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Diagram showing climatic zone corresponding with those suggested by Aristotle.

The climes (singular clime; also clima, plural climata, from Greek κλίμα klima, plural κλίματα klimata, meaning "inclination" or "slope"[1]) in classical Greco-Roman geography and astronomy were the divisions of the inhabited portion of the spherical Earth by geographic latitude.[2]

Starting with Aristotle (Meteorology 2.5,362a32), the Earth was divided into five zones, assuming two frigid climes (the Arctic and Antarctic) around the poles, an uninhabitable torrid clime near the equator, and two temperate climes between the frigid and the torrid ones.[3] Different lists of climata were in use in Hellenistic and Roman time. Claudius Ptolemy was the first ancient scientist known to have devised the so-called system of seven climes (Almagest 2.12) which, due to his authority, became one of the canonical elements of late antique, medieval European and Arab geography. In Medieval Europe, the climes for 15 and 18 hours of longest daylight at summer solstice were used to calculate the changing length of daylight through the year.[4]

The modern concept of climate and the related term clime are derived from the historical concept of climata.

Ptolemy

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Ptolemy gives a list of parallels, starting with the equator, and proceeding north at intervals, chosen so that the longest day (summer solstice) increases in steps of a quarter of an hour from 12 hours at the equator to 18 hours at 58° N, and then, in larger steps, to 24 hours at the Arctic Circle.

But for the purposes of his geographical tables, Ptolemy reduces this list to eleven parallels, dividing the area between the equator and 54°1' N into ten segments, at half-hour intervals reaching from 12 hours to 17 hours. Even later in his work, he reduces this to seven parallels, reaching from 16°27' N (13 hours) to 48°32' N (16 hours).

Ptolemy's system of seven climes was primarily adopted in Arabo-Persian astronomy, by authors such as al-Biruni and al-Idrisi, and eventually by Amīn Rāzī, the author of the 16th-century haft iqlīm (lit. 'seven climes'), while in Europe, Aristotle's system of five climes was more successful. This view dominated in medieval Europe, and existence and inhabitability of the Southern temperate zone, the antipodes, was a matter of dispute.[citation needed]

Thirty-nine parallels

[edit]

To identify the parallels delineating his climes, Ptolemy gives a geographical location through which they pass. The following is a list of the 33 parallels between the equator and the polar circle (39 parallels between the equator and the pole)[5] of the full system of climes; the reduced system of seven climes is indicated by additional numbers in brackets. Both Ptolemy's latitude estimates and modern values are provided. Ptolemy never considered the impact of atmospheric refraction on his calculation of the length of the day. If you account for that and for the drift in orbital parameters since Ptolemy's time, his values are remarkably accurate, off by less than 30 arcseconds in most cases.

parallel clima Ptolemy's latitude actual latitude longest daylight location
1. 0° 0° 12 hours (equator)
2. 4°4' N 2°14' N 12:15 Taprobana (Sri Lanka)
3. 8°25' N 6°31' N 12:30 Avalites (Saylac, Somalia)
4. 12°00' N 10°42' N 12:45 bay of Adulis (Eritrea)
5. I 16°27' N 14°46' N 13:00 Meroe island
6. 20°14' N 18°39' N 13:15 Napaton (Nubia)
7. II 23°51' N 22°20' N 13:30 Syene (Aswan)
8. 27°12' N 25°48' N 13:45 Thebes
9. III 30°22' N 29°3' N 14:00 Lower Egypt
10. 33°18' N 32°4' N 14:15 Phoenicia
11. IV 36°00' N 34°53' N 14:30 Rhodes
12. 38°35' N 37°29' N 14:45 Smyrna
13. V 40°56' N 39°53' N 15:00 Hellespont
14. 43°04' N 42°5' N 15:15 Massalia (Marseille)
15. VI 45°01' N 44°7' N 15:30 the middle of the Euxine Sea
16. 46°51' N 45°59' N 15:45 Istros (Danube)
17. VII 48°32' N 47°43' N 16:00 the mouths of Borysthenes (Dnieper)
18. 50°04' N 49°18' N 16:15 Maeotian Lake (Sea of Azov)
19. 51°06' N 50°45' N 16:30 the southern shore of Britannia
20. 52°50' N 52°6' N 16:45 mouths of the Rhine
21. 54°1' N 53°20' N 17:00 mouths of the Tanais river (Don)
22. 55° N 54°29' N 17:15 Brigantion in Britannia
23. 56° N 55°32' N 17:30 the middle of Great Britain
24. 57° N 56°30' N 17:45 Katouraktonion in Britannia
25. 58° N 57°24' N 18:00 the southern part of Britannia Minor[6]
26. 59° N 59°0' N 18:30 the middle part of Britannia Minor[6]
27. 61° N 60°21' N 19:00 the northern part of Britannia Minor[6]
28. 62° N 61°30' N 19:30 Ebudes island
29. 63° N 62°29' N 20 hours Thule
30. 64°30' N 63°59' N 21 hours unknown Scythians
31. 65°30' N 64°59' N 22 hours
32. 66° N 65°33' N 23 hours
33. 66°8'40"N 65°44' N 24 hours polar circle
69°30' N 68°48' N 2 months
78°20' N 77°27' N 4 months
39. 90° N 90° N 6 months (North Pole)

