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Bombard mortar and granite ball projectile of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, Rhodes, 1480–1500. Founded at the request of Pierre d'Aubusson, the bombard was used for close defense of the walls (100–200 m (110–220 yd)) at the Siege of Rhodes. It fired 260 kg (570 lb) granite balls. The bombard weighs about 3,325 kg (7,330 lb). Musée de l'Armée.

The bombard is a type of cannon or mortar which was used throughout the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period. Bombards were mainly large calibre, muzzle-loading artillery pieces used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications, enabling troops to break in. Most bombards were made of iron and used gunpowder to launch the projectiles.[1] There are many examples of bombards, including Mons Meg, the Basilic, the Dardanelles Gun, and the handheld bombard.

The weapon provided the name to the Royal Artillery rank of bombardier and the word bombardment.

Terminology

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The term bombard was first used to describe guns of any kind from the early to mid-14th century, but it was later applied primarily to large cannons during the 14th to 15th centuries.[2] Despite its strong association with large cannons, there is no standard size for bombards, and the term has been applied to cannons only a meter in length as well as cannons several meters long weighing up to 20 t (20 long tons; 22 short tons).[3]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of cannon

The oldest known representation of a bombard can be found in the Dazu Rock Carvings in China. In 1985, the Canadian historian Robin D. S. Yates was visiting Buddhist cave temples when he saw a sculpture on the wall depicting a demon firing a hand-held bombard. The sculpture was later dated to the early 12th century.[4]

Early bombards also include two Chinese c. 1377 cast-iron mortars weighing over 150 kg (330 lb), each with four trunnions on their barrels.[5]

Handgun loophole at the Westgate, Canterbury

England began using cannons in the early 14th century. Field artillery was deployed by King Edward III at the Battle of Crécy in 1346, and equipment which may have been an artillery piece was listed as captured on a French ship by the English at Sluys as early as 1340. Inverted 'keyhole' gun loops at Bodiam Castle, Cooling Castle, and the Westgate, Canterbury, have all been identified as for firing heavy handguns. These defences are dated 1380–1385. Initially used as defensive weapons, primitive bombards began to be used as siege weapons in the later 14th century. Henry IV and Henry V won battles with the use of bombards. Henry V captured Harfleur with bombards in 1415. King Henry's army later came under artillery fire at the Battle of Agincourt. James II of Scotland destroyed many castles with his one and a half ton cannon named "The Lion".[1]

The French conquest of the English king's holdings in France saw the use of considerable French artillery in the siege role. The French in this period preferred to avoid attacking English longbowmen in open battle and relied on siege tactics. However the last battle of the Hundred Years' War saw English commander John Talbot lead an Anglo-Gascon army against dug-in French troops equipped with 300 pieces of artillery at the Battle of Castillion in 1453. The French camp had been laid out by ordnance officer Jean Bureau to maximise the French artillery arm. The Anglo-Gascons were shot to pieces and Talbot was eventually killed.

Most bombards started with the construction of a wooden core surrounded by iron bars. Then, iron hoops were driven over these bars in order to surround and cover them. The whole structure was then welded with a hammer while it was still hot at about 2,500 °F (1,370 °C). The rings then subsequently cooled and formed over the bars to secure them. The last step was to incinerate the wooden core and to attach a one-piece cast. The complicated procedure required a highly skilled forge who could work quickly and precisely with a hammer.[1]

Notable examples

[edit]

A notable example of a bombard is Mons Meg, built around 1449 and used by King James II of Scotland. It was very powerful and used for bringing down castle walls.[6] The origins of Mons Meg are not fully known but according to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, it was his idea. It was ordered around 1449 and had similar construction to a typical bombard.[7] However, it was seldom used because of several factors. Mons Meg was capable of firing 180 kg (400 lb) shots and was one of the largest bombards of its time. It is now housed on public display at Edinburgh Castle.

A bombard with a bore of approximately 12 in (30 cm) was found when the moat of Bodiam Castle, Kent, was drained. A muzzle-loader of hoop-and-stave construction, it is believed to be the oldest piece found in England and may be late 14th or very early 15th century. It was possibly dumped in the moat following an abortive siege at the castle during the Wars of the Roses. The original is now at the Royal Artillery Museum at Woolwich, but a copy has been on show at the castle for many years. The Star Gun Company has built a Bodiam Bombard replica while local newspapers report a replica was being fired at the castle for visitors during 2012.[8]

Other known 15th-century very large-calibre guns include the wrought-iron Pumhart von Steyr and Dulle Griet as well as the cast-bronze Faule Mette, Faule Grete, and Grose Bochse. The Tsar Cannon is a late 16th-century show-piece.

