 meters in some areas. It is most abundant in the interior valleys and foothills of the , where it favors open, well-drained sites. This elevational range allows bitterroot to occupy diverse topographic positions, from lower plains to mid-elevation grasslands. Outside its native range, bitterroot shows no evidence of widespread or introduction; occasional escapes from cultivation occur but remain rare and localized. Historically, the species' overall distribution has remained stable since its documentation in the early , though recent surveys indicate local population declines in certain areas due to and loss from agricultural expansion and . For instance, in parts of and , where it is most prevalent, targeted monitoring has reported reductions in density at historically abundant sites, attributed to these pressures.

Habitat Preferences

The Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) thrives in well-drained, gravelly or rocky soils that prevent waterlogging, often consisting of loose substrates such as , , or talus derived from various parent materials. These soils typically support a pH range from mildly acidic to alkaline (approximately 5.0 to 8.0), allowing the plant's deep to access nutrients while minimizing rot risks during its dormant summer phase.) It favors microsites on exposed ridges, rocky outcrops, and south-facing slopes where is maximized and competition from other vegetation is reduced. In terms of climate, Bitterroot is adapted to semi-arid to arid conditions prevalent in western , characterized by cold winters, hot summers, and low annual ranging from about 20 to 40 cm, with most rainfall or snowfall occurring in fall and winter months. This pattern enables the plant to emerge from in early spring, complete its growth cycle, and then retreat underground as soils dry out completely by summer. Bitterroot commonly occurs in open communities and sparse conifer woodlands, such as those dominated by ponderosa pine (), where it occupies sparsely vegetated areas to avoid shading and overcrowding. It is less frequent in dense forest understories, preferring habitats that provide ample light and minimal biotic interference.

Ecology and Conservation

Ecological Role

Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) plays a key role in its through interactions with pollinators, serving as an early-season source during its brief spring bloom period, typically from to , when few other are flowering. The plant's pink to white flowers, which remain open for only 2–3 days, attract native bees, including bumblebees (Bombus spp.), and , providing essential and to support their reproduction and energy needs. Herbivory on bitterroot is primarily limited to small mammals due to the plant's diminutive size and ephemeral above-ground growth. Rodents, such as deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and ground squirrels, graze on the leaves, seeds, and occasionally roots, consuming a notable portion of available forage during the plant's active phase. Larger herbivores like deer (Odocoileus spp.) may occasionally browse the foliage, but the plant's rapid transition to summer dormancy—leaving only the persistent taproot—greatly reduces overall impact and prevents significant population-level damage. Bitterroot engages in symbiotic relationships that enhance its survival in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It forms arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) associations with fungi, which improve and other uptake from rocky, low-fertility soils, a critical for growth in open, gravelly habitats. Additionally, cushion (Eriogonum ovalifolium) acts as a nurse , trapping bitterroot seeds in its foliage at rates up to 52.7 seeds per square foot compared to 0.7 on bare ground, thereby facilitating seedling establishment in exposed sites. As a in primary succession, bitterroot contributes to stability by colonizing disturbed or barren slopes, such as cinder cones and rocky outcrops, where its deep helps bind soil and reduce during early community development. This role supports formation for subsequent plant species in dry shrublands and grasslands.

Conservation Status and Threats

The Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) holds a global conservation status of secure (G5) according to a 2025 NatureServe assessment, indicating it is not currently at significant risk of extinction across its range. State-level ranks vary, reflecting regional differences in abundance and pressures; for instance, it is rated S4S5 (apparently secure to secure) in Montana. In Idaho, it lacks a specific state rank (SNR) but is considered stable within broader conservation frameworks. Despite its overall secure status, Bitterroot populations face notable threats from human activities and environmental changes, including . Habitat fragmentation, driven by agricultural expansion, , and livestock grazing, has significantly reduced suitable dry, open sites, particularly in valleys like Montana's where development has eroded traditional patches. Overharvesting for cultural and traditional uses exacerbates this, as the plant's is destructively removed, limiting regeneration in targeted areas without careful management. Climate change poses an additional risk by altering patterns essential for the plant's spring emergence and summer dormancy, with projections indicating increased stress that could hinder growth in arid habitats. Conservation efforts provide some safeguards, as Bitterroot occurs in protected areas such as the Bitterroot National Forest, where practices aim to preserve native grasslands. Harvesting is regulated in certain states, including , where permits and restrictions under wildflower protection laws limit commercial and excessive collection to sustain populations. In Montana, state guidelines under the Native Plant Conservation Strategy encourage sustainable practices for non-commercial gathering while prohibiting sales of wild-collected specimens without oversight. These findings emphasize the need for habitat connectivity and monitoring to mitigate long-term declines.

