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A Formula One car or F1 car is a single-seater, open-cockpit, open-wheel formula racing car used to compete in Formula One racing events. A typical F1 car is characterised by substantial front and rear wings, large wheels, and turbocharged engines positioned behind the driver. The cars are constructed of carbon fibre and other composite materials for durability and are built to withstand high impact forces and considerable G forces.

Early F1 cars were simpler in design with no wings, front mounted engines. These cars also required significant driver effort for control. Later improvements saw the introduction of lighter cars as resulted by metallurgical advancements, introduction of ground effect, and the addition of wings and other aerodynamic devices, and control electronics. The introduction of turbocharged engines in the sport along with higher efficiency, and energy recovery systems to boost speeds, led to faster and more efficient F1 cars.

Modern F1 cars are composed of carbon fibre monocoques with open cockpits consisting of a single driver seat and detachable steering. An F1 power unit, a 1.6 L turbo hybrid V6 engine, is capable of producing up to 950 hp (710 kW). This enables the car to reach speeds of up to 375 km/h (233 mph). It uses a semi-automatic gear box with an eight-speed transmission and electro-hydraulic components for steering the car. The 18-inch wheels are fitted with slick tyres during normal dry conditions, and are fitted with carbon disc brakes capable of handling temperatures of up to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). The wings act as inverted aerofoils to produce negative lift, resulting in increased down force.

The regulations governing the cars are specified by the FIA and have undergone considerable changes since their introduction in the late 1940s. The cars are constructed and operated by the constructors in racing events, though the design and manufacture can be outsourced. Since the 2000s, several changes have been made by the FIA, which are aimed at sustainability and cost reduction, such as the cap on car parts, usage of mixed fuel, and usage of energy recovery systems. It has also sought to reduce the downforce and limit speeds, while simplifying car design and improving close racing. Cars have also been made safer with durable materials, improvement in safety features and the recent addition of the halo.

History

[edit]
Further information: Formula One regulations
Early F1 cars were simpler with no wings and front mounted engines.

The early F1 cars were simpler in design with no wings, front mounted engines, and required significant driver effort for control. In the early 1960s, lighter cars with aluminum chassis were introduced with the addition of wings towards the end of the decade. In the 1970s, understanding of aerodynamics began to impact car design significantly, with the introduction of nose boxes in the front, and air boxes behind the driver to increase air flow to the engine. The advent of ground effect cars in the 1980s, allowed a significant increase in downforce with a small drag penalty. With continuous improvement in engines and the introduction of turbochargers, the cars produced an increased amount of thrust.[1] The maximum permitted width of the cars was 2,150 mm (85 in) with a 1,500 mm (59 in) front axle and 1,000 mm (39 in) wide rear axle, and the maximum width was reduced to 2,000 mm (79 in) in 1994.[2]

Following the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, a number of changes were introduced, which led to the development of modern day F1 cars. A 10 mm (0.39 in) thick wooden skid block was added on the underside of the body to enforce minimum ground clearance. In the following seasons, several modifications were introduced, the underbody plank was lengthened and a 50 mm (2.0 in) tall, 500 mm (20 in) wide block was added on top of the plank to minimize the ground effect. The height of the front wing was increased from 40 to 50 mm (1.6 to 2.0 in) and the maximum height was reduced to 200 mm (7.9 in) above the reference plane. A step wise design was introduced with reduced side pods, engine cowling, and exclusion zones were added around the wheels to prevent any bodywork in the area apart from the suspension.[2]

The structure of modern F1 cars developed in the 1990s.

Since the 1990s, improved electronics were incorporated to increase the efficiency, handling and reliability of the cars. Since the 2000s, with computer aided design, teams have been able to produce more efficient cars, with several changes aimed at sustainability and cost reduction, such as the cap on car parts, usage of mixed fuel, and usage of energy recovery systems.[1] In the 2000s, the front height was increased progressively to 150 mm (5.9 in) and the maximum width and height were defined as 500 mm (20 in) and 950 mm (37 in) respectively. Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) enacted further changes to the body structure over the subsequent years to improve racing such as changes to the structure and height of the front wing, and changes to the floor design. The governing body outlawed several structures introduced by the teams, including double diffusers, modified exhaust ducts, and extra aerodynamic elements such as sharklets, cooling slots, winglets and dive planes. Modifiable front wings were also trialled in 2009 and the drag reduction system (DRS) was introduced in 2011. The latest rules in the late 2010s introduced simpler front wings, which reduced the intake of dirty air from the cars in front, and enabled closer racing.[2] The underside of the vehicle was required to be flat between the axles with the wear of skid block limited to a maximum of 1 mm (0.039 in) during the race.[3] The latest regulations which came into effect in 2022 with the intention of enabling closer racing, simplified the aerodynamic components, which reduced vortices, and created more ground effect.[4][5]

Design

[edit]
Modern F1 cars feature elaborate aerodynamic elements.

The modern Formula One car is a single-seat, open-cockpit, open-wheel racing car with substantial front and rear wings, large wheels, and a turbocharged engine positioned behind the driver. The monocoque is constructed of reinforced carbon fiber, lined with kevlar and fire resistant materials to protect the driver from high impact crashes and fires. The driver cockpit consists of single seat with a detachable steering wheel in the front. A halo safety device mounted on top of the open cockpit was introduced in 2018. Two front and rear wheels are bolted to the suspension and the engine is mounted behind the driver. The front and rear wings are aerodynamic surfaces fitted on the extremes.[6] The minimum weight permissible is 798 kg (1,759 lb) including the driver, while fitted with dry-weather tyres and no fuel.[7][8] The cars are limited to dimensions of 5.63 m (18.5 ft) in length, 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in width, and 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) in height.[9]

Components

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Engine and fuel

[edit]
Main article: Formula One engines
A Cosworth DFV V8 engine fitted to a Tyrrell, used from the late 1960s to early 1980s.