The Dardanelles Gun, built in the Ottoman Empire in 1464 by Munir Ali, with a weight of 18.6 t (18.3 long tons; 20.5 short tons) and a length of 518 cm (204 in), was capable of firing stone balls of up to 63 cm (25 in) diameter.[9]

Henry VIII reportedly had a set of 12, named after the Twelve Apostles, which were deployed at the sieges of Thérouanne and Tournai during his 1513 campaign in France.

The Tsar Cannon, built in 1586 and today located on the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin, is the largest bombard ever built.

Eventually bombards were superseded by weapons using smaller calibre iron projectiles fired from longer barrels with more powerful gunpowder.

[edit]
  • 200 kg wrought iron bombard, circa 1450, Metz, present-day France. It was manufactured by forging together iron bars, held in place by iron rings. It fired 6 kg stone balls. Length: 82 cm.
    200 kg wrought iron bombard, circa 1450, Metz, present-day France. It was manufactured by forging together iron bars, held in place by iron rings. It fired 6 kg stone balls. Length: 82 cm.
  • The Dardanelles Gun
    The Dardanelles Gun
  • Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle, mid-15th century
    Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle, mid-15th century
  • Mons Meg cannonballs
    Mons Meg cannonballs
  • English Bombards abandoned during the Hundred Years' War and now displayed at Mont-Saint-Michel
    English Bombards abandoned during the Hundred Years' War and now displayed at Mont-Saint-Michel
  • Bombard from the beginning of the 15th century, the only surviving bombard used by the Teutonic Knights, now displayed at Kwidzyn Castle
    Bombard from the beginning of the 15th century, the only surviving bombard used by the Teutonic Knights, now displayed at Kwidzyn Castle
  • Acehnese guns including two bombards (closer to the camera)
    Acehnese guns including two bombards (closer to the camera)
  • 15th-century bombard mounted on a carriage, Warsaw
    15th-century bombard mounted on a carriage, Warsaw
  • Bombard in its siege position, Denmark
    Bombard in its siege position, Denmark
  • A bombard recovered from the well of Cardiff Castle, in swivel configuration
    A bombard recovered from the well of Cardiff Castle, in swivel configuration
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bombards (weapon).

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bombard (weapon)

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A bombard was a large-caliber, muzzle-loading or mortar developed in medieval , primarily employed during sieges to propel heavy stone balls against fortifications. Typically constructed from wrought-iron staves bound together with iron hoops to form a barrel and separate powder chamber, these weapons measured up to 4 meters in length and could weigh several tons, with bores ranging from 30 to 60 centimeters. Emerging in the mid-14th century amid the , bombards marked an early advancement in , evolving from primitive pot-de-fer cannons and enabling attackers to breach walls from distances of up to 300 meters. The design of bombards prioritized power over mobility, often requiring teams of oxen for transport and elaborate earthworks for protection during firing, as the weapon's and tendency to overheat limited rapid reloading. Propelled by black powder charges of 20 to 35 kilograms, they launched projectiles weighing 100 to 300 kilograms, achieving muzzle velocities around 300 meters per second and ranges exceeding 2 kilometers at optimal elevations. While effective against , their inaccuracy, slow (one shot every few minutes), and vulnerability to made them siege specialists rather than . Bombards played pivotal roles in key conflicts, including the Ottoman conquest of in 1453, where massive variants demolished the city's Theodosian Walls, and the Scottish sieges of the , such as the reduction of in 1455. Iconic specimens like the , forged in 1449 by the with a 50-centimeter bore capable of firing 160-kilogram granite balls, exemplify their engineering; it was gifted to and used until bursting in 1681. Similarly, the 15th-century , a 17-tonne bombard with a 63-centimeter bore, underscored Ottoman mastery, later repurposed in 1807 against British forces. By the early , bombards declined as lighter, cast-bronze cannons with iron balls offered greater mobility and precision, rendering the cumbersome giants obsolete for most warfare. Nevertheless, their introduction catalyzed the "gunpowder revolution," shifting from chivalric assaults to systematic and influencing fortress with thicker, angled walls. Surviving examples, preserved in museums like the Royal Armouries, highlight the transition from medieval to early modern .