Uses and Cultivation

Traditional Uses

The Bitterroot ( rediviva) has been a vital resource for indigenous tribes in the and , particularly the , Salish, and , who harvested its roots as a primary source in early spring following the First Roots Ceremony. This ceremony, led by elder women among the Salish and , involved prayers of gratitude to the Creator before the initial dig, marking the start of the gathering season typically from late to late , when leaves emerge post-snowmelt but before flowering. Harvesters, often women using traditional digging sticks made from fire-hardened wood or , selectively extracted mature roots while leaving smaller ones undisturbed to ensure regrowth, a practice that promoted across communal harvesting sites. Preparation methods emphasized removing the root's bitter outer skin immediately after harvest, achieved by peeling or stripping to reveal the starchy white interior, which was then boiled or steamed to eliminate remaining bitterness and create a gelatinous, jelly-like consistency suitable for consumption. Among the Shoshone-Bannock, roots were dried in the sun and stored in rawhide bags for year-round use, often pounded into meal and mixed with berries, meat, or for nutrient-dense stews, providing energy during lean seasons. The Salish boiled peeled roots in deer or with serviceberries, reconstituting dried stores in winter as a vital source that supported physical and mental clarity. Medicinally, Bitterroot served multiple purposes, with infusions or teas from the roots used by the and Salish to soothe sore throats—either chewed raw to enhance vocal cords or as a for relief—and as a mild when eaten or prepared as a to aid digestion. Poultices made from pounded raw or ground roots were applied to wounds and sores to promote healing and prevent infection, while the also employed it to counteract rashes and support nursing mothers by increasing milk flow. Among the Blackfeet, related uses extended to treating respiratory issues and overall body purification, often in combination with other plants. These applications were integrated into ceremonial contexts, where the plant symbolized renewal and nourishment. Sustainable protocols, including prayers during harvest and intentional replanting or transplanting of root embryos, underscored the tribes' reverence for Bitterroot as a sacred gift.

Cultivation and Modern Applications

Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) is challenging to cultivate outside its native dry, rocky habitats due to its specific requirements for drainage and seasonal dormancy. It thrives in well-drained, gritty soils such as mixtures of shale, sand, clay, or gravel, often amended with perlite or vermiculite in a 6:1:1 ratio with peat for propagation pots. Full sun exposure is essential, but protection from intense midday summer sun prevents scorching, and plants must be positioned in raised beds, steeply angled slopes, or containers to mimic natural conditions. During active growth in spring, light watering and low-nitrogen fertilization support development, but no supplemental water is needed otherwise, as the plant relies on natural rainfall. Propagation primarily occurs from seeds, which require cold stratification at 1-3°C for 60-90 days to achieve near-100% rates; seeds are sown in early fall on the surface, lightly covered with , and left unwatered until late winter or early spring emergence. Vegetative methods involve notching the in spring and replanting offsets after a year, though this is less common. is slow, with reaching flowering maturity in 3-4 years, and seedlings should be spaced 4-6 inches apart in pots before outplanting after two years. Root cuttings are discouraged, as harvesting roots destroys the , emphasizing sustainable seed-based methods to preserve populations. Key challenges include susceptibility to crown and from poor drainage or overwatering, particularly during the plant's summer when it requires complete dryness to avoid fatal moisture buildup. Freeze-thaw cycles can heave roots in less stable soils, and the need for hot, dry summers limits success in humid regions like without excellent drainage adaptations. Periodic weeding ensures full sun access, and protection from such as deer is necessary during establishment. In modern applications, bitterroot serves as an in rock gardens and designs, valued for its and striking pink flowers in low-water landscapes. It is available through native nurseries within its range for gardens that replicate open, sunny sites. Restoration projects utilize it to revegetate degraded shrublands and open woodlands, promoting in intermontane grasslands. Commercial interest in its roots remains limited due to difficulties and the 's scarcity in the wild, focusing instead on conservation rather than large-scale food production. The USDA recommends seed for sustainable practices to avoid from root harvesting.