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Clime

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A clime (from the Greek klíma, meaning "inclination" or "slope") refers to a latitudinal band on the Earth's surface in classical Greco-Roman geography and astronomy, dividing the inhabited world into zones based on solar inclination, day length, and perceived habitability. The concept of a spherical Earth originated in ancient Greece around the 6th century BCE with Pythagoras. His ideas influenced Parmenides, who stipulated a partition into five primary zones: a central torrid zone uninhabitable due to excessive heat, two temperate zones suitable for human life, and two frigid zones too cold for settlement. Parmenides formalized this model by linking the zones to latitude and climate variations, emphasizing the temperate bands as the oikoumene, or habitable world. Aristotle further refined the system in the BCE, endorsing the five-zone framework while proposing an antipodal southern temperate zone, and associating each clime with differences in , , and human characteristics influenced by solar exposure. By the 3rd century BCE, advanced the concept through his accurate measurement of Earth's circumference (approximately 25,000 miles) and mapping of the habitable world's extent, roughly 3,800 miles north-south between polar circles. in the 2nd century BCE introduced the term climata more precisely, defining climes as bands between parallels where the longest day varied predictably—such as 12 to 17 hours—using astronomical observations to set limits. Ptolemy's 2nd-century CE works, including the and , standardized climes into 21 parallels, with seven principal climata north of the and one south, equating them directly to degrees and influencing medieval and . Later adaptations, such as the Islamic "Seven Climates" theory derived from , divided the known world into seven latitudinal belts surrounded by seas, integrating astronomical and cultural elements in geography. This zonal system laid foundational principles for modern , such as the Köppen system, by connecting to environmental patterns, though contemporary methods incorporate , , and temperature data beyond mere solar geometry.

Etymology and Definition

Origin of the Term

The term "clime" derives from the word klíma (κλίμα), meaning "inclination" or "slope," originally referring to the imagined tilt or slope of the Earth's surface from the toward the poles, which influenced regional environmental conditions due to the sun's varying angle. This etymology traces back to the klei-, signifying "to lean" or "incline," highlighting the geometric and astronomical connotations of the word in early usage. In medical literature, klíma first appeared around 400 BCE in the , particularly in texts like Airs, Waters, Places, where it described latitudinal zones or regions sharing similar climatic inclinations that affected human health and . These early applications emphasized how such inclinations shaped environmental factors, such as and seasonal variations, across different parts of the inhabited world. The word was adopted into Latin as clīma during the late Roman period, retaining its sense of a zonal division of the , and entered medieval European scholarship through translations of Greek and works. By the , it appeared in English via influences in scholarly and literary translations, evolving to denote broader geographical or climatic regions. The earliest recorded English usage occurs in Geoffrey Chaucer's works from the late 1300s, such as , where "clime" refers to habitable zones or realms with distinct environmental qualities, as in the Wife of Bath's Prologue describing age's effects across every "clime." Ptolemy's 2nd-century CE geographical system later popularized the term by systematizing climes as latitudinal bands, embedding it firmly in astronomical and cartographic traditions.