Terminology and Definition

Etymology and Early Usage

The term "bombard" derives from the "bombarde," which appeared in the and initially referred to a mortar or , likely originating from an onomatopoeic base imitating explosive sounds, connected to the Latin "bombus" meaning a buzzing or booming noise. This linguistic root reflects the loud report of early weapons, as gunpowder itself reached from in the 13th century via trade and Mongol invasions. The earliest documented uses of "bombard" in European military contexts date to the early , where it broadly described any type of gunpowder-fired , irrespective of size, in texts from regions like , , and . By the mid-14th century, chroniclers such as employed the term in accounts of conflicts during the , notably referencing bombards as siege and field weapons that hurled large iron bolts with thunderous noise. Over the late 14th century, the terminology evolved to more specifically denote large-caliber, heavy pieces designed for breaching fortifications, distinguishing them from smaller hand-held or lighter guns, as seen in evolving military inventories and chronicles. This shift paralleled the refinement of in . Related terms emerged concurrently, with "bombardier" denoting an artillery operator responsible for loading and firing these weapons, derived directly from the French "bombardier" in the mid-16th century. Similarly, "" arose as a tactical concept for sustained artillery assaults, first recorded in the late 16th century from French "bombardement."

Classification and Distinctions

Bombards were classified as large-caliber, muzzle-loading, smoothbore cannons or mortars, primarily employed as siege engines to hurl stone projectiles at fortifications, setting them apart from smaller, more portable early firearms. Unlike hand cannons, which were compact, shoulder-fired weapons with bores under 2 inches and limited to light lead or stone shot for individual or anti-personnel use, bombards emphasized immense scale for breaching walls, often requiring teams of oxen for transport and fixed mounting in the field. Similarly, ribauldequins—multi-barreled "organ guns" consisting of several small-caliber tubes mounted parallel on a wheeled platform—were designed for rapid, volley fire against infantry, contrasting with the bombard's singular, high-impact shots that demanded prolonged loading times. In comparison to later developments, bombards were typically wrought-iron constructions, either hooped barrels or longitudinally hooped staves, differing from the more maneuverable cast-bronze field guns of the late onward, which used standardized iron cannonballs for greater accuracy and mobility in open battles. Regional nomenclature for these oversized pieces varied, with referring to them as "" after the Lombard region's early adoption of weapons, while in they were termed "bombardes" or occasionally "grosses gonnes" to denote their bulk, though "gonne" more broadly applied to cannons of varying sizes; over time, "bombard" standardized in English usage for the largest variants. There were no strict size criteria distinguishing bombards from other , but they were generally characterized by barrels exceeding 1 meter in length—often reaching 3 to 4 meters—and the capacity to fire stone projectiles over 10 kg, with notable examples like the launching balls up to 150 kg.

Design and Construction

Materials and Assembly

Bombards were primarily constructed using , a material chosen for its relative abundance and lower cost compared to alternatives like , which required scarce tin and was more expensive to produce in large quantities. , produced via the process with low carbon content (typically under 0.1–0.5%), formed the core components: long longitudinal that were forge-welded together and reinforced by multiple iron hoops. These were often arranged parallel around a central wooden core to provide initial during assembly, with the wood later burned out to create the bore. The assembly process relied on medieval blacksmithing techniques adapted for large-scale fabrication. Staves were first heated and hammered to shape, then positioned around the wooden core; iron hoops were subsequently heated to forging temperatures around 1100–1370°C (yellow-to-white heat) to expand them for fitting over the staves. While hot, the hoops were hammered into place to forge-weld seams and ensure tight contact, followed by rapid cooling to contract and secure the structure. Overlapping hoop designs distributed stress more evenly, enhancing durability despite the limitations of heterogeneous bloomery iron. Although bronze was occasionally employed for smaller bombards, prototypes, or local reinforcements due to its superior castability and resistance, remained dominant for major pieces owing to iron's greater availability and the era's inability to cast large iron structures reliably. A key challenge was the risk of barrel bursting under firing pressures, stemming from inconsistencies in the metal and imperfect seals, which gunners addressed through overlapping reinforcements and empirical proof-testing of completed assemblies. Many bombards featured a separate chamber at the breech, allowing for easier loading of the charge before inserting the from the muzzle.

Dimensions and Specifications

Bombards varied significantly in size depending on their intended use, with barrel lengths typically ranging from 1 to 2 meters for smaller field pieces to 4–6 meters or more for heavy . Weights followed a similar pattern, from around 700–1,400 kg for compact models to up to 19–20 tons for the largest specimens, which required substantial teams and specialized transport. Bore diameters generally spanned 13–22 cm for lighter bombards, extending to 60–90 cm or greater in massive examples designed to maximize destructive impact on fortifications. Projectiles for bombards were predominantly spherical stone balls, with weights commonly between 10 and 200 kg, though larger guns could propel shots up to 300 kg or more; iron or lead rounds were used sporadically for higher or penetration, but no uniform existed across these weapons. Muzzle velocities were estimated at 250–300 m/s, derived from period formulations and barrel designs that prioritized power over precision. charges scaled with bombard size, typically involving 0.5–5 kilograms of corned powder for smaller pieces, though massive bombards employed charges up to 177 kg to achieve effective propulsion of heavy stone projectiles. These weapons employed a simple muzzle-loading process, where loose corned was poured into the barrel, followed by a wad and the , which was then rammed into place manually. Ignition occurred via a wick or applied to a , with reloading times typically ranging from a few minutes for smaller pieces to 10–30 minutes or more for large bombards due to the labor-intensive cleaning, powder measurement, and ramming required after each firing.

Historical Development

Origins in the 14th Century

The earliest known depictions of gunpowder weapons resembling proto-cannons appear in the in , dating to 1128 CE, where figures wield tube-like devices that scholars interpret as early fire lances or hand-held firearms. In , the first documented evidence of cannon use emerges in the mid-1320s, with accounts of firearms employed during the Siege of in 1324, where cannons were reportedly used for the first time in . This is corroborated by the 1326 ordinances of , which reference the production and oversight of cannons, marking the initial institutional adoption in . An illustrated English manuscript from 1326–1327, Walter de Milemete's treatise De nobilitatibus, sapientiis et prudentiis regum, provides the earliest artistic representation of a European cannon, depicting a vase-shaped pot-de-fer firing a . Gunpowder technology likely reached through the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, which facilitated the diffusion of Chinese innovations across via captured engineers and trade networks, though direct transmission of designs remains debated among historians. By the 1340s, early cannons saw their first recorded English employment at the naval on June 24, 1340, where Edward III's fleet inventories list ribauldequins and other weapons, though their impact was minimal compared to boarding tactics. This was followed by deployment at the on August 26, 1346, during the , where English forces under Edward III used small wrought-iron cannons to demoralize French knights, despite their limited accuracy and slow rate of fire. Early European bombards were rudimentary devices constructed from longitudinal bars of forged into a tube and bound by iron hoops heated and hammered into place, a technique that allowed for larger bores but resulted in heavy, immobile weapons prone to bursting. Their size and inaccuracy confined them primarily to static roles, where they could batter fortifications from fixed positions, rather than mobile field use. Innovation likely stemmed from gunsmiths in like and possibly Flemish workshops in the , given early production records in both regions. By the 1350s, the technology had spread rapidly across , with incorporating bombards into royal arsenals by 1345, expanding production at the , and the documenting their use in conflicts like the of succession.

Peak and Evolution in the 15th Century

During the , bombards reached their zenith as weapons, benefiting from refinements in and propellants that enhanced their destructive potential. Builders increasingly employed thicker wrought-iron and hoops to form more robust barrels, mitigating the risk of catastrophic bursts under high-pressure charges. Improvements in , including early corning techniques that granulated the mixture for more consistent combustion, allowed for greater muzzle velocities and effective ranges extending up to approximately 1 kilometer, though practical firing occurred at shorter distances to maximize accuracy against fortifications. These advancements were demonstrated in key conflicts across . In 1415, deployed a substantial array of , including bombards, during the siege of , where sustained bombardment over six weeks overwhelmed the town's defenses despite disease ravaging his forces. The Ottomans exemplified bombard innovation at the 1453 siege of , employing massive pieces designed by the Hungarian engineer Urban, such as a 27-foot bombard capable of hurling 1,500-pound stone projectiles; these weapons, supported by platforms to absorb , methodically breached the city's ancient walls after weeks of firing. In during the 1450s, King James II integrated imported Flemish bombards into campaigns against English-held strongholds, notably at the 1460 siege of , where heavy barrages facilitated the castle's capture, though James himself perished from a explosion. By mid-century, the technology shifted toward cast-bronze cannons, which offered superior uniformity and reliability over wrought-iron bombards, relegating the latter to specialized roles as ultra-heavy guns for breaching the thickest walls. This evolution was driven by casting innovations, such as breech-down molding to eliminate impurities, enabling lighter yet more powerful ordnance. Bombards began to wane by 1500 due to their prohibitive costs—often exceeding those of entire field armies in materials and labor—and logistical challenges, as transporting a single large piece required dozens of horses and reinforced bridges, rendering them impractical amid the rise of mobile, versatile .

Use in Warfare

Role in Sieges

Bombards served as a cornerstone of siege warfare in the late medieval and early modern periods, primarily designed to demolish fortifications through the kinetic impact of massive stone projectiles, thereby complementing traditional tactics such as mining operations or besieging armies' efforts to starve out defenders. These large-caliber cannons targeted the structural integrity of stone walls, creating openings for assaults and shifting the balance of power from prolonged stalemates to more decisive engagements. Unlike smaller field pieces, bombards emphasized raw destructive force over mobility, making them indispensable for attackers facing robust defenses like those of in 1453, where Ottoman forces employed them to breach the Theodosian Walls after traditional methods proved insufficient. Deployment of bombards demanded extensive logistical planning due to their immense size and weight, often requiring by wagon trains pulled by dozens of oxen or via ship for coastal sieges, with one 19-ton example necessitating up to 60 oxen and 200 laborers for overland movement. Once at the site, they were positioned 200–500 meters from the target to balance accuracy and safety, emplaced on reinforced wooden platforms to absorb , and operated by crews of 10–20 specialists who handled loading, aiming, and firing—tasks complicated by the need to mix components on-site to prevent degradation during transit. These operations were labor-intensive, with platforms often requiring repairs after each shot, limiting firing rates to as few as five rounds per day for the largest pieces. In terms of effectiveness, bombards excelled at reducing thick stone walls over sustained barrages, as demonstrated at the 1453 Siege of , where a 27-foot bombard firing 1,500-pound stone balls created multiple breaches, including gaps of 2–3 meters in the outer defenses after weeks of bombardment, ultimately enabling the Ottoman breakthrough. However, their success was tempered by vulnerabilities to from defenders' or archers, as the guns' immobility and need for proximity exposed them to retaliatory strikes, sometimes resulting in explosions or abandonment under pressure. By the mid-15th century, refinements in design, such as stronger , enhanced their reliability in such scenarios. Beyond physical destruction, bombards exerted a profound psychological impact on besieged populations, with the deafening roar of discharges—reaching volumes that could be heard miles away—and the sight of crumbling walls instilling terror and demoralization, often accelerating surrenders in extended sieges by eroding defenders' resolve and . This amplified the weapon's strategic value, as constant disrupted , heightened anxiety, and symbolized inevitable defeat, contributing to higher capitulation rates without full-scale assaults.

Employment in Field Battles

The employment of bombards in field battles was rare owing to their immense weight, often exceeding several tons, which necessitated by teams of or oxen and severely limited mobility during open engagements. These large-caliber muzzle-loaders were primarily transported behind advancing armies and deployed for indirect anti-personnel or to demoralize formations through noise and smoke, rather than for precise targeting, as their slow reloading times—often 10 to per shot—rendered them ineffective against fast-moving or . In mobile scenarios, bombards were positioned on flanks or rearward to provide , but their vulnerability to counterattacks and logistical demands confined their use to defensive or semi-static positions. One of the earliest documented instances occurred at the in 1346, where English forces under III employed at least two primitive bombards—possibly ribauldequins or early cannons—to disrupt French advances, firing a few ineffective shots that primarily served a psychological role amid the chaos of volleys. Their impact was minimal, with chronicler noting the discharges but emphasizing their lack of decisive effect on the battlefield outcome. Similarly, during the of the 1420s, Bohemian forces under Jan Žižka adapted lighter variants of bombards, such as the haufnitze (8-12 inch bore), mounting them on reinforced war wagons within defensive tabors to deliver canister-shot volleys against crusader charges, enabling sustained fire in open-field defenses like the in 1420. To mitigate mobility issues, gunners developed shorter-barreled bombards and related field pieces by the mid-15th century, allowing quicker setup times of under five minutes and easier integration, though these adaptations often led to high rates from barrel overheating during rapid fire or powder misfires due to inconsistent . Such unreliability, combined with the pieces' limited range—typically under 500 yards in field conditions—meant bombards contributed only marginally to field victories compared to their dominance in sieges, ultimately hastening the transition to lighter, more reliable culverins and falconets by the .

Notable Examples

Western European Bombards

One of the most iconic Western European bombards is the Mons Meg, forged around 1449 in Mons, Flanders, by gunsmith Jehan Cambier on commission from Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Gifted to King James II of Scotland in 1457, this wrought-iron bombard featured a barrel constructed from longitudinal staves bound by iron hoops, with an overall length of approximately 4 meters and a weight of about 6 tons. It was designed to fire large stone projectiles weighing up to 150 kg, achieving ranges of up to 2,867 yards with stone shot at a 45-degree elevation. The weapon saw active service in Scottish sieges, including the capture of Dumbarton Castle in 1489 and the bombardment of Norham Castle in 1497, where its massive projectiles proved decisive in breaching fortifications. Today, Mons Meg resides in Edinburgh Castle, where it has been preserved since its return from the Tower of London in 1829, following a burst during a ceremonial firing in 1680. Another significant example is the Bodiam bombard, an early English-made artillery piece dating to the late 14th or early 15th century, likely produced for defensive use at Bodiam Castle in Sussex. This wrought-iron bombard measures about 1.8 meters in length and was capable of launching projectiles weighing around 50 kg from a bore of approximately 36 cm, making it suitable for castle defense against infantry or lighter fortifications. Unlike larger bombards, its more compact design reflected evolving English artillery needs during the Hundred Years' War era, emphasizing mobility for regional conflicts. The piece, excavated from Bodiam Castle, is now preserved at the Royal Artillery Museum in Woolwich, where it stands as one of the earliest surviving examples of native English cannon-making. In 1513, King of commissioned the Twelve Apostles, a set of 12 large iron bombards crafted by Italian founder Geronimo di Giorgio Foscari (also known as Jeronimo Fustobald) specifically for the invasion of . Each bombard weighed roughly 3 tons and featured ornate decorations, including biblical motifs and royal insignia, underscoring their role as symbols of Tudor power as much as military tools. Designed for warfare, they fired heavy stone or iron shots to demolish enemy defenses, contributing to the English capture of Thérouanne and during the campaign. Though few survive intact, their production marked a shift toward standardized, founder-specific in , influencing later English ordnance.

Eastern and Ottoman Examples

In the , advanced bronze-casting techniques enabled the production of massive bombards that revolutionized siege warfare, exemplified by 's bombard deployed during the 1453 Siege of . Crafted by the Hungarian engineer for Sultan , this weapon featured a length exceeding 27 feet (8.2 meters), an 8-inch-thick barrel, and a 30-inch bore capable of launching 600-pound marble projectiles over a mile with a firing rate of up to seven shots per day after cooling with . Its repeated barrages breached the city's Theodosian Walls, contributing decisively to the fall of and the end of the , though the gun itself exploded after about two months of use due to structural stress. Building on this design, the , cast in 1464 by Munir Ali for Sultan Mehmed II's forces, represented a refined iteration of Ottoman artillery prowess. This bronze bombard measured 5.18 meters in overall length, with a 63.5 cm bore and a total weight of approximately 17 tons (barrel at 8.13 tons and breech at 8.94 tons), allowing it to fire 306.6 kg stone shot using a 22.4 kg powder charge. Modeled after Orban's weapon and employed in coastal defenses like the forts, it underscored Ottoman innovations in large-caliber siege pieces, later gifted to in 1868. Further east, Russian reached monumental scales with the , forged in 1586 by Andrei Chokhov during the reign of Tsar Feodor I. This symbolic bombard boasted a 5.34-meter barrel length, an 89 cm internal bore, and a staggering 39-ton weight, designed to hurl 890 mm stone balls though it was never fired in combat and served primarily as a ceremonial deterrent outside the . Its ornate decorations and immense size highlighted ambitions in gun founding, contrasting with more practical Ottoman field applications. In , early advancements in cast-iron predated many European developments, as seen in an early bombard produced around 1377 during the . Approximately one meter long and weighing over 150 kg, this pear-shaped piece featured four trunnions for mounting and a bore suitable for projectiles, marking an efficient use of iron casting for siege and defensive roles that influenced regional weaponry. These pieces emphasized conceptual shifts toward durable, mass-producible ordnance in Eastern contexts, differing from the wrought-iron hoops common in Western bombards.

References

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  38. http://www.theobservationpost.com/blog/?p=352
  39. http://www.warfareeast.co.uk/main/Hussite_Tactics_and_Organisation.htm
  40. https://www.medievalists.net/2019/01/wagenberg-war-wagons/
  41. https://www.warhistoryonline.com/history/military-reforms-of-king-henry-the-eighth-m.html
  42. https://www.historyanswers.co.uk/medieval-renaissance/ottoman-super-cannon-the-bombard-that-built-an-empire/
  43. https://www.silverhawkauthor.com/post/artillery-in-russia-tsar-cannon
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