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Fibrous protein
Fibrous protein
Fibrous protein
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Tropocollagen triple helix

In molecular biology, fibrous proteins or scleroproteins are one of the three main classifications of protein structure (alongside globular and membrane proteins).[1] Fibrous proteins are made up of elongated or fibrous polypeptide chains which form filamentous and sheet-like structures. This kind of protein can be distinguished from globular protein by its low solubility in water. In contrast, globular proteins are spherical and generally soluble in water, performing dynamic functions like enzymatic activity or transport. Such proteins serve protective and structural roles by forming connective tissue, tendons, bone matrices, and muscle fiber.

Fibrous proteins consist of many families including keratin, collagen, elastin, fibrin or spidroin. Collagen is the most abundant of these proteins which exists in vertebrate connective tissue including tendon, cartilage, and bone.[2]

Biomolecular structure

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A fibrous protein is composed of long, repetitive chains of amino acids that are intertwined to form structures resembling rods or wires. These proteins are often insoluble in water, meaning they do not dissolve. This insolubility is due to the arrangement of their amino acids; many of the amino acids that are exposed on the surface of the protein are hydrophobic (water-repelling), which causes the proteins to clump together, or aggregate, in a watery environment.[citation needed]

A fibrous protein's peptide sequence often has limited residues with repeats; these can form unusual secondary structures, such as a collagen helix. The structures often feature cross-links between chains (e.g., cys-cys disulfide bonds between keratin chains).[citation needed]

Fibrous proteins tend not to denature as easily as globular proteins.

Miroshnikov et al. (1998) are among the researchers who have attempted to synthesize fibrous proteins.[3]

References

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Fibrous protein

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Fibrous proteins are elongated structural proteins characterized by their simple, repetitive three-dimensional architectures, such as α-helices, β-sheets, or triple helices, which enable them to form insoluble filaments, fibers, or sheets that provide mechanical strength, elasticity, and support to cells and tissues. These proteins contrast with globular proteins, which adopt compact, folded shapes for enzymatic or transport functions, as fibrous proteins prioritize extended conformations stabilized by noncovalent interactions like hydrogen bonds and, in extracellular forms, covalent cross-links such as bonds. They are ubiquitous in biological systems, comprising major components of the (ECM), , and protective barriers. Key classes of fibrous proteins include those based on α-helical coiled-coils, such as and , which form rope-like assemblies in , , , and muscle fibers, respectively, offering tensile strength and contractility. β-sheet-based fibrous proteins, exemplified by , create pleated sheets that yield exceptionally tough, lightweight materials in and silkworm cocoons. The triple-helical collagens, the most abundant proteins in animals, assemble into that impart rigidity to connective tissues like tendons, ligaments, bones, and . Additionally, forms flexible, cross-linked networks that enable recoil in dynamic structures such as arteries, lungs, and skin. The structural diversity of fibrous proteins arises from specific sequences that drive hierarchical assembly—from individual polypeptide chains to supramolecular aggregates—revealed through historical advances in and modern electron microscopy. Functionally, they maintain tissue integrity, facilitate force transmission, and contribute to biomaterials , with ongoing research exploring their sequences for designing novel therapeutics and scaffolds.

