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Kabanos
Kabanos
Kabanos
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Kabanos
Polish kabanos
Alternative namesCabanossi, kabana, cabano
TypeSausage
CourseAppetizer, main
Place of originPoland[1][2][3]
Serving temperatureHot, cold
Main ingredientsPork
  •   Media: Kabanos

Kabanos (/kəˈbænəs/; Polish: [kaˈbanɔs] ⓘ, plural: kabanosy), also known as cabanossi or kabana, is a long, thin, dry sausage usually made of pork which originated in Poland. They are smoky in flavor, and can be soft or very dry in texture depending on freshness. Typically, they are quite long, 60 cm (24 in), but very thin, with a diameter around 1 cm (1⁄2 in), and folded in two, giving them a characteristic appearance. Versions made of chicken and turkey are staples in kosher meat markets and delicatessens.

Etymology and history

[edit]

The name comes from the word kaban, an old obsolete term used in eastern parts of Poland for a young male pig fattened with potatoes specially for making this kind of sausage (hence kabanos, 'made of kaban'). The word kaban with a similar meaning is also present in other neighbouring languages; it was initially loaned from Turkic languages where it denotes a boar[4] (compare Tatar: kaban, Azerbaijani: qaban, Kazakh: қабан, cognate with Turkish: yaban).

Kabanosy are known to have been produced since medieval times at least, and because of their long-lasting capabilities they were considered perfect food for soldiers and travellers, which is reflected by kabanos' design traits: thinness, usually very extended length, and shape in which they are always kept. According to some historians, they were hung around the neck like a necklace, allowing horsemen to eat on the go without stopping for a food break. For the same reason, they were also used as hiking food and are very common among Gorals. Tighter, smaller wraps of long kabanosy — as sold nowadays — were also common among foot soldiers (and travellers). Smaller kabanos wrapping allowed it to be "worn" on a wrist and eaten while marching.

Nowadays, kabanosy are made using different spices, and come in many different flavours. Before the 20th century, various spices were also being used in the production of kabanosy, giving them locally distinct tastes, which differed between various regions of Poland.

Modern times

[edit]

Production of kabanosy requires a minimum of 150 grams (5.3 oz) of best grade pork meat to make 100 grams (3.5 oz) of sausage, which is known today as the "minimum of 3:2 ratio". This is required because of the loss of some of the water contained within the meat used to prepare the raw sausage, which evaporates during the long process of meat smoking.[5] Nowadays almost every Polish manufacturer of kabanosy describes on the packaging at which ratio their sausage was made; for example, the manufacturer Kania states that "157 grams of meat was used to make 100 grams of kabanosy".[6]

The two main types of kabanosy include a slightly "softer" and more common type (smoked much less, just for the taste), and a "harder" type (much drier than the softer ones), which are smoked for a very long time, basically until bending the sausage becomes difficult (to the point that it cracks when someone attempts to bend it). Because of the long and thorough smoking process, the "harder" kabanos type is extremely long-lasting and does not spoil as quickly as most other meats without preservatives.

Furthermore, kabanosy are also categorized into two other main types, depending on the amount of spices used: "hot" (very spicy) and "mild" (less spicy). Both "harder" and "softer" types of kabanosy come in "hot" or "mild", since the "hardness" of the sausage comes only from the length of its smoking time, but otherwise the two are made of the same ingredients.

According to modern recipes, kabanosy are seasoned with different spices, such as black pepper, chili, and others. Unlike other meats, these sausages are typically eaten alone as an appetiser or are often served with cheese. Although kabanosy can be cooked with other food, they are usually served cold only. Only if no other meat were available to Polish travelers or soldiers would they then have sliced kabanos into small pieces to cook them with vegetables, buckwheat, millet, potatoes, or whatever else was available.

Some manufacturers have created sausages made with the same process as kabanosy, but have substituted the traditional pork with other meat (mainly poultry). Due to their distinct shape and look, they are often called kabanosy, too, with the addition of the name of the meat they contain, such as kabanosy z kurczaka, 'chicken kabanosy'.

Serving

[edit]
German Cabanossi

It is commonly cut into bite-sized chunks and eaten cold as an appetiser or snack, often with cheese and crackers. Small kabanosy, called mini-kabanosy, are also available. Sliced kabanosy is also a popular pizza topping.[where?]