Core Concept

In ancient , a clime, or klimata in Greek, refers to a band of where the longest day of the year has a uniform length, which was believed to determine the region's climate, environmental conditions, and even the physical and temperamental characteristics of its inhabitants. These zones were conceptualized as strips parallel to the , with solar exposure varying systematically by to influence and productivity. Unlike modern understandings of climate, which emphasize long-term patterns, , and atmospheric dynamics, ancient climes were strictly latitudinal divisions that assumed deterministic effects on human society and nature, such as linking northern latitudes to melancholic temperaments or southern ones to lethargy. This framework treated environmental influences as uniform and inevitable within each zone, prioritizing astronomical observations over empirical meteorological . Key attributes of climes included their bounding by specific parallels of latitude, which served to divide the oikoumene—the inhabited world—into discrete regions presumed to share identical solar-driven effects on , , and human physiology. For instance, northern climes were often viewed as cold and inhospitable, limiting settlement due to excessive frigidity, while southern climes, particularly the near the , were deemed hot and uninhabitable because of intense solar heat. later standardized this concept by delineating seven such zones.

Ancient Foundations

Pre-Ptolemaic Ideas

Early civilizations in and demonstrated an initial awareness of environmental variations, including distinctions between equatorial heat and polar cold, through astronomical and meteorological observations dating back to around 2000 BCE. Babylonian records on clay tablets linked celestial events to patterns, such as hot winds and cold seasons, laying groundwork for qualitative understandings of regional climates without formalized zonal divisions. Similarly, Egyptian texts from the same period described atmospheric conditions like "hot air" near the and cooler northern influences, often tied to flooding and seasonal shifts, reflecting practical recognition of latitudinal differences in temperature. In Greek thought, these ideas evolved into more structured qualitative models. Parmenides, around the 6th century BCE, proposed the first systematic division of the Earth into five climatic zones: a central torrid zone scorched by direct solar rays, two flanking temperate zones suitable for habitation, and two outer frigid zones too cold for life. This framework emphasized habitability as a key criterion, with the torrid zone deemed uninhabitable due to excessive heat and the frigid zones due to perpetual cold. Herodotus, writing circa 440 BCE, described regional climates observationally, noting extreme heat in southern lands like India as a barrier to exploration and settlement, though he retained a flat-Earth view that limited zonal precision. Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BCE refined these ideas by measuring at approximately 252,000 stadia (roughly 25,000 miles or 40,000 km) and mapping the extent of the habitable world (oikoumene) as spanning about 3,800 miles (6,100 km) north-south between the polar circles. in the BCE introduced the term climata more precisely, defining climes as latitudinal bands between parallels where the longest day varied predictably—for instance, from 12 to 17 hours—based on astronomical observations to establish limits. Posidonius, around 100 BCE, advanced these notions by qualitatively associating latitude with variations in day length, observing that longer summer days in northern regions correlated with cooler climates and influenced human customs and physiques. He critiqued earlier models for overestimating uninhabitable areas, suggesting the torrid zone's extremes were not absolute barriers based on reports of distant peoples. This period marked a conceptual transition from mythical to empirical observation. Legends like , a northern paradise beyond the cold winds yet bordering uninhabitable extremes, gave way to accounts grounded in traveler reports, prioritizing the uninhabitability of polar and equatorial fringes due to and extremes. These qualitative theories influenced subsequent refinements in zonal .