Definition and Properties

Definition

Fibrous proteins are a class of proteins characterized by their elongated, thread-like structures, formed by polypeptide chains that assemble into insoluble fibers providing mechanical support and structural integrity in biological systems. Composed of monomers linked via bonds to create linear polymers, these proteins are typically insoluble in water due to their extended conformation, which minimizes hydrophobic interactions with aqueous environments. Their primary role is to contribute to the , , and connective tissues, enabling tensile strength and elasticity in organisms. In contrast to globular proteins, which adopt compact, spherical shapes that facilitate and dynamic functions such as enzymatic or , fibrous proteins exhibit rigid, linear architectures optimized for static structural roles. Globular proteins often feature intricate folding with hydrophobic cores shielded from water, allowing mobility and specificity in metabolic processes, whereas fibrous proteins prioritize extended secondary structures like helices or sheets to form robust, elongated assemblies. This dichotomy in shape and underscores their divergent evolutionary adaptations: fibrous for and support, globular for interactive biochemistry. The concept of fibrous proteins as a distinct category originated in the early amid efforts to classify proteins based on physical properties, with the term "fibrous" coined through pioneering diffraction studies in the 1930s. British biophysicist William Astbury and colleagues applied this technique to natural fibers, revealing characteristic diffraction patterns that distinguished elongated protein structures from compact ones. A key milestone was the 1930s identification of as a prototypical fibrous protein, based on its unique patterns indicating a highly ordered, repetitive arrangement in connective tissues. These early investigations laid the foundation for understanding protein hierarchy, emphasizing fibrous proteins' role as polymeric chains of tailored for biomechanical functions.

Physical and Chemical Properties

Fibrous proteins exhibit distinctive chemical compositions that contribute to their structural roles, often featuring high contents of specific amino acids such as glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline, particularly in collagens where glycine comprises approximately one-third of residues in repeating Gly-X-Y sequences, proline about 13%, and hydroxyproline around 9%. These imino acids impart rigidity to the polypeptide chains, while hydroxyproline, formed post-translationally, enhances stability through stereoelectronic effects like the gauche effect. In keratins, cysteine residues are abundant, enabling the formation of disulfide bonds that provide cross-linking and mechanical resilience. Elastin, another key fibrous protein, is enriched in hydrophobic amino acids such as valine, alanine, and proline, which facilitate its elastic properties. Cross-linking is a hallmark chemical feature, with collagens and forming covalent bonds via lysyl oxidase-mediated oxidation of and hydroxylysine residues into allysine, leading to stable pyridinoline or desmosine cross-links that strengthen fibrillar assemblies. In contrast, keratins rely on intra- and intermolecular bridges between sulfhydryl groups, which can be modulated under physiological conditions to adjust tissue flexibility. These cross-links collectively reduce and enhance durability. Physically, fibrous proteins are characteristically insoluble in , attributable to their dominance of hydrophobic and repetitive sequences that minimize polar surface exposure, as seen in elastin's high proportion of non-polar residues that promote hydrophobic interactions over hydration. This insolubility ensures their persistence in aqueous biological environments, such as extracellular matrices. They also demonstrate high tensile strength and elasticity, with collagen fibrils exhibiting a of approximately 0.2–0.5 GPa under hydrated physiological conditions, reflecting their ability to withstand mechanical stress in tissues like tendons. provides reversible elasticity, enabling repeated deformation without permanent damage due to its entropic recoil mechanism. Under physiological conditions, fibrous proteins display notable stability and resistance to denaturation, with collagens maintaining structural up to thermal denaturation temperatures around 55°C, bolstered by content and cross-links that elevate this threshold to over 70°C in modified forms. Keratins show enhanced stability at low (below 3), increasing resistance to heat-induced unfolding by at least 5°C, which supports their function in protective tissues exposed to varying environmental stresses. Overall, these properties arise from their extended conformations and intermolecular interactions, conferring robustness against moderate fluctuations and temperatures typical of bodily .