Distribution

[edit]

The kabanos sausage is mostly found in Southern, Central and Eastern European countries from the Adriatic Sea to the Baltic states, and is also very popular in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Israel, and Peru, where the sausage is one of the most prevalent dried sausages. In Central and Eastern Europe, kabanos is mostly consumed as a snack. In Israel, because of dietary laws (Jewish kashrut and Muslim halal), kabanos sausage is almost exclusively made of chicken or turkey. Kabanos is also fairly popular in Colombia, where it is called cábano.

Traditional Speciality Guaranteed: Kabanosy staropolskie

[edit]

After the accession of Poland to the European Union, Poland and Germany became involved in a trade dispute over the name kabanos (due to a German claim to the traditional Polish recipe).[7] In 2011, when Polish manufacturers submitted scientific proofs of kabanos' Polish origins, the EU registered Kabanosy staropolskie as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed on request of Poland.[8] This status does not forbid manufacturers from other countries to produce and sell kabanos under that name, but demands that when using the name Kabanosy staropolskie, it is made according to specified "time-honoured recipes".[9]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Kabanos

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Kabanos, also spelled kabanosy, is a traditional Polish dry-cured sausage distinguished by its slender, elongated form, intense smoky flavor, and firm, chewy consistency. Primarily crafted from lean meat with minimal fat content, it undergoes curing with salt and spices such as and , followed by and extended to achieve its preserved quality. The name derives from "kabanek," a Polish term for a young, plump suitable for sausage production. Originating in Poland, kabanos has become a staple snack food consumed cold, often paired with or as a standalone treat due to its portability and long without once properly dried. Traditional preparation involves grinding high-quality —typically from the or butt—into a fine mixture, stuffing it into narrow casings (around 20-26 mm diameter), and subjecting it to cold at low temperatures before air-drying for weeks to concentrate flavors and reduce moisture. This method ensures a low that prevents spoilage, making it ideal for preservation in pre- eras. While authentic versions adhere to pork-only recipes, commercial variants may incorporate , , or other meats, though purists emphasize the all-pork composition for superior and texture. Exported globally under names like cabanossi or kabana, especially in and , it retains its Polish roots as a symbol of Eastern European craftsmanship, with production emphasizing natural smoking over artificial additives in artisanal settings.

Origins

Etymology

The term kabanos derives from the Polish dialectal word kaban (or its diminutive kabanek), an obsolete eastern Polish and Lithuanian expression from the 19th century denoting a young male hog extensively reared and fattened primarily with potatoes for superior meat quality in sausage production. This nomenclature reflects pre-industrial farming practices in the region, where such pigs were selectively bred for lean, flavorful pork suited to dry-cured sausages, distinguishing the term's agricultural specificity from broader Slavic words for swine like wieprz. While some linguistic analyses trace kaban to a Turkish borrowing meaning "hog" or "wild ," its adoption in Polish dialects emphasized local porcine rearing traditions rather than direct Ottoman influence, evolving into a specialized meat-processing descriptor by the late 19th to early 20th centuries. In non-Polish contexts, adaptations like cabanossi or kabana often diverge etymologically and compositionally, incorporating or altering preparation, underscoring the Polish term's origin tied exclusively to potato-fed hogs rather than generalized nomenclature.

Historical Development

Kabanos first appeared in Poland during the interwar period, with production beginning in small-scale meat processing facilities in the 1920s and 1930s. This development coincided with efforts to efficiently utilize lean pork trimmings and cuts in rural areas, where resource constraints favored durable, preserved products over fresh meat that spoiled quickly without refrigeration. By the late 1920s, kabanos had spread nationwide, marking its transition from localized experimentation to a recognized sausage type valued for its longevity and portability. The product's dry-curing process—relying primarily on , salt, and without synthetic additives—proved advantageous during shortages, enabling preservation of scarce resources through extended amid disrupted supply chains and . Post-1945, under communist-era economic controls and ongoing food , kabanos maintained widespread appeal as a ration-stable , its simple formulation allowing artisanal continuity despite industrial centralization pressures. This era underscored causal ties between material deprivation and refinements in smoking and drying techniques, prioritizing empirical durability over flavor complexity. In the late , particularly from the onward, kabanos production shifted toward semi-industrial scales as state meat combines expanded output while retaining core traditional elements, though introduced minor variations in and intensity. This evolution reflected broader Polish , yet preserved the sausage's essence as a lean, snapped-textured preserved good born from necessity.