Since its inception, Formula One has used a number of different engine regulations.[10][11] During the early years, a front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout was used with a 4.5 L naturally aspirated or a 1.5 L supercharged engine capable of an output power of up to 317 kW (425 hp). Progressively the engine capacity and power were reduced, and was limited to 0.75 L with compressor or 2.5 L without one during the late 1950s. In 1961, the engine was positioned behind the driver and the capacity was regulated to 1300–1500 cc with a power output of 150–225 hp without supercharging. In 1966, FIA increased engine capacity and allowed up to 3.0 L atmospheric with a power range of 290–370 kW (390–500 hp) or 1.5 L supercharged with a power range of 370–670 kW (500–900 hp). While the basic structure and configuration of a Formula One remained same since the late 1960s, the power output of the engines increased progressively to 1,000 kW (1,400 hp) at 12000 rpm in 1986. In 1987-88, turbocharged eight-cylinder engines were introduced alongside atmospheric engines with fuel caps for races introduced for turbocharged engines. Turbochargers were banned from 1989 with 3.0 L engines becoming the norm in the 1990s and led to the introduction of V10 and V12 engines.[11][12]

A four-cylinder 1.5 L turbo BMW engine from the 1980s.

The teams started constructing engine components using advanced metal alloys such as titanium and beryllium, which reduced weight and improved the efficiency and durability. FIA outlawed the use of these towards the late 1990s with only iron and aluminum permitted. The introduction of pneumatic valve springs in the same period allowed the engines to reach up to 20,000 rpm.[12] For a decade, the F1 cars had run with 3.0 L naturally aspirated V10 engines producing 730–750 kW (980–1,000 hp) of power with top speeds of up to 375 km/h (233 mph).[13] Though the FIA continually enforced material and design restrictions to limit power, the V10s in the 2005 season were reported to develop 730 kW (980 hp), power levels not seen since the ban on turbocharged engines in 1989. Before the 2006 season, FIA introduced a new engine formula, which mandated cars to be powered by 2.4 liter naturally aspirated V8 engine configuration, with no more than four valves per cylinder and banned variable intake trumpets. For the 2009 season, the engines were limited to 18,000 rpm to improve engine reliability and cut costs.[11][14] In 2012, the engines consumed around 450 L (16 cu ft) of air per second with a race fuel consumption rate of 75 L/100 km (3.8 mpg‑imp; 3.1 mpg‑US).[15]

Crash resistant fuel bladders, reinforced with kevlar are used.

For the 2014 season, FIA introduced 1.6 L six-cylinder turbocharged engines with a kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) to increase fuel-efficiency.[11][16] For 2022, a modified V6 configuration was introduced with a more powerful KERS.[17] Over the years, FIA has been gradually reducing the overall allocation of engines per season and with the increasing number of races, each engine is expected to last for at least 2,000 km (1,200 mi). FIA had also introduced standardization of certain engine parts and cap on engine components to reduce costs with grid penalties applied for drivers who exceed the allocation.[11] As per the current regulations, a maximum of five power units are allowed per season.[18] The engine is located between the driver and the rear axle and is bolted to the cockpit at the front end, and transmission and rear suspension at the back end.[12]

The fuel used in F1 cars is a mixture of unleaded petrol and ethanol with a tightly controlled mixture ratio. As a part of the regulation change in 2022, the ethanol content was increased from 5.75% to 10%.[19][20] Cars were allowed to be refuelled during the race till 2010, after which refuelling was banned. The cars are stipulated to carry a maximum fuel of 110 kg per race, with at least 1 kg to be made available to the FIA for post race inspection. Any abnormalities in the fuel or failure to provide the sample results in disqualification from the race.[21] The fuel bladder is made of high-quality rubber lined with kevlar for protection against crashes and is located in front of the engine, behind the cockpit.[22][23]

Steering and transmission

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A typical electronic steering wheel used in a F1 car.

A typical steering wheel used in a F1 car is an electronic control with an array of knobs, buttons and levers. It is made of carbon fibre with titanium, silicon, fibreglass, and copper parts. It has two driver handles on the sides with a LCD display in the center, LED gear shift lights at the top and gear shift paddles in the back. The steering wheel is used to control various functions of the car such as gears, engine revolutions, fuel–air mix, brake balance, differential mapping, among others. The display displays various data points including engine parameters, gears, temperature and time. The steering wheel is also used to access the radio and control the drinking mechanism.[24][25] It weighs about 1.3 kg (2.9 lb) and can cost about $50,000.[26]

The gearbox and rear suspension from a Lotus T127 in 2010 season.