Structural Organization

Primary and Secondary Structures

The primary structure of fibrous proteins is characterized by highly repetitive sequences that facilitate their elongated, linear conformation and subsequent assembly into stable fibers. These repetitions often consist of short motifs tailored to specific protein types, enabling efficient molecular packing without the complexity seen in globular proteins. For instance, in , the primary sequence features a repeating Gly-X-Y triplet, where occupies every third position to minimize steric hindrance in the tight helical packing, and X and Y are frequently or , which promote rigidity and prevent conformational flexibility. This motif was first elucidated in foundational models of collagen's molecular architecture. Similarly, keratins exhibit heptad repeats (a-b-c-d-e-f-g) rich in hydrophobic residues at positions a and d, which drive dimerization and coiled-coil formation. In silk fibroin, the sequence is dominated by alternating and residues, such as (Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ser)n, which supports the stacking of flat beta-strands. At the secondary structure level, fibrous proteins predominantly adopt extended conformations stabilized by bonds between backbone atoms, contrasting with the compact folds of globular proteins. Alpha-helices are prevalent in keratins, where two or more helices twist into a left-handed coiled-coil superhelix, with bonds forming intra-helically every 3.6 residues along the polypeptide ; this arrangement is reinforced by hydrophobic interactions between the heptad repeats, yielding a approximately 2 nm in . Beta-sheets dominate in silk fibroin, forming antiparallel pleated sheets where bonds link adjacent strands, creating a crystalline network that imparts tensile strength; the repetitive glycine-alanine sequence aligns side chains to allow close packing with inter-strand distances of about 0.47 nm and inter-sheet distances of about 0.57 nm. , however, features a unique triple-helical motif composed of three polyproline II (PPII) helices—left-handed, extended structures with 3.0 residues per turn and no intra-chain bonds—in which inter-chain bonds (primarily Gly NH to Pro CO) stabilize the right-handed supercoil, with a rise of 0.29 nm per residue. These secondary elements lack the disulfide bridges or hydrophobic cores typical of tertiary folds, maintaining the proteins' inherent linearity for fibrillar elongation. The repetitive nature of these primary sequences reflects evolutionary adaptations that optimize fibrous proteins for structural integrity and mechanical resilience. Such motifs likely arose through and exon shuffling, allowing for modular extension of sequences to enhance packing density and resistance to unfolding; for example, the Gly-X-Y repeat in collagens has been conserved across metazoans to ensure precise alignment in triple helices, minimizing loss during assembly. In keratins and silks, the periodic hydrophobicity promotes self-association via van der Waals and hydrogen bonding networks, an that predates vertebrate diversification and supports diverse biomechanical roles. This evolutionary strategy prioritizes simplicity and repeatability over diversity, enabling rapid biosynthesis and high-yield production in specialized cells.

Higher-Order Assembly

Fibrous proteins achieve their functional architectures through quaternary structures formed by the association of individual polypeptide chains or oligomers. In collagen, three α-chains assemble into a triple-helical tropocollagen monomer, stabilized by interchain hydrogen bonds and facilitated by the repeating Gly-Xaa-Yaa sequence, where glycine occupies every third position to enable tight packing. Similarly, keratins form heterodimeric coiled-coil structures via parallel alignment of type I (acidic) and type II (basic) α-helical chains, with hydrophobic interactions and charged residues driving dimerization in the rod domain. These amino acid repeats, such as the heptad motifs in keratins, underpin the initial multimerization steps. Supramolecular assembly extends these quaternary units into larger fibrils, fibers, and networks. tropocollagen molecules align in a staggered, parallel arrangement to form , with each molecule offset by approximately 67 nm (the D-period), resulting in characteristic banding patterns from alternating gap and overlap regions. In keratins, coiled-coil dimers associate antiparallel and staggered into tetramers, which further oligomerize into unit-length filaments (about 60-70 nm long) that elongate and anneal into 10-nm intermediate filaments, often bundling into tonofibrils. precursors (tropoelastin) into globular aggregates that mature into elastic fibers, incorporating microfibrils for guidance during assembly. Cross-linking mechanisms provide covalent stabilization to these assemblies. In keratins, disulfide bridges between cysteine residues in the head and tail domains link adjacent filaments, enhancing network integrity. relies on lysyl oxidase-mediated oxidation of to allysine, followed by between allysine residues to form bifunctional allysine aldol cross-links, or more complex tetrafunctional desmosines that interconnect up to four tropoelastin chains. These modifications render insoluble and resilient. The hierarchical organization of fibrous proteins scales from molecular to macroscopic levels, exemplified in fibers. Collagen triple helices pack into microfibrils (quasi-hexagonal arrays), which bundle into (up to 500 nm diameter), then fibers, fascicles (150-500 μm), and finally the entire enclosed by epitenon, with dense packing optimizing load distribution. filaments integrate into epithelial networks anchored to desmosomes, while fibers form branching lattices within extracellular matrices. This multi-level architecture ensures structural robustness across biological contexts.