Production

Traditional Methods

Traditional kabanos production utilizes high-quality , primarily lean cuts such as , with formulations targeting 70-80% lean content to achieve the characteristic firm, chewy texture after processing. Essential ingredients include salt at 1.5-2% of meat weight for osmotic preservation, curing agents containing (modern cure #1 or historically saltpeter for color fixation and botulism inhibition), and spices like , , , , and occasionally . The process commences with grinding the chilled pork to a medium-fine consistency (3-6 mm plate), followed by thorough mixing with seasonings, cure, and ice water until a sticky emulsion forms, ensuring cohesion without binders. This mixture is stuffed into natural sheep casings of 18-22 mm diameter, producing thin strands that contract during subsequent steps. Sausages are initially air-dried briefly to develop a tacky surface pellicle, then cold-smoked over hardwood (beech or oak) at 20-30°C for 12-24 hours, which deposits phenolic compounds that inhibit microbial growth while initiating moisture reduction. An optional baking phase at 70-80°C follows, heating to an internal temperature of 68-72°C to further diminish pathogens. Final air-drying occurs at 12-15°C and 75% humidity until the yield falls below 68% of initial weight, yielding a low-moisture product with enhanced shelf-stability through reduced water activity. Recipes archived in Polish government records from 1945 onward, reflecting pre-1950 practices, prioritize these smoking and drying sequences for preservation efficacy in non-refrigerated conditions, with spices enhancing palatability secondarily.

Modern Adaptations

In large-scale production facilities, such as those operated by Tarczyński S.A. since its founding in the late , modern kabanos incorporates mechanical of trimmings, automated into casings via high-capacity fillers, and in climate-controlled chambers that regulate and to optimize and microbial control. These processes enable continuous output exceeding traditional artisanal batches, with efficiency gains from integrated lines that handle grinding, mixing, and encasing in sequence, reducing labor dependency while maintaining structural integrity through precise pressure controls. Commercial formulations often include standardized additives like sodium nitrite for antimicrobial action and color stabilization, alongside dextrose to fuel lactic acid bacteria fermentation, accelerating pH drop and ripening compared to salt-and-spice-only traditional cures. This shortens drying from the 3-5 days required in traditional recipes—achieving ≤68% yield at 14-18°C and 80% humidity—to as little as 1-2 days in optimized chambers by lowering relative humidity to 60% or below, facilitating faster moisture loss without excessive case hardening. Such adaptations ensure export compliance under food safety standards but introduce trade-offs, including potential nitrite-derived nitrosamine formation under high-heat conditions, though levels remain below regulatory limits in controlled settings. Empirical analyses reveal commercial kabanos variants with 3-5% higher content than traditional counterparts, attributed to optimized stability for texture and yield, yet offset by that extends unopened from weeks to 2-3 months refrigerated by minimizing oxidation and bacterial ingress. This , combined with use, prioritizes microbial stability over unaltered flavor profiles, yielding products with consistent firmness but occasionally diminished smoky depth due to abbreviated maturation.

Characteristics

Physical Properties

Kabanos takes the form of long, thin sticks of dry , typically stuffed into sheep casings measuring 20-22 mm in diameter, yielding a slender, uniform profile. The sticks are approximately 25 in length, twisted off at one end, evenly wrinkled along the surface, and commonly folded in two with a characteristic indent at the curve. The exterior surface displays a dark red coloration with a cherry tint, resulting from the smoking process, while the interior cross-section consists of dark red lean meat particles embedded with cream-colored fat. This structure contributes to a smooth yet dry and wrinkled outer texture. Extensive drying reduces the yield to less than 68% of the initial raw meat weight, imparting a firm consistency that produces an audible snapping or breaking noise when bent or broken, balanced by a tender and succulent chew. The water content is restricted to 60% or less, alongside fat not exceeding 35%, enabling room-temperature shelf stability through combined effects of dehydration, smoking, and fermentation.
PropertySpecification
Diameter20-22 mm (sheep casings)
Length~25 cm (folded sticks)
Moisture≤60%
Yield Loss>32% (from raw meat)
TextureFirm, wrinkled exterior; tender interior with breaking sound