Aristotelian Influence

In his Meteorology (c. 350 BCE), Aristotle proposed a foundational model dividing the into five climatic zones based on and solar exposure. These consisted of a central encircling the , deemed uninhabitable due to excessive heat from the sun's vertical rays; two temperate zones flanking it to the north and south, suitable for human life owing to moderate temperatures; and two frigid zones near the poles, rendered uninhabitable by extreme cold. This zonal framework marked a systematic advance in understanding global climate patterns, emphasizing the 's sphericity and the sun's annual path between the . Aristotle attributed temperature variations across these zones to differences in solar inclination and day length. In the northern and southern extremities, longer summer days and shorter winter ones resulted in seasonal extremes, while the sun's lower angle in polar regions produced oblique rays that provided less direct heating, cooling the air more effectively. He asserted that the air is colder in the north because the sun is lower, illustrating how geometric astronomy informed his meteorological theory. This explanation tied to terrestrial conditions, positing that the sun's proximity and angle determined the balance of heat and cold essential for atmospheric phenomena. Aristotle extended his zonal model to , arguing that the temperate zones fostered the optimal conditions for civilization and intellectual development. In these regions, the balanced promoted physical vigor and mental acuity, enabling political organization and cultural flourishing, whereas the extremes of the torrid and frigid zones hindered such progress. He further linked zonal s to ethnic and cultural differences, noting that northern peoples were spirited but lacked skill and organization due to cold-induced robustness without refinement, while southerners possessed intelligence and artistic inclinations but were prone to subjugation from heat-softened resolve; the , in the intermediate temperate band, exemplified the ideal synthesis. This profoundly shaped later geographical thought, serving as a precursor to more precise latitudinal divisions in antiquity.

Ptolemy's Framework

The Seven Climes

In his Almagest (Book II, Chapter 12, c. 150 CE), Ptolemy formalized the concept of climes as latitudinal zones on Earth distinguished by the progressive increase in the length of the longest summer day, measured in equinoctial hours. These zones served as a systematic framework for dividing the inhabited world, or oikoumene, primarily in the northern hemisphere. Ptolemy identified seven such climes, with defining parallels at approximately 16°25′N, 23°50′N, 31°20′N, 36°20′N, 40°55′N, 48°30′N, and 66°N, where the longest day is 13, 13.5, 14, 15, 16, 18, and 24 hours, respectively. The first clime encompasses equatorial-adjacent regions, including Meroë in ancient Nubia (modern Sudan), while the seventh extends to the northern periphery of the known world, reaching Thule—often associated with Iceland or the Faroe Islands. This structure emphasized the habitable portion of the Earth, bounded by astronomical limits rather than arbitrary lines. The primary purposes of the seven climes were to support astronomical computations, such as calculating the times of stellar risings and settings or predicting visibility across regions, and to provide a basis for geographical mapping by establishing reference parallels. In his astrological treatise (Book II, Chapter 2), extended their utility by associating each clime with differences in celestial influences, linking them to variations in stellar visibility and human characteristics; for example, southern clime inhabitants were portrayed as shrewd and inventive due to proximity to the tropic, whereas northern ones were depicted as robust but less agile in temperament.

Subdivision into Parallels

In Ptolemy's Geography (c. 150 CE), parallels are employed as lines of constant to delineate the boundaries of climes with mathematical precision, facilitating systematic cartographic representation. These parallels refine the broader zonal divisions by providing a grid-like framework for locating places on the Earth's surface. Ptolemy's system utilizes 39 parallels, extending from the northward to about 66°N, with uneven spacing ranging from 0.5° to 2.5° apart to account for varying rates of latitudinal change in . This selection is predicated on increments of one-half hour in the length of the longest day at , allowing for a graduated progression from 12 hours at the to 24 hours at the ; for instance, the first parallel north of the corresponds to a longest day of 12 hours and 15 minutes at approximately 4°15'N. The seven climes are formed by grouping these parallels, such as the first clime spanning parallels 4 through 8. The calculation of these parallels relies on , as detailed in Ptolemy's , to correlate with solstice day length through geometric computations involving the sun's and the observer's position. Specifically, the arc of daylight is derived using the relation involving the cosine of the , operationalized by via his chord table (a table of chord lengths equivalent to modern sine values) for practical astronomical measurements like shadows. This method ensured that each parallel reflected observable celestial variations, enhancing the accuracy of latitudinal assignments. By assigning latitude and longitude coordinates relative to this parallel framework, Ptolemy enabled the precise plotting of roughly 8,000 known localities across the inhabited , transforming qualitative climatic zones into a quantifiable that supported the construction of regional and maps. This subdivision marked a pivotal shift toward empirical , grounding geographic descriptions in astronomical data rather than descriptive narratives.

Medieval Expansions

Islamic Adaptations

During the medieval Islamic period, scholars built upon Ptolemy's framework of seven latitudinal climes, refining it with mathematical precision and extending its application to broader geographical and astronomical contexts. ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 830 CE), in his Kitab Surat al-Ard (Book of the Description of the ), retained the seven climes divided by longest summer day lengths. This adaptation corrected Ptolemaic distortions, such as the Mediterranean's length, while integrating Indian and Greek sources for coordinate calculations. Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (c. 1000 CE) further advanced the system through superior , enabling more accurate determinations tied to solar observations and measurements. In works like Al-Qanun al-Mas'udi, he adhered to the seven climes but enhanced their boundaries using increments of half an hour in the longest summer day—from 12 hours at the to 18 hours at the northern limit—yielding from approximately 16°N to 66°N. He calculated the Earth's radius as about 6,339.6 km, within 0.5% of the modern mean value of 6,371 km. Al-Biruni's tables in this text detailed day lengths to the minute for clime midpoints, improving precision over Ptolemy's coarser divisions. Islamic adaptations intertwined climes with , associating latitudinal zones with planetary influences on and environment, as seen in humoral theories where clime-specific climates affected character. These concepts informed zij (astronomical handbooks), such as al-Khwarizmi's Zij al-Sindhind and al-Biruni's Al-Qanun, which tabulated solar, lunar, and planetary positions alongside clime-based day-length data for timekeeping, times, and casting. For instance, al-Muqaddasi assigned stars to each of seven regions in Ahsan al-Taqasim, linking to celestial influences for astrological predictions. This fusion supported practical applications like determination and calendar reform, emphasizing climes' role in unifying astronomy, , and cosmology.

European Interpretations

The revival of Ptolemy's concept of climes in medieval and Renaissance Europe began with the Latin translation of his Geography by Jacobus Angelus in 1406, drawn from a Greek manuscript that reintroduced the seven parallel bands of latitude to Western scholars and spurred a renewed interest in systematic geography. This translation, disseminated through manuscript copies and later printed editions, bridged ancient Greek knowledge—preserved and refined in the Islamic world—to European intellectual circles, enabling the integration of climes into scholastic and navigational frameworks. In medieval scholastic , the idea of climes was adapted to align with Christian cosmology and biblical , as seen in of Seville's Etymologies (c. 630 CE), where he outlined five climatic zones—two frigid and uninhabitable in the north and south, two temperate and , and one torrid and scorching in the equatorial belt—to interpret the inhabited world (oikoumene) as part of divine order and scriptural narratives of creation and dispersion of peoples. 's framework, echoing classical divisions while emphasizing habitability for theological purposes, influenced subsequent encyclopedic works and zonal diagrams in manuscripts, portraying the earth as a wheel-like orb divided into regions suitable for human redemption. During the Renaissance, European interpretations evolved with exploratory discoveries, as exemplified by Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli's 1474 , which applied Ptolemaic latitudinal bands resembling climes to calculate distances across the Atlantic, positing a shorter western route to and laying groundwork for transoceanic voyages. Later, José de Acosta modified clime concepts in his 1590 Natural and Moral History of the Indies, incorporating findings to refute the absolute uninhabitability of the by documenting equatorial lands populated by , thus expanding the temperate habitable areas beyond classical limits. Practical applications emerged in , where portolan charts from the late medieval period onward featured wind roses calibrated to 32 directional points, drawing on clime-based understandings of and seasonal patterns across bands to guide Mediterranean and Atlantic routes. These charts, such as those by Petrus Vesconte in the early , emphasized coastal details within clime-influenced zones, facilitating and by correlating wind systems with zonal climates.

Modern Legacy

Influence on Geography

The concept of climes, originating from Ptolemy's division of the into seven latitudinal bands based on the length of the longest day, profoundly shaped the standardization of grids in . These Ptolemaic parallels served as the foundational framework for representing spatial relationships on maps, influencing the development of projections that preserved directional accuracy for . Gerardus Mercator's 1569 projection, which adjusted the spacing of lines to maintain straight-line rhumb courses, directly built upon this grid system to address distortions inherent in earlier equal-area representations. This not only facilitated maritime but also established the basis for modern graticules, where lines form the universal coordinate network used in contemporary mapping. The zonal determinism embedded in climes—viewing the world as divided into parallel bands of varying —influenced later geographical thought by promoting a latitudinal of environmental variation. This approach bridged ancient ideas of tied to solar exposure and day length with emerging empirical observations of temperature distribution. Alexander von Humboldt's introduction of isothermal lines in , which connected points of equal mean annual temperature across the , represented a conceptual from Ptolemaic climes, shifting the focus from fixed latitude-based zones to dynamic thermal patterns while retaining the zonal paradigm of horizontal divisions. Humboldt's isotherms, first mapped in his 1817 publication Des lignes isothermes et de la distribution de la chaleur sur le , thus extended the legacy of climes into modern , enabling more precise predictions of ecological and human adaptability. In cartographic practice, the clime system left a visible legacy in early modern world maps, where latitude bands were annotated to denote climatic regions. Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (1570), the first modern atlas, incorporated such zonal divisions in its organizational structure and accompanying illustrations, grouping maps by continents while referencing traditional climate zones derived from Ptolemaic geography to contextualize regional differences. These annotations highlighted habitable temperate climes versus extreme polar or torrid zones, aiding readers in understanding global diversity. English editions of the atlas, such as those from 1601 and 1606, further emphasized zodiacal and climatic frameworks, reinforcing zonal thinking in visual representations of the world. During European colonial explorations, climes provided a predictive tool for assessing the of newly encountered territories, allowing explorers to infer environmental suitability based on . José de Acosta, in his 1590 Historia natural y moral de las Indias, applied the classical north-south climate zone paradigm to evaluate the , arguing that tropical posed challenges to European settlement due to excessive heat but could support with adaptation, thus guiding Spanish colonial strategies. This Ptolemaic framework, though challenged by anomalies like unexpectedly variable weather, informed decisions on and resource exploitation, as seen in English ventures where in the temperate forties were deemed promising for replication of European conditions. Such applications underscored climes' role in justifying and planning imperial expansion.

Relation to Contemporary Climate

The modern term "climate" derives etymologically from the ancient Greek klíma, meaning "inclination" or "slope," originally denoting latitudinal zones of the Earth distinguished by solar angle and habitability; "clime" emerged in the 16th century as a poetic shortening of "climate." During the 18th-century Enlightenment, influenced by expanded meteorological observations, the concept began evolving from rigid latitudinal divisions toward a focus on regional weather characteristics, fully shifting by the late 19th century to signify long-term averages of temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric variables. A foundational example is Wladimir Köppen's 1884 classification system, which defines climates empirically through monthly temperature and precipitation criteria rather than geographic position alone. This represents a key divergence from ancient climes, which were static bands tied exclusively to and assumed uniform conditions within them. Modern frameworks, by contrast, account for longitudinal variations, topographic effects like , and dynamic processes such as currents and air circulation, yielding diverse subtypes even within similar latitudes—for instance, Mediterranean climates in coastal versus arid interiors. Köppen's five primary groups—A (tropical/megathermal), B (dry), C (mesothermal/temperate), D (microthermal/continental), and E (polar)—illustrate this nuance, prioritizing biophysical thresholds over astronomical geometry. Lingering influences of ancient climes appear in enduring zonal nomenclature, where the "" echo the classical between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and "" with "temperate" zones extend the habitable belts beyond the . These latitudinal divisions retain utility in for analyzing solar insolation, as incoming solar decreases poleward, driving foundational gradients in global balance and temperature regimes. For example, 's world map of arid regions delineates zones that indirectly correspond to such bands, integrating deficits with latitudinal solar patterns to assess risks across continents. Ptolemy's seven-clime system, with its parallel-based subdivisions, stands as a conceptual ancestor to these evolutions in zonal thinking.

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