Major Types

Collagen

Collagen is the most abundant protein in the , constituting approximately 25-35% of the total protein mass. As a prototypical fibrous protein, it exemplifies the insolubility and characteristic of this class. Its primary role in providing tensile strength arises from its unique , beginning at the molecular level. The basic structural unit of collagen is tropocollagen, a triple-helical formed by three polypeptide chains coiled into a right-handed superhelix. Each chain features a repeating Gly-X-Y sequence, where (Gly) occupies every third position to enable tight packing, and X and Y are often and , respectively. A single tropocollagen measures approximately 300 nm in length and 1.5 nm in diameter. These molecules self-assemble in a staggered, parallel arrangement to form exhibiting a characteristic D-periodicity of 67 nm, which manifests as alternating light and dark bands observable under electron microscopy. Over 28 distinct types of collagen have been identified, each tailored for specific architectural needs through variations in chain composition and assembly patterns. For instance, , composed of two α1 chains and one α2 chain, predominates in and , while , a homotrimer of α1 chains, is found in . These subtypes share the core triple-helical motif but differ in the length and interruptions of the Gly-X-Y repeats, influencing their higher-order formation. Collagen biosynthesis requires (ascorbic acid) as a cofactor for the of and residues, a essential for stabilizing the through hydrogen bonding. Deficiency in this vitamin impairs , leading to unstable and the disease , characterized by weakened connective tissues. Genetic defects in genes or processing can also result in disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, where impaired fibril assembly causes hyperelasticity and fragility in tissues.

Keratins

Keratins represent a major subclass of intermediate filament proteins predominantly expressed in epithelial tissues, where they provide mechanical resilience and barrier functions essential for tissue integrity. These proteins are encoded by 54 functional genes in humans, enabling diverse tissue-specific expressions that support roles in , , , and mucosal linings. Unlike other fibrous proteins, keratins exhibit a unique pairing mechanism that ensures structural stability across epithelia. Keratins are classified into two types based on their isoelectric points: type I keratins, which are acidic and smaller (molecular weights ~40-56 ), and type II keratins, which are basic to neutral and larger (~52-67 ). There are 28 type I and 26 type II genes, respectively. These types form heterodimers, with one type I pairing with one type II in a 1:1 ratio, a process critical for filament assembly and preventing homodimerization. This reflects their evolutionary divergence, with type I genes clustered on 17q21.2 and type II on 12q13.13. Structurally, keratin monomers feature a central α-helical rod domain of approximately 310 , flanked by non-α-helical head and tail domains that vary in size and contribute to filament interactions. The rod domain consists of four α-helical segments (1A, 1B, 2A, 2B) connected by non-helical linkers, characterized by heptad repeats (e.g., abcdefg motifs with hydrophobic residues at a and d positions) that facilitate coiled-coil dimerization. These heterodimers laterally associate to form protofilaments, which further assemble into apolar tetramers and ultimately 10 nm diameter intermediate filaments, providing cytoskeletal support in epithelial cells. Keratins exhibit distinct variants adapted to specific tissues: soft keratins, primarily expressed in epidermal and simple epithelia (e.g., K1/K10 in suprabasal layers), offer flexibility and are low in sulfur content; in contrast, hard keratins, found in appendages like , , and horns (e.g., K31-K40 and K81-K86 in follicles), possess high content (7-13%) that enables extensive cross-linking for enhanced rigidity and durability. Approximately half of the 54 keratin genes are specific to follicles, underscoring the specialization for protective structures. Mutations in keratin genes underlie at least 21 hereditary disorders affecting epithelial tissues, including caused by defects in K5 or K14, which lead to basal fragility and skin blistering. Other examples encompass pachyonychia congenita (K6A, K16, K17 mutations) and (K81, K83, K86 mutations), highlighting keratins' role in over 400 documented pathological variants. Evolutionarily, keratins demonstrate deep conservation across vertebrates, with ancestral type I and II genes present in the common ancestor of extant jawed vertebrates, enabling epithelial adaptations from aquatic to terrestrial environments.

Elastin

Elastin is an protein that forms an amorphous, cross-linked network essential for tissue elasticity, primarily derived from the polymerization of tropoelastin monomers. Tropoelastin, the soluble precursor, consists of hydrophobic domains rich in repeating sequences such as VPGVG, which adopt beta-spiral conformations that contribute to the protein's flexible structure. These beta-spirals, first proposed in models of elastin poly(pentapeptides), enable the irregular, non-crystalline arrangement that distinguishes elastin from more ordered fibrous proteins like . The assembly of begins with the self-association of tropoelastin through a called coacervation, where monomers aggregate into globular structures that align into fibers under physiological conditions. These aggregates are then stabilized by covalent cross-links formed by the lysyl , which oxidizes residues to create desmosine and isodesmosine bridges, enhancing the network's durability. The maturing elastic fibers integrate with microfibrils composed primarily of , forming lamellar structures that provide a scaffold for elastin deposition and overall tissue resilience. Elastin's mechanical properties are characterized by exceptional elasticity, capable of withstanding strains up to 150% of its original length while rapidly recoiling to its resting state. This recoil is primarily entropy-driven, arising from the that favors the collapse of flexible chains upon relaxation, increasing conformational compared to the extended state under tension. The cross-linking chemistry, involving lysyl oxidase-mediated bonds, further supports this reversible deformation without permanent damage. Elastin exhibits remarkable stability , with a of approximately 70 years, making it one of the longest-lived proteins in the and limiting its turnover after early development. Defects in or its associated components underlie disorders; for instance, mutations in the elastin gene cause autosomal dominant , characterized by loose, sagging skin due to fragmented elastic fibers, while fibrillin-1 mutations in disrupt microfibril assembly and impair elastin integration, leading to aortic aneurysms and skeletal abnormalities.

Biological Functions

Structural Roles

Fibrous proteins play essential roles in maintaining the architectural integrity of biological tissues by forming robust scaffolds that support cellular organization and tissue cohesion. In the , these proteins provide tensile strength and structural framework, enabling tissues to withstand mechanical stresses while facilitating interactions between cells and their environment. Intracellularly, they contribute to cytoskeletal networks that dictate cell morphology and dynamics. At the organismal level, certain fibrous proteins underpin specialized structures that enhance survival through superior mechanical properties. Collagen, the predominant fibrous protein in the ECM, forms hierarchical assemblies that support diverse tissues. In basement membranes, networks act as a selective barrier and scaffold, providing tensile strength to separate epithelial layers from underlying stroma and anchoring cells to . In tendons, fibrils align to form dense, parallel bundles that transmit forces from muscle to , comprising 60-85% of the tissue's dry weight and enabling efficient load-bearing. Similarly, in , collagen type I serves as a template for mineralization, where crystals deposit within fibrillar gaps, creating a composite structure that imparts rigidity and resilience to the skeletal framework. Elastin contributes to the structural framework of the ECM by forming cross-linked networks that provide elasticity and resilience to dynamic tissues such as arteries, lungs, and , allowing them to return to their original after deformation. Keratins, as proteins, form cytoskeletal frameworks that maintain cell and , particularly in epithelial tissues. These filaments to desmosomes and hemidesmosomes, distributing mechanical forces across cells and preventing deformation under stress. In muscle tissues, and assemble into fibrous thin and thick filaments, respectively, forming the sarcomeric units that underpin cellular contraction and overall tissue architecture. Keratins also establish protective barriers in and appendages, where they accumulate in the to create a tough, insoluble layer resistant to abrasion, , and pathogens. This keratinized envelope shields underlying tissues from environmental insults, ensuring epidermal barrier function. At the organismal scale, silk fibroin exemplifies fibrous protein architecture in non-vertebrate systems, forming the dragline silk of webs with exceptional tensile strength comparable to on a weight basis, enabling the capture of prey and for the web.

Mechanical Properties

Fibrous proteins exhibit diverse mechanical properties tailored to their biological roles, with providing high tensile strength for load-bearing applications and offering elasticity for dynamic recoil. , a key structural fibrous protein, demonstrates exceptional tensile strength, with ultimate tensile strengths typically ranging from 50 to 100 MPa in fascicles, enabling it to withstand significant mechanical loads without failure. This high strength arises from its hierarchical fibrillar assembly, which distributes stress effectively across multiple length scales. In contrast, elastin's tensile properties are characterized by a much lower ultimate strength, around 1-2 MPa, but it excels in extensibility, allowing strains up to 150-200% before breaking. Elasticity and viscoelasticity are prominent in elastin, which has a Young's modulus of approximately 0.1-1 MPa, facilitating efficient energy storage and dissipation during repeated deformation cycles. This low modulus permits rapid recoil driven by hydrophobic interactions and entropic elasticity, minimizing energy loss and enabling reversible stretching in tissues subjected to pulsatile forces. Viscoelastic behavior in both collagen and elastin manifests as time-dependent strain responses, with collagen showing higher energy dissipation due to molecular sliding and water-mediated interactions, while elastin's viscoelasticity contributes to damping in dynamic environments. These properties ensure that fibrous proteins balance stiffness and compliance, preventing brittle failure under varying loads. Fatigue resistance is enhanced by covalent s in fibrous proteins, which prevent progressive creep and deformation during prolonged cyclic loading. In , enzymatic cross-links like lysyl oxidase-mediated bonds increase stiffness and limit irreversible strain accumulation, as observed in arterial walls where reduced cross-linking leads to compliance loss over time. similarly relies on extensive desmosine and isodesmosine cross-links between tropoelastin units, allowing it to endure billions of extension-recoil cycles with minimal degradation, as in vascular tissues experiencing 35-40 million annual loading events. This cross-link network dissipates energy hierarchically, promoting long-term durability without . Mechanical properties of fibrous proteins are commonly assessed through uniaxial tension tests, which apply controlled tensile forces to reveal stress-strain relationships and modes. These tests, often conducted at physiological strain rates (e.g., 1-10% per second), demonstrate collagen's characteristic J-shaped curve, transitioning from toe region compliance to linear stiffening at 1-2 GPa modulus, followed by hierarchical via sliding and rupture. For , such tests highlight its hyperelastic response, with low initial modulus rising nonlinearly under large strains, and are complemented by cyclic loading protocols to quantify fatigue limits. Advanced variants incorporate for real-time observation of deformation mechanisms, ensuring accurate replication of conditions.

Biosynthesis

Synthesis Process

Fibrous proteins are encoded by extensive multi-gene families, frequently organized into genomic clusters that reflect their evolutionary divergence and functional specialization. In humans, the family exemplifies this, comprising 28 distinct types encoded by 43 s scattered across multiple chromosomes, with many forming tight clusters such as those on chromosomes 2, 7, and 17. These gene promoters often contain enhancer regions responsive to mechanical cues, including stretch and , enabling adaptive upregulation in mechanically loaded tissues like tendons and . The genetic coding regions of fibrous protein genes feature repetitive codon sequences that mirror the structural repeats in their chains, such as the Gly-X-Y triplets in collagens. Transcription initiates at these promoters via , producing pre-mRNAs that undergo splicing to yield mature mRNAs rich in repetitive codons. These mRNAs are then transported to the , where ribosomes facilitate , synthesizing linear pre-pro-polypeptide chains as the primary precursors. Synthesis of these precursors is localized to specific cell types tailored to the protein's role. Collagen pre-pro-chains are produced in fibroblasts, beginning on rough endoplasmic reticulum-bound ribosomes before progressing through the secretory pathway involving the ER and Golgi. Keratin precursors, by comparison, are synthesized in , supporting the formation of cytoskeletal intermediate filaments in epithelial tissues. Regulation of fibrous protein integrates environmental signals to maintain tissue . Notably, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathways upregulate transcription of extracellular matrix-associated genes like those for collagens, driving increased precursor production during and through Smad-dependent mechanisms.

Post-Translational Modifications

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of fibrous proteins occur primarily in the and , enhancing their stability, solubility, and assembly into higher-order structures such as fibrils and filaments. These modifications, including , , cross-linking, and proteolytic cleavage, are essential for the functional properties of proteins like , , and keratins. Enzymatic processes driven by specific cofactors and enzymes ensure precise alterations to residues, preventing misfolding and promoting interactions critical for tissue integrity. Hydroxylation is a key PTM in collagen biosynthesis, where specific proline and lysine residues are converted to hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, respectively, to stabilize the triple helix through hydrogen bonding. This reaction is catalyzed by prolyl 4-hydroxylase for proline and lysyl hydroxylase isoforms (LH1-3) for lysine, both requiring ascorbic acid () as a cofactor to maintain iron in the active site of these α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. Deficient hydroxylation, as seen in scurvy due to ascorbic acid deficiency, leads to under-hydroxylated collagen that is unstable and prone to degradation. In collagen types I and III, nearly all (approximately 100%) proline residues in the Y-position of Gly-X-Y repeats are hydroxylated to 4-hydroxyproline, contributing to the protein's thermal stability above 37°C. Glycosylation in fibrous proteins primarily involves the O-linked addition of carbohydrate moieties to hydroxylysine residues in , forming galactosylhydroxylysine or glucosylgalactosylhydroxylysine, which modulates and assembly. This PTM is catalyzed by galactosyltransferase and glucosyltransferase enzymes in the , occurring after but before formation. The extent of glycosylation varies by tissue; for instance, in , about 30-40% of hydroxylysines are glycosylated, influencing intermolecular spacing and preventing premature cross-linking. These attachments enhance collagen's resistance to and are crucial for basement membrane integrity in . Cross-linking stabilizes fibrous proteins by forming covalent bonds between polypeptide chains, with desmosine and isodesmosine in derived from four residues oxidized by lysyl oxidase to allyisine, followed by . This extracellular process, mediated by copper-dependent lysyl oxidase, creates tetrafunctional cross-links that impart elasticity to tissues like arteries and lungs, where desmosine content can reach 1-2 residues per 1000 in mature . In keratins, bonds form between residues in intermediate filaments, particularly in hard keratins of and , through oxidation often facilitated by peroxiredoxins or environmental factors post-assembly. These bonds, numbering up to 20-30 per keratin chain in alpha-keratins, provide mechanical strength and are dynamically regulated during keratinization. Cleavage of pro-peptides is a final extracellular PTM converting procollagen to mature tropocollagen, enabling formation. Procollagen N-proteinase (ADAMTS-2) and procollagen C-proteinase () specifically cleave the N- and C-terminal pro-peptides, respectively, in a sequential manner after . This processing, essential for types I-III, removes globular domains that inhibit premature assembly, allowing tropocollagen molecules to align and form quarter-staggered . Mutations in these peptidases, as in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type VIIC, result in unprocessed procollagen accumulation and fragile tissues.

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