Sensory Attributes

Kabanos possesses a pronounced smoky aroma resulting from cold-smoking over beech or oak wood, with volatile phenolic compounds including guaiacol, syringol, and their derivatives imparting the characteristic wood-smoke scent. These phenols arise during the pyrolysis of lignin in the wood, contributing to the product's sensory distinction from unsmoked sausages. The flavor is characterized by intense peppery heat from black pepper, alongside subtler contributions from nutmeg and cumin, yielding a spicy, savory profile that emphasizes the lean pork or veal base. Garlic notes, when included in seasoning blends, add mild pungency, enhancing overall complexity without overpowering the smoke. Sensory panels have noted these spice interactions as key to the sausage's authentic taste in traditional formulations. Mouthfeel features a dry, fibrous texture due to prolonged air-drying, which concentrates flavors and requires substantial chewing, differentiating it from moister, softer dry-fermented sausages like sucuk. This chewiness intensifies with extended drying times, as evidenced by evaluations showing higher intensity scores for attributes like consistency in products dried for 120 hours versus shorter durations. Empirical sensory assessments, including hedonic scales and descriptive analyses, rate traditionally smoked and dried kabanos higher in aroma authenticity and overall acceptability compared to variants with abbreviated processes or alternative smoking methods.

Varieties and Regulation

Regional and Commercial Variants

In various , kabanos production historically incorporated diverse meats beyond pork, including horse, beef, and lamb, particularly in rural areas where local availability influenced recipes. These adaptations were crafted in small-scale plants serving local markets, resulting in subtle variations in texture and flavor under the unified kabanos designation, such as blends yielding higher from potato-fed young pigs in some areas. Commercial variants have extended to poultry-pork hybrids, which facilitate shorter drying periods—often reducing process time by adjusting relative humidity from 80% to 60%—while achieving weight losses of around 40-50% similar to pork-only versions, though with lower average fat content (e.g., 23.5% in pork vs. reduced in hybrids) potentially impacting richness. Such formulations support higher yields in industrial settings, as poultry integration lowers raw material costs and aligns with demand for leaner profiles, evidenced by compositional analyses showing elevated protein levels (up to 29.5%) but altered sensory attributes like reduced smokiness. Modern extensions occasionally include venison-pork mixes for niche markets, preserving the thin (approximately 1 cm diameter) form while introducing gamey notes through traditional smoking.

Traditional Speciality Guaranteed Status

'Kabanosy staropolskie' received (TSG) status from the via Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2272 on 8 December 2017, entering the name into the register under Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 with reservation of name. This protection applies to Class 1.2 meat products (cooked, salted, smoked, etc.), restricting use of the full name to compliant products while permitting generic 'kabanosy' production without such designation. The product specification demands exclusive use of pork from specific cuts, natural sheep casings, traditional seasoning with salt, pepper, and garlic, dry curing, stuffing into thin links, cold over , and air without mechanical tenderizers, emulsifiers, or non-traditional additives. These methods, documented as originating in Polish practices from the (1920s–1930s), yield long, thin, wrinkled dry sticks with defined microbial stability via natural dehydration and , distinguishing them from industrialized variants reliant on chemical preservatives or accelerated processing. The application, published for opposition on 27 May 2016 pursuant to Article 26(2) of Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012, faced statements of opposition, including concerns over prior generic 'Kabanosy' TSG registration without reservation. These were resolved by December 2017, affirming the specification's specificity and non-dilutive character, thus safeguarding traditional composition against imitation while allowing non-TSG production elsewhere. The TSG framework thereby enforces verifiable production criteria, empirically linked to extended through controlled and smoke-derived antimicrobials, countering homogenization in commercial manufacturing.