While conventional manual gearboxes were used earlier,[27] modern Formula One cars use semi-automatic sequential gearboxes with a rear-wheel-drive. It has eight forward gears and a reverse gear operated with paddle-shifters.[28][29] The gearbox is constructed of carbon reinforced titanium, and is bolted onto the back of the engine.[30] Fully-automatic gearboxes, and systems such as launch control and traction control were banned in the 2000s to keep driver skill and involvement important in controlling the car, and reduce costs.[31][32] When the driver initiates gear shifts using paddles mounted on the back of the steering wheel, a system of solenoids, hydraulic actuators, and sensors perform the actual shift, and electronic throttle control. Clutch control is also performed in the same manner except when launching from neutral into first gear, where the driver operates the clutch manually using a lever on the back of the steering wheel.[33] The clutch is a multi-plate carbon design with a diameter of less than 100 mm (3.9 in), and weight of less than 1 kg (2.2 lb), capable of handling up to 540 kW (720 hp).[34] The cars use seamless shift transmissions, which allow almost instantaneous changing of gears with minimum loss of drive and a shift times of 2–3 ms.[35] As a measure to reduce costs, gearbox ratios are fixed for a season.[36][37]

Wheels and tyres

[edit]
Main article: Formula One tyres
Grooved tyres were used between 1999 and 2008.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Formula One tyres were treaded rubber tyres similar to the automobile tyres but larger.[38] In the late 1950s, cotton fabric was replaced with nylon fabric, which reduced weight and increased durability. In the 1960s, the tyres became wider and synthetic rubber was used along with nylon.[39] Slick tyres were introduced for the first time during the 1971 season.[40] In the 1975 season, the cars used 26.0"×16.2"–13" slick tyre (diameter × width) in the rear on a 13"×18" rim, and a 20.0"×9.2"–13" slick tyre in the front on a 13×10" rim.[41] For the 1981 season, the maximum diameter of the rear tyre was limited to 26.0", and the diameter of the front tyres was increased, with the tyres measuring 25.0"×10.0"–13" in the front and 26.0"×15.0"–13" in the rear.[42] Ahead of the 1993 season, the width of the rear was reduced from 18" to 15".[43] In 1998, grooved tyres were introduced with three groove lines in the front tyres and four groove lines in the rear tyres.[44] Between 1999 and 2008, regulations required the tyres to feature a minimum of four 14 mm (0.55 in) grooves in them, with the intention of slowing the cars down as the slick tyre, with no indentations, provides the most grip in dry conditions.[45][46] The tyre sizes were limited to 355 mm (14.0 in) at the front and 380 mm (15 in) at the rear, and the maximum diameter was 660 mm (26 in) for dry and 670 mm (26 in) for wet tyres.[47] Briefly in 2005, tyre changes during the race were outlawed and the tyre compounds were made harder to last the full race distance.[48]

Various compounds of colour coded slick tyres are used during dry weather.

Slick tyres were reintroduced at the beginning of 2009, with the front tyres narrowed from 270 mm (11 in) to 245 mm (9.6 in), to shift the balance towards mechanical grip in an attempt to increase overtaking.[38][49] Since the introduction of slick tyres in 2009, the tyre construct has remained almost the same with only variations to tyre sizes.[38] The teams are given a fixed number of sets of three compounds of slick dry weather tyres, and additional sets of grooved intermediate and wet weather tyres for a race weekend. The tyre compounds are demarcated by a colour coding, with the teams mandated to use at least two dry compounds during a dry race.[50][51][52] Briefly in 2016, teams were given an option to choose tyre compounds.[53][54] For the 2017 F1 season, significantly wider Pirelli tyres were introduced at both the front and rear axles, while the overall diameter of the tyres was increased from 660 to 670 mm (26 to 26 in). Front tyre size increased to 305/670-R13 while rear-tyre size increased to 405/670-R13.[55] For the 2022 F1 season, the wheel rim diameter size was increased from 13 to 18 in (330 to 460 mm), and the diameter was increased from 670 to 720 mm (26 to 28 in).[38]

A brake disc on a F1 car.

Disc brakes are used for braking, similar to road cars. The brakes consist of a rotor disc and a caliper, with six piston clamp pads inside each caliper. The driver applies pressure on the brake pedal, which uses hydraulic pressure to drive the clamps and the friction on the disc slows the car. The front brakes are simpler with direct pressure applied onto the brake discs to slow down. In the rear, braking is achieved by the combination of three forces, friction on the brakes, resistance from the engine, and the energy recovery system. The driver can control the effect of these and brake distribution using the steering wheel.[56] An average F1 car can decelerate from 100 to 0 km/h (62 to 0 mph) in less than 15 m (49 ft) and hence the brakes are subjected to high temperatures of up to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and severe g forces.[57] To withstand high temperatures, brakes are made of carbon composites. The brakes are cooled by air passing through numerous small holes in the brake ducts.[56]

Wings

[edit]
A typical front wing of a F1 car in the 2000s.

Early designs linked wings directly to the suspension, but several accidents led to rules stating that wings must be fixed rigidly to the chassis.[1] The wings are aerofoils on the front and rear of the car, and are made of carbon fibre composites for higher strength and reduced weight. The front wing is a forked structure with a maximum width of 1,800 mm (71 in) and must not extend more than 200 mm (7.9 in) beyond the center line. It can have a maximum of four wing elements and should not bend more than 5 mm (0.20 in). It is made of aluminium alloy, carbon fibre and fibre glass, and can cost up to $300,000.[58] The rear wing consists of a main plane which spans the width of the car with smaller horizontal flaps that angle downwards. There are short upright tabs on the trailing edge of the flaps with vertical end plates at the wing tips. The DRS is a flap adjustment mechanism in the rear wings that is operated hydraulically following steering inputs from the driver.[59]

Energy recovery system

[edit]
Operation of KERS in a F1 car.

The kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) recovers the kinetic energy created by the car's braking process. It stores that energy and converts it into power that can be used to boost acceleration. There are principally two types of systems: electrical and mechanical flywheel. Electrical systems use a motor-generator incorporated in the car's transmission which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. Once the energy has been harnessed, it is stored in a battery and released at will. Mechanical systems capture braking energy and use it to turn a small flywheel which can spin at high speeds. When extra power is required, the flywheel is connected to the car's rear wheels.[60] KERS typically adds 120 hp (89 kW) additional power boost for a specific time.[61]

Other elements

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A nose box or nose cone is a structure to which the front wing is attached. It directs the airflow towards the floor of the car, and acts as a shock absorber in case of accidents. It is made of high strength composite materials and is subjected to various load tests by the FIA to ensure its rigidity.[62] The halo is a safety device mounted on the cockpit, and is made of series of curved metal bars intended to protect the driver's head during crashes.[63] The air box is situated behind the cockpit, and serves as the receptacle of the high speed air moving over the body. It supplies the pressurized air to the engine intakes, boosting its power and absorbs the turbulence generated from the air passing over the driver's helmet. Air filters are used to filter the dirty air before being passed into the engines.[64]

Aerodynamics

[edit]

Aerodynamics has become key to success in the sport, and the teams spend time and money on research and development of the same each year.[1] The sculpted front and rear wings with the rest of the body parts such as the vanes beneath the nose, bargeboards, sidepods, underbody, and the rear diffuser, play a role in determining the aerodynamic efficiency of the car. A modern Formula One car capable of developing up to six G of lateral cornering force and a downforce equivalent to twice its weight at 190 km/h (120 mph).[65][66] The car is designed to create the maximum amount of downforce for the minimal amount of drag with the configuration often modified to the requirements of a particular track.[58] The interaction of various components amplify the total downforce more than the sum of their standalone contributions.[59]

Front of a F1 car showing the front wing arrangement.

The wings operate similarly to inverted airplane wings, to produce a negative lift or downward force. The profile of the front wing, along with the angle of attack against the incoming air, define the downforce generated. Other smaller elements such as flaps, and gaps between the elements help with controlling the airflow. A steeper angle of attack increases the downforce while creating increased drag. The front wing also directs the airflow to the rest of the car with the air flowing into the sidepod intakes used for the temperature regulation of the engine. The air flowing underneath the floor helps to seal the gap with the ground, contributing to the ground effect. A low-pressure area is created which effectively sucks the car towards the ground, increasing the down force and grip of the car. The designers aspire for a smoother airflow over the body of the car, while minimizing the wakes formed by the rotating wheels.Vortices created between the front wing and the nose box help to reduce the turbulence. Minor changes to the front wing can have drastic effects on the aerodynamics of the car.[58]

Rear of a F1 car, showing the rear wing and diffuser configuration.

The rear wings serve similarly to the front wings as inverted airfoils, and deflect the air downwards, causing a down force. The angle of the main plane and flaps determine the direction of the airflow, with other elements used to further fine tune the same. Higher angles increase downforce while also contributing to a higher turbulence and decreased stability of the rear wing. The rear wings are designed so as to withstand high loads without decreasing the downforce. The other structural elements of the car such as the side pods, and body work determine the amount of air flowing through the rear wings. The rear wing generates vortexes which keep the airflow attached to the car longer, delaying the aerodynamic stall. The rear wing can be modified to various configurations depending on the race track and the circumstances.[59] The DRS opens a slot in the rear wing at the behest of the driver. It reduces drag and increases power, and hence speed, and is allowed to be operated in specific instances.[67] The diffuser located at the rear is used to combine the pressurized airflow from the underside of the car to create more downforce.[58]

Performance

[edit]
The BAR-Honda 007 set an unofficial speed record of 413 km/h (257 mph) at Bonneville Speedway.

The 1.6 L V6 hybrid engine on a modern F1 car is capable of outputting 710 kW (950 bhp) at 15,000 rpm when combined with the hybrid power system.[68][69] This enables a modern F1 car to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 1.8 seconds, and from 0 to 100 mph (0 to 161 km/h) in 2.6 seconds.[70] It has a power-to-weight ratio of 1,297 hp/t, which would theoretically allow the car to reach 100 km/h (62 mph) in less than a second.[71] However, due to traction loss, it accelerates slower and when the traction loss is minimal at higher speeds, the car accelerates at a very high rate.[72] A F1 car is also capable of rapid deceleration and cornering at high speeds. Due to rapid acceleration and deceleration, the drivers may experience high levels of g force. The drivers experience 3–4 g during acceleration, and 5–6 g when braking from high speeds. During cornering at high speeds, drivers experience lateral forces between 4–6.5 g.[73][74]

A modern F1 car can achieve top speeds of nearly 375 km/h (233 mph), and operate on average speeds of about 200 km/h (120 mph) during a race.[70] Top speeds in practice are achieved in straight parts of a track, and is determined by the aerodynamic configuration of the car in balancing between high straight-line speed (low aerodynamic drag) and high cornering speed (high downforce) to achieve the fastest lap time.[75] In 2005, Mclaren recorded a record top speed of 372.6 km/h (231.5 mph) during testing, which was officially recognised by the FIA as the fastest speed ever achieved by an F1 car.[76] At the 2016 Mexican Grand Prix, the Williams of Valtteri Bottas reached a top speed of 372.54 km/h (231.49 mph) in racing conditions.[77][78] Away from the track, the BAR Honda team used a modified BAR 007 car, to set an unofficial speed record of 413 km/h (257 mph) on a one way straight-line run on 6 November 2005 at Bonneville Speedway and the car set an FIA ratified record of 400 km/h (250 mph) on 21 July 2006 Bonneville.[79]