Cultural and Historical Significance

Native American Importance

The bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) holds profound ceremonial significance among Native American tribes, particularly as the centerpiece of the First Roots Ceremony, an annual spring ritual that marks the onset of the harvesting season and symbolizes renewal, sustenance, and the cycle of life. This ceremony, observed by tribes such as the , involves prayers of gratitude led exclusively by elder women to honor the Creator for providing the plant, ensuring its bounty for the community before any roots are gathered. No other roots may be harvested until this rite is completed, underscoring the plant's sacred status as a harbinger of spring and survival after winter's hardships. Revered as a sacred food by numerous tribes across western North America, including the Salish, Flathead, Kootenai, , , and Blackfeet, the bitterroot features prominently in oral traditions that recount its discovery as a divine from the Creator to rescue starving people during times of . In Salish lore, the plant's origins are tied to stories emphasizing its life-giving powers, with elements like its silver-tipped roots evoking a grandmother's and its pink flowers resembling the wings of a , reinforcing themes of resilience and spiritual provision. These narratives, shared only during winter months in some traditions, highlight the plant's role not just as nourishment but as a cultural emblem of endurance and interconnectedness with the land. Socially, the bitterroot fostered community bonds through shared feasts where prepared roots were distributed, reinforcing and reciprocity among tribal members. Harvesting was a gender-specific task, with women using traditional digging sticks (known as petzah in Salish) to gather the roots in spring, while men focused on ; this division reflected broader cultural roles in subsistence and spiritual stewardship. Strict taboos governed collection, prohibiting overharvesting, commercial exploitation, or depleting patches to ensure the plant's , with practices like replanting root hearts and leaving smaller plants intact passed down through generations. In contemporary times, tribes continue to protect and revive bitterroot knowledge through ongoing ceremonies and restoration initiatives, such as the First Roots Ceremony held near St. Ignatius on May 2, 2024, where elders recounted traditional stories and demonstrated harvesting protocols. Efforts include youth-led plantings, like the 2019 Salish event at Fort Missoula where 850 bitterroot plants were reintroduced to ancestral lands, and annual events such as Bitter Root Day in 2023, which promote and sustainable practices amid environmental challenges. These activities, supported by tribal organizations, aim to preserve the plant's spiritual and ecological legacy for future generations as of 2025.

European Exploration and Symbolism

During the , first encountered the bitterroot plant on August 22, 1805, near Camp Fortunate in present-day , where he sampled dried roots provided by sources as part of a larger cache of provisions. collected specimens during the return journey in 1806, which were later transported to for study. These samples formed the basis for the plant's introduction to Western , with botanist Frederick Pursh providing the first formal description in his 1814 work Flora Americae Septentrionalis, naming the genus in honor of Lewis and the species rediviva to reflect its remarkable ability to revive from a dormant, dried state. The common name "bitterroot" derives from the plant's distinctly bitter-tasting , a term popularized through 19th-century expedition journals and explorer accounts, including those of French trappers who referred to it as racine amère. In 1895, the Territorial Legislature unanimously designated the bitterroot as the state's official flower following a public campaign led by women's organizations, notably the under Mary Long Alderson, who leveraged the vote to promote among women in advance of efforts. This selection underscored the plant's growing recognition as a of 's natural heritage amid territorial transitions. Symbolizing resilience and the enduring pioneer spirit of , the bitterroot's capacity to thrive in arid, rocky soils mirrors the tenacity of early settlers and explorers navigating harsh frontiers. As 's state flower, it appears on official emblems, seals, and commemorative stamps, while featuring prominently in regional literature such as Ivan Doig's works evoking 's landscapes and in poetry celebrating Western endurance. The plant also plays a role in modern conservation campaigns, including habitat protection initiatives by groups like the Montana Native Plant Society, which highlight its vulnerability to overcollection and development to foster public stewardship. In 19th-century ethnobotanical studies, the bitterroot gained attention through documentation of its uses by Indigenous groups in expedition records and subsequent botanical surveys, contributing to early understandings of Native plant knowledge in Western . Recent commemorations in 2025, marking ongoing reflections on the Lewis and Clark Expedition's legacy, have amplified its cultural profile through events like the Ravalli County Museum's Bitter Root Day Festival and the ' Bitterroot Dig & Feast, drawing renewed focus to its historical and ecological significance.

References

  1. https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/lewisia_rediviva.shtml
  2. https://www.nps.gov/lecl/learn/nature/bitterroot.htm
  3. https://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=PDPOR040D0
  4. https://lewis-clark.org/sciences/plants/the-bitterroot-plant/
  5. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Lewisia%20rediviva
  6. http://montana.plant-life.org/cgi-bin/species03.cgi?Portulacaceae_Lewisiarediviva
  7. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=30841
  8. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=LERE7
  9. https://rareplantfiles.cnps.org/scc/LewisiaStebbinsiiSpProfileSCC20180119.pdf
  10. https://nwwildflowers.com/compare/?source=WA&t=Lewisia%2Brediviva%2C%2BLewisia%2Bcotyledon
  11. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=LERE7
  12. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/lewred/all.html
  13. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=220007569
  14. https://mtnativeplants.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/LC-Lewisia-rediviva-bitterroot.pdf
  15. https://open.library.ubc.ca/media/stream/pdf/831/1.0099512/1
  16. https://courses.washington.edu/esrm412/protocols/2015/LERE7.pdf
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  21. http://www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com/Edible_Plants/Articles/Bitterroot.htm
  22. https://wildflowerjournal.net/bitterroots-in-the-hills/
  23. https://oregonflora.org/taxa/garden.php?taxon=6051
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  25. https://idfg.idaho.gov/species/taxa/47478
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  28. https://www.oregonlegislature.gov/bills_laws/ors/ors564.html
  29. https://mtnhp.mt.gov/resources/botany/docs/Montana-Native-Plant-Conservation-Strategy_Part1_2024-08-28_Original.pdf
  30. https://opi.mt.gov/Portals/182/Page%20Files/Indian%20Education/Science/Bitterroot_Adaptations%20-%20G4.pdf
  31. https://www.sacajaweacenter.org/harvesting-bitterroot/
  32. https://cdsc-wsu.org/nwnativeplants/digital-heritage/lewisia-rediviva
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  35. https://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Global-Warming/Reports/Gardeners_Guide.ashx
  36. https://www.dailykos.com/stories/2021/7/15/2039840/-Indians-101-Bitterroot-Salish-Encampment-photo-diary
  37. https://missoulaeduplace.org/file_download/inline/e43c072f-d5f0-4c76-906d-22c16043654e
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  40. https://missoulacurrent.com/salish-bitterroot-missoula/
  41. https://bitterrootstar.com/2023/06/bitter-root-day-aims-to-preserve-flower-heritage/
  42. https://www.montanaseniornews.com/mary-long-alderson-montana-woman-suffragist/
  43. https://mhs.mt.gov/education/StateFlower/SuffrageLessonPlan.pdf
  44. https://thematcharead.com/blog/montana-state-flower/
  45. https://www.netstate.com/states/symb/flowers/mt_bitterroot.htm
  46. https://www.lewisandclark.travel/events/bitter-root-day-at-ravalli-county/
  47. https://www.facebook.com/CSKTSQCC/posts/2025-bitterroot-dig-feast-cskt-hwy-cleanup-and-gathering-at-tmsm%25C9%25ABi-we-extend-our/1105842764918605/
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