Culinary Uses

Serving and Consumption

Kabanos is traditionally consumed uncooked as a standalone snack, served at without further preparation. This practice aligns with Polish customs for dry sausages, emphasizing their portability and convenience for on-the-go eating, such as during or outdoor activities where refrigeration is unavailable. Portions are typically small, with individual sticks or thin slices weighing 20-50 grams, making them suitable for aperitifs or casual nibbling. The sausage's firm, chewy texture allows it to be eaten whole or broken into pieces by hand, producing a characteristic snapping sound upon snapping due to the dried meat's fragility. Its preservation through extensive , , and curing enables long-term edibility without , with properly prepared kabanos remaining stable for weeks to months at ambient temperatures before drying out excessively, which historically facilitated its use in rural settings and by travelers. This durability stems from low levels achieved during production, reducing microbial growth risks empirically observed in similar dry-cured meats.

Pairings and Recipes

Kabanos pairs well with dark and mustard, which balance its intense smokiness and dryness with tangy acidity and hearty texture. In Polish , it serves as a zakąska alongside , where the sausage's bold flavors cut through the spirit's neutrality. Dark or fermented beers also complement kabanos by amplifying its wood-smoked notes through malty undertones and . In recipes, kabanos features in hearty stews like a Polish white and preparation, simmered with and spices for 45 minutes to infuse the broth with its concentrated pork essence. Slices can be added to , the hunter's stew of , fresh , and mixed meats, contributing smoky depth during extended low-heat cooking. For adaptations, kabanos benefits from brief grilling—about 30 seconds per side over high heat—to develop a crisp exterior while avoiding overcooking that could compromise its dry, chewy consistency. This method suits outdoor preparation, often paired with pickles or horseradish for added zest.

Nutritional Profile

Composition

Kabanos, a dry fermented pork sausage, exhibits a macronutrient profile dominated by protein and fat due to its low moisture content from extended drying and smoking processes. Per 100 grams, standard formulations provide 20-28 grams of protein, 26-42 grams of fat (with saturated fats comprising a significant portion, often 10-17 grams), and less than 5 grams of carbohydrates, primarily from minimal added sugars or starches in some commercial variants. This composition yields an energy density of 400-550 kcal per 100 grams, reflecting the concentrated nutrients after dehydration. Micronutrients in kabanos derive primarily from the pork base, including iron (approximately 1-2 mg per 100 grams) and zinc (2-3 mg per 100 grams), essential minerals bioavailable from animal sources. Sodium levels are elevated at 1.5-2 grams per 100 grams, stemming from salt used in curing for preservation and flavor enhancement. Additives such as sodium nitrite or nitrate (typically 50-150 mg/kg) are common in commercial products to inhibit bacterial growth and maintain color, though traditional recipes may rely more on natural fermentation and smoking with fewer synthetic preservatives. Variations between traditional and commercial kabanos show consistent energy density around 450-500 kcal per 100 grams, but lab data indicate traditional types often have higher dry matter and lipid content with reduced processing aids.

Health Considerations

Kabanos, as a preserved pork sausage, offers a stable source of highly bioavailable animal protein, which has historically mitigated malnutrition risks in regions lacking reliable refrigeration by enabling long-term meat storage and transport. In antiquity and medieval Europe, salting and drying techniques used in sausages like kabanos precursors ensured protein availability during scarcity, supporting hemoglobin production via iron and vitamin B12 content essential for red blood cell formation. These nutrients exhibit superior digestibility compared to plant-based alternatives, with meat proteins scoring near 100% on protein digestibility-corrected amino acid metrics. However, kabanos qualifies as a processed meat, classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a Group 1 carcinogen in 2015, based on sufficient evidence linking consumption to colorectal cancer via mechanisms like heme iron promoting oxidative damage and nitrosamines from curing agents forming during cooking. Meta-analyses of cohort studies indicate a relative risk increase of approximately 18% for colorectal cancer per daily 50-gram portion, though this translates to a modest absolute lifetime risk elevation from about 5% to 6% in high-consumers, heavily influenced by dose, overall diet, and confounders such as smoking or low fiber intake absent in many observational designs. Critics of alarmist interpretations, including reviews in Annals of Internal Medicine, argue the evidence for harm at moderate levels (e.g., occasional servings) remains weak and non-causal, with no randomized trials establishing direct links and risks overstated relative to established carcinogens like tobacco. High sodium content in kabanos—often exceeding daily recommendations in small portions—poses cardiovascular concerns through in salt-sensitive individuals, yet epidemiological data emphasize dependency on total dietary patterns rather than isolated foods, debunking blanket vilification absent proof of causality in low-intake contexts. Traditional consumption patterns in , involving sporadic rather than daily intake, align with findings that risks diminish below 20-30 grams daily, supporting moderation over avoidance for nutrient-dense preserved meats.

Distribution and Impact

Market Availability

Kabanos, primarily produced in Poland as the central hub for both traditional and commercial variants, dominates the domestic market where it is widely available in supermarkets, local delis, and convenience stores as a popular snack sausage. Major producers like Tarczyński S.A., the leading branded exporter of dried pork sausages including kabanosy, supply the bulk of domestic consumption while facilitating international distribution. Following the European Union's (TSG) designation for 'Kabanosy staropolskie' in June 2017 via Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/1106, production standards were formalized, enabling expanded exports under protected quality labels to over 30 countries. Core export markets encompass Central and Eastern Europe, including Baltic states like Lithuania and Latvia, as well as Adriatic countries such as Croatia, where proximity and cultural ties drive steady demand through regional trade networks. In Western Europe, particularly the United Kingdom, kabanos is accessible nationwide in major supermarkets, specialty Polish delis, and online platforms, with brands like Krakus and Sokolów offering vacuum-sealed packs for retail. Exports to the United States occur via EU-approved channels post-TSG, appearing in ethnic grocery chains and select big-box stores like Hy-Vee in the Midwest, though primarily limited to immigrant communities rather than mainstream distribution. Trade data indicates consistent sausage export volumes from Poland, with 94 shipments recorded from October 2023 to September 2024, reflecting growth in niche international availability facilitated by online retailers since the early . Pork-based composition restricts broader penetration into halal-preferring markets in the and , confining adaptations to variants that do not qualify under traditional TSG specifications.

Economic and Cultural Role

Kabanos serves as a niche, high-value product within Poland's processed meat sector, which recorded domestic sales of approximately €22.5 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach €25.5 billion by 2028. Exports of meat and edible meat offal from Poland totaled US$8.86 billion in 2024, underscoring the sector's international competitiveness, with dry sausages like kabanos contributing to value-added categories such as salted, dried, or smoked products. Companies such as Tarczyński S.A., holding a 68.1% market share in the Polish kabanos segment as of March 2025, have scaled production and exports to over 30 countries, generating group revenues of 2.07 billion PLN in 2024. This exemplifies how kabanos production drives revenue growth in specialized meat processing, with Tarczyński's focus on the category quadrupling its overall revenues over the past decade. Culturally, kabanos embodies Polish resourcefulness in meat preservation, originating from techniques dating to at least medieval times that enabled long-lasting snacks suitable for travel and storage without refrigeration. Its thin, dry format reflects practical adaptations to historical scarcity, positioning it as a staple in everyday snacking rather than ceremonial fare, with 89% of Poles consuming meat multiple times weekly in patterns favoring processed varieties. While not tied to specific festivals, kabanos aligns with broader Polish food heritage emphasizing hearty, portable proteins, as seen in urban markets and consumer preferences for traditional sausages. In rural economies, kabanos production sustains small-scale processors and traditional methods, countering by leveraging protected designations that promote regional specialties and local in meat processing. This supports fragmented agricultural structures where family farms supply , fostering resilience amid consolidation pressures, though empirical data highlights broader agri-food exports' role in stabilizing rural incomes rather than kabanos-specific metrics.

References

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  56. https://meatmaster.info/news/5-reasons-a-sausage-is-good-for-you/
  57. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Protein-digestibility-corrected-amino-acid-score-PDCAAS-for-12-protein-sources-source_fig1_359934312
  58. https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/cancer-carcinogenicity-of-the-consumption-of-red-meat-and-processed-meat
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  61. https://cancerletter.com/conversation-with-the-cancer-letter/20191004_3/
  62. https://world.openfoodfacts.org/product/92510777/kabanos
  63. https://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h5729
  64. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4698595/
  65. https://bebopvalue.substack.com/p/tarczynski-sa-tarwa
  66. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017R1106
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  72. https://www.volza.com/p/sausage/export/export-from-poland/
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  82. https://www.gov.pl/attachment/67bc8efa-68b0-4961-93f7-e7454029a35f
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