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Formula One car

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A car (Russian: болид Формулы-1) is a single-seater, open-cockpit, open-wheel automobile designed solely for high-speed competitions on closed circuits in the FIA , propelled by a hybrid power unit and governed by stringent technical regulations to ensure , , and fairness. These cars represent the pinnacle of , combining a 1.6-liter, 90-degree V6 turbocharged with energy recovery systems (ERS) that deliver a combined output of approximately 1,000 horsepower, enabling from 0 to 100 km/h in approximately 2.6 seconds and top speeds exceeding 350 km/h. The power unit includes motor generator units (MGU-K for recovery and MGU-H for recovery), an energy store with a maximum voltage of 1,000 V, and control electronics managed by an FIA-standard (ECU), all while adhering to limits of 110 kg per race and a maximum flow rate of 100 kg/h using a sustainable petrol blend containing at least 10% advanced . are a defining feature, with regulated bodywork—including front and rear wings, floor edges, and diffusers—optimized for and minimal drag, constructed from composites and aluminum alloys to achieve a minimum of 798 kg (including the driver but excluding ). Safety is integral to the design, featuring a carbon fiber survival cell, frontal and side impact structures, roll hoops, and anti-intrusion panels, alongside systems like the HANS device and fire suppression to protect the driver during high-risk maneuvers. The chassis dimensions are precisely controlled, with a maximum width of 2,000 mm, overall length typically up to 5,500 mm, height limited to 950 mm (excluding cameras and roll structures), and wheelbase of 3,600 mm, using 18-inch wheels and an eight-speed semi-automatic rear-wheel-drive transmission without traction control. Teams must use standardized components for certain parts, such as brakes and electronics, while innovating within categories like listed team components (LTC) and open source components (OSC), fostering technological advancement under FIA homologation valid through 2025. The 2025 season uses the final iteration of the hybrid power units introduced in 2014, prior to significant changes in 2026.

History

Origins and early development

The (FIA), through its Commission Sportive Internationale, formalized in 1946 as the premier specification for grand prix racing, building on pre-war voiturette classes that emphasized 1.5-liter supercharged engines alongside larger naturally aspirated options up to 4.5 liters. These rules aimed to standardize post-World War II competition, accommodating both supercharged and unsupercharged powerplants to bridge historical designs with emerging technologies, and the first event under this formula was the . The inaugural Formula One World Championship race took place at Silverstone Circuit on 13 May 1950, where Alfa Romeo's Type 158—powered by a 1.5-liter supercharged delivering approximately 400 horsepower—secured victory for driver , establishing early dominance through its pre-war derived engineering. The 158 exemplified the era's focus on high-revving superchargers for power, with twin Roots-type blowers enabling outputs far exceeding contemporaries while adhering to the 1.5-liter displacement limit. Early Formula One chassis designs relied on robust ladder frames constructed from steel tubing, featuring exposed wheels for simplicity and ease of maintenance, while basic aerodynamics involved streamlined bodywork to minimize drag without complex appendages. These configurations prioritized engine integration and driver visibility over rigidity, often resulting in lightweight yet flexible structures weighing around 700 kilograms. Key innovations emerged rapidly, including the debut of disc brakes in Formula One by the BRM Type 15 in late 1951. Fuel injection systems also appeared in the 1950s, with introducing mechanical direct injection on the W196 in 1954 to enhance efficiency and power delivery over carburetors. This car further incorporated desmodromic valves—adapted from road car and aviation technology—for precise high-rpm control without traditional springs, influencing subsequent designs like the production 300 SL.

Technological evolution

The technological evolution of Formula One cars from the 1970s onward has been profoundly shaped by regulatory changes aimed at enhancing , , and spectacle, leading to iterative advancements in , materials, and powertrains. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, ground-hugging emerged as a pivotal innovation, with Colin Chapman's introducing inverted wings and wedge-shaped designs in 1970 to generate while minimizing drag, drawing inspiration from earlier concepts like the sports cars. This approach revolutionized cornering speeds by exploiting the under the car body, though it prompted early regulatory scrutiny to curb extreme designs. By the mid-1970s, these aerodynamic principles had become foundational, enabling cars to achieve higher grip levels without excessive mechanical complexity. The 1980s marked a dual shift in chassis construction and propulsion systems, driven by the pursuit of lighter, stiffer structures and immense power outputs. The MP4/1 in 1981 pioneered the use of a full carbon fiber , replacing traditional aluminum honeycombs and reducing weight by approximately 20% while enhancing torsional rigidity to better withstand high-speed impacts. Concurrently, turbocharged 1.5-liter engines dominated, delivering over 1,000 horsepower in qualifying trim through unrestricted boost pressures, as seen in and units that propelled teams like Williams and to dominance. However, concerns over costs, safety, and drivability led the FIA to ban turbos after the 1988 season, ushering in naturally aspirated V10 and V8 engines from 1989 that emphasized reliability and broader power bands. The hybrid era began in 2014 with the introduction of 1.6-liter V6 turbocharged power units incorporating motor generator units (MGU-K for kinetic energy recovery and MGU-H for heat recovery), which boosted overall efficiency to over 50% while maintaining competitive outputs around 1,000 horsepower in race conditions. This shift, mandated by FIA regulations to promote sustainability, integrated electric boost seamlessly with internal combustion, transforming energy management strategies. In 2022, ground effect aerodynamics were revived through underfloor Venturi tunnels to improve overtaking by reducing dirty air, resulting in closer racing as evidenced by multiple lead changes in early-season grands prix. For 2025, the FIA introduced driver cooling systems, including vests and ventilation to be used when a heat hazard is declared for ambient temperatures of 31°C or above, to mitigate heat stress, alongside expanded testing opportunities—up to two days per team—to foster talent development without disrupting race driver schedules. Looking ahead, the 2026 regulations preview a balanced 50/50 split between electric and thermal power, reintroducing active for adjustable , and mandating 100% sustainable fuels derived from non-food sources to align with net-zero emissions goals by 2030. These changes aim to make cars lighter (by 30 kg) and more agile, fostering equitable competition across manufacturers.

Regulations and safety

Technical regulations

The technical regulations for Formula One cars are governed by the (FIA), with the 2025 Formula 1 Technical Regulations issued on December 11, 2024, setting the standards for car design, performance, and development. These rules aim to ensure safety, fairness, and sustainability while promoting close racing, mandating a 1.6-liter V6 turbocharged hybrid power unit configuration. The power unit includes an limited to 16,000 rpm, a Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K) capped at 120 kW and 50,000 rpm, and a Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H) limited to 125,000 rpm, with fuel flow restricted to a maximum of 100 kg/h above 10,000 rpm. Fuel must consist of petrol with a minimum (RON+MON)/2 of 87, oxygen content no greater than 3.45% by weight, and at least 10% advanced sustainable by mass. Car dimensions are strictly defined to balance agility and stability, with a maximum wheelbase of 3,600 mm measured between the front and rear axle centerlines, and a maximum overall width of 2,000 mm excluding tires, rims, and wheel covers. The minimum weight of the car, including the driver in racing apparel but excluding , is 798 kg, with an additional 5 kg allowance during heat hazard conditions. These parameters influence and handling, requiring teams to integrate crash structures without compromising the overall limits. Aerodynamic development is constrained through limits on (CFD) and testing, allocated based on the previous season's Constructors' Championship performance to level the playing field—top-performing teams receive fewer resources, such as 70% of baseline allowances for leading teams. For 2025, the baseline includes 320 runs and 2,000 CFD events per aerodynamic testing period at 60% scale, with adjustments like a mid-season reset to reflect updated standings. Teams must classify aerodynamic components as listed (LTC), standard supply (SSC), team-restricted (TRC), or open supply (OSC), prohibiting sharing in shared facilities. A financial cost cap of $135 million base for , adjusted for and $1.8 million per race beyond 21 (effective approximately $145 million for the 24-race ), caps operational expenditures excluding salaries, engines, and certain costs, encouraging standardized parts like brake drums to control expenses. Testing is further restricted to limit private running, with no more than three days of pre-season testing and prohibitions on unscheduled track sessions, while mandatory FP1 sessions have been expanded (doubled to four per team across the season) to aid development without favoring established teams. Looking ahead, the 2026 regulations preview lighter and more agile cars, reducing the minimum weight to 768 kg including the driver, narrowing the maximum width to 1,900 mm, and shortening the to 3,400 mm for improved maneuverability. Power units will eliminate the MGU-H, relying solely on a more powerful MGU-K delivering up to 350 kW from a battery-focused system, with a 50:50 split between electrical and combustion power to enhance . These changes, detailed in the June 24, 2024, issue of the 2026 Technical Regulations, prioritize reduced environmental impact and closer competition.

Safety features and standards

Safety in Formula One is paramount, with cars incorporating mandatory protective features designed to mitigate crash risks and enhance driver survivability. Central to cockpit protection is the Halo device, introduced by the FIA in as a titanium tubular structure mounted above the driver's head to shield against debris and overhead impacts. Constructed from high-strength laminate, the Halo weighs approximately 7 kg and is tested to withstand vertical loads up to 12 tons, equivalent to forces exceeding 12g for the car's mass, ensuring it remains intact during severe collisions. Impact-absorbing structures form another critical layer of defense, with front and rear components engineered to dissipate crash energy and prevent intrusion into the survival cell. The front impact structure undergoes dynamic testing involving a 900 kg trolley at 17 m/s, designed to absorb approximately 130 kJ of kinetic energy while limiting deceleration to protect the driver, and must resist loads up to 220 kN to avoid chassis deformation. Similarly, the rear impact structure is tested with a 900 kg object at 11 m/s, capping deceleration at 25g, to handle rear-end collisions effectively. Complementing these, side intrusion panels, extended in 2015 to cover the cockpit rim and fuel cell area, utilize Zylon and composite laminates to absorb lateral forces, tested per FIA procedures to prevent penetration during oblique side impacts. These panels, integrated into the carbon-fiber monocoque chassis, enhance overall structural resilience without compromising the lightweight design essential for performance. Driver restraint systems further bolster survival chances by minimizing injury during high-g forces. The Head and Neck Support (HANS) device, mandatory since 2003, tethers the helmet to the shoulder belts, restricting excessive head movement in crashes and reducing risks, as evidenced by its role in incidents like Robert Kubica's 2007 collision. Paired with it are six-point harnesses conforming to FIA Standard 8853-2016, which secure the driver across the torso, shoulders, and pelvis with quick-release mechanisms for rapid extraction. Fuel system safety prevents post-crash fires, a historical concern in motorsport. F1 cars use a single rubber bladder fuel tank compliant with FIA FT5-1999 standards, foam-filled to suppress fuel surge and explosion risks during impacts, containing up to 110 kg of fuel at low pressure (maximum 1.0 barG) with integrated pressure relief. Self-sealing breakaway valves on all fuel lines ensure disconnection under crash loads without leakage, separating at less than 50% of the system's ultimate strength to maintain containment. The tank's positioning within the survival cell, shielded by impact structures, isolates it from the driver and engine components. For the 2025 season, updates address emerging physiological risks, including heat stress in extreme conditions. cooling kits, now permitted with scoops up to 3000 mm² and side apertures up to 750 mm² each, integrate into the car's design to circulate air without aerodynamic penalties, included in a 5 kg "heat hazard" mass allowance for safety gear. Stricter weight regulations for personal equipment ensure these systems do not exceed limits, maintaining balance while prioritizing endurance. On-track protocols complement these hardware features, with the Virtual Safety Car (VSC) and medical car designed for swift response enabled by standardized car layouts. The VSC, deployed since , enforces a fixed delta time for all cars during incidents, allowing marshals access without full neutralization, while the medical car—driven by an experienced professional—follows the field, its positioning informed by F1 cars' consistent dimensions for unobstructed track intervention. These measures, tied to the cars' predictable structural profiles, facilitate rapid medical extraction and hazard mitigation.

Chassis and structure

Monocoque and materials

The core structural framework of a Formula One car is the , serving as the survival cell that provides rigidity and lightness while integrating key components. Constructed primarily from (CFRP) composites, the monocoque uses PAN-based with a modulus not exceeding 550 GPa, offering a high strength-to-weight ratio where the fiber tensile strength reaches approximately 3.5 GPa. This material is five times lighter than yet provides comparable stiffness, enabling the structure to handle extreme aerodynamic and dynamic loads without excessive mass. The encompasses the , engine bay, and in a single continuous bonded unit, with the survival cell designed to transfer suspension and power unit loads through specified fixings and studs. It undergoes rigorous structural validation, including frontal impact testing at a of at least 15 m/s to ensure integrity under high deceleration, with peak deceleration not exceeding 60g for more than 3 ms. Advanced materials enhance the monocoque's performance, incorporating fibers like for side intrusion panels to provide impact resistance, and aluminum cores sandwiched between carbon skins for superior absorption and . These cores, varying in thickness based on load requirements, form multi-layer sandwich panels that optimize for handling. Manufacturing involves hand layup of carbon fiber sheets impregnated with , followed by curing in an under elevated pressure and temperature to achieve void-free consolidation and precise shapes optimized via (CFD). transfer molding is also employed for certain sections to ensure uniform distribution and structural uniformity. Under the regulations, the overall car weight will be reduced by 30 kg to 768 kg, aiming to lower costs while maintaining and standards.

Dimensions and weight distribution

Formula One cars are subject to strict dimensional regulations set by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) to ensure safety, fairness, and performance consistency. The maximum width is limited to 2000 mm, while the maximum height is 950 mm, excluding certain protrusions like the roll hoop. There is no explicit maximum length, but practical constraints from aerodynamic and chassis rules result in typical overall lengths of approximately 5200–5400 mm. The wheelbase, measured as the maximum distance between the front and rear wheel centers, is capped at 3600 mm, with teams optimizing it around 3550–3600 mm to balance stability in high-speed corners with agile handling influenced by aerodynamic demands. Weight distribution is critically regulated to promote equitable competition and optimal , with a minimum of 800 kg for the including the but excluding as of the 2025 season (following an increase from 798 kg due to the minimum weight rising to 82 kg). This includes a minimum weight of 82 kg (with equipment), achieved through adjustable placed strategically near the center of to fine-tune balance without compromising structural integrity. Regulations mandate a minimum of 44.6% of the total on the front and 53.9% on the rear during key sessions like qualifying, encouraging teams to target an ideal bias of around 45% front and 55% rear for superior traction and cornering response. The center of height is kept low at approximately 450 mm above the ground, facilitated by the monocoque's design and floor-mounted components, which lowers the overall profile and enhances stability under lateral loads. Looking ahead to 2026, the FIA plans further refinements to make cars more nimble, reducing the minimum mass by 30 kg to 768 kg while shortening the wheelbase to a maximum of 3400 mm and narrowing the overall width to 1900 mm. These changes aim to improve racing closeness by enhancing maneuverability, with continued emphasis on low center of gravity and precise ballast placement to maintain the targeted weight distribution. Ballast must be fixed securely, with a density exceeding 8000 kg/m³, and positioned within designated cockpit volumes to meet the driver minimum without altering the car's fundamental balance.

Power unit

Internal combustion engine

The (ICE) in a Formula One power unit is a 1.6-liter, 90-degree V6 turbocharged unit, featuring six of equal capacity with circular bores and two inlet and two exhaust valves per . This configuration, introduced in , emphasizes high efficiency and compactness, with the engine revving up to a maximum of 15,000 rpm under normal operating conditions. The employs a single-stage and exhaust on a common shaft, spinning up to 125,000 rpm, to boost performance while adhering to strict fuel flow limits of 100 kg/h above 10,500 rpm. Thermal power output from the ICE reaches approximately 550-560 kW, achieved through optimized and precise control, contributing the majority of the power unit's propulsion before integration with hybrid elements. Fuel delivery occurs via direct injection, with one per operating at a maximum of 500 bar, supplied by a high-pressure pump and rail system, ensuring efficient atomization without upstream or downstream injectors relative to the valves. and lift profiles are prohibited to maintain parity, but turbo response is enhanced through anti-lag systems, which manage boost via adjustments and exhaust valve control during off-throttle conditions. Since 2022, the engines have run on E10 sustainable fuel, comprising 90% fossil-derived components and 10% advanced from non-food sources, with a full transition to 100% sustainable fuels mandated for to align with net-zero goals. Fuel properties are tightly regulated, including a minimum 10% content, maximum oxygen of 3.45 wt%, and low levels under 10 mg/kg, to promote clean and thermal efficiencies exceeding 50%. A Formula 1 car typically consumes 7 to 9 times more fuel than a standard gasoline car (which uses about 6-8 L/100 km), equating to roughly 35-55 L/100 km in race conditions. Cooling systems are critical for sustaining high outputs, utilizing charge air intercoolers to reduce intake temperatures post-compression, alongside dedicated and circuits with pumps and heat exchangers. These prevent except in , with header tanks capped at 3.75 barG via relief valves, and systems dissipating heat from bearings and pistons; brake liquid cooling remains forbidden. Exhaust is managed through the turbo setup to minimize losses, supporting overall management without delving into electrical recovery. Development of the has been standardized and frozen since the 2022 homologation, prohibiting specification upgrades through 2025 to redirect resources toward the regulations, with only minor reliability or safety modifications allowed. All ten teams utilize engines from four manufacturers: Mercedes (powering McLaren, Williams, , Mercedes), Ferrari (Ferrari, Haas), (Alpine), and Honda-derived units via (, RB), ensuring controlled under FIA oversight via a standard . This freeze maintains parity while the integrates seamlessly with hybrid components for total power delivery exceeding 1,000 hp.

Hybrid systems and energy recovery

The hybrid systems in power units integrate electrical components with the to recover and deploy energy, enhancing performance and efficiency since their introduction in 2014. These systems, part of the Energy Recovery System (ERS), primarily consist of the Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K) and the Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H), which harvest kinetic and thermal energy respectively, storing it in a pack known as the Energy Store (ES). The MGU-K recovers generated during braking, converting it into at a maximum rate of 120 kW, with a peak of 200 Nm and rotational speed up to 50,000 rpm; this is stored in the battery for later deployment. Deployment from the MGU-K provides an additional power boost of up to 120 kW (approximately 160 hp), enabling drivers to activate ERS modes such as Hotlap for qualifying optimization or Attack for overtaking maneuvers, with a maximum deployment of 4 MJ per lap. The minimum mass for the MGU-K is 7 kg, and it connects directly to the without mechanical transmission components. The MGU-H, linked to the , recovers from the exhaust gases to generate , which powers the battery and the MGU-K, while also spinning up the to eliminate turbo lag; it operates at a maximum rotational speed of 125,000 rpm with a minimum of 4 kg. This unit has no fixed power limit but is constrained by thermal and design factors, contributing to the overall system's ability to recover up to 2 MJ per lap via the MGU-K. The , a lithium-ion Energy Store with a capacity supporting 4 MJ deployment, weighs between 20 kg and 25 kg, operates at a maximum voltage of 1,000 V, and recharges primarily during braking phases for strategic usage. Together, these components enable the 2025 power unit to achieve a total output of approximately 1,000 horsepower, combining the internal combustion engine's power with hybrid electrical contributions, while maintaining a exceeding 50%—among the highest for any internal combustion-based system. Looking ahead, the 2026 regulations will phase out the MGU-H to simplify the power unit and reduce costs, boosting the MGU-K to 350 kW while emphasizing battery storage and deployment to deliver nearly 50% of the total power electrically, resulting in overall outputs exceeding current levels despite a reduced contribution of 400 kW.

Drivetrain

Transmission and gearbox

The in a Formula One car serves as the critical link between the power unit and the driven wheels, efficiently transferring while enabling rapid gear changes to optimize and top speed. It consists of a semi-automatic sequential gearbox, assembly, and driveline components, all designed for and strict performance constraints under FIA regulations. The gearbox is an 8-speed semi-automatic sequential unit, electronically controlled and homologated since with no major changes permitted through the season, ensuring parity among teams. Gear shifts are initiated manually by the driver using paddle shifters on the , achieving change times under 50 milliseconds through hydraulic actuation and seamless dog-ring engagement, far below the FIA-mandated maximum of 200 milliseconds for upshifts and 300 milliseconds for downshifts. This system eliminates the need for a traditional pedal during , allowing drivers to keep both hands on the wheel for over 3,000 shifts per Grand Prix. Mounted longitudinally behind the power unit in a carbon-fiber composite casing, the gearbox features a primary input shaft concentric with the and a parallel secondary shaft, with the final drive axis positioned within precise tolerances to minimize and packaging. Gear ratios are fixed for each circuit and homologated at the season's start by the FIA, preventing mid-season alterations and tailored to track characteristics like Monaco's tight corners or Monza's long straights. The driveline incorporates a to enhance traction by distributing torque between rear wheels, integrated within the gearbox cassette for compactness. The is a multi-plate assembly with carbon-fiber plates for high thermal resistance and low mass, electronically actuated via a steering-wheel paddle in a pull-type configuration. Engagement occurs in approximately 0.1 seconds, enabling precise control during starts through a dual-paddle system where drivers modulate slip to match power unit without automated aids. This manual launch procedure, supported by rev-matching and anti-stall features, replaces banned electronic launch control systems and demands significant driver skill for optimal getaway. Under 2025 regulations, the transmission remains unchanged from 2022 specifications, maintaining the 8-speed limit and freeze.

Clutch and differential

The in a Formula One car is a lightweight, multi-plate dry utilizing carbon-carbon composite friction plates for superior heat dissipation and rapid engagement under high loads exceeding 1,000 Nm. This design, typically comprising 4-6 plates, enables precise modulation during standing starts and low-speed maneuvers, with the entire assembly weighing under 1.5 kg. It is hydraulically actuated via a pull-type paddle on the , with electronic control integrated into the FIA Standard ECU. To enhance safety and reliability, an anti-stall system integrated into the FIA Standard ECU automatically intervenes if engine speed drops critically, fully disengaging within 10 seconds and initiating an engine shutdown to prevent uncontrolled movement in accidents. This software-controlled feature activates only on high driver input demand (>95% pedal) and remains disengaged until manual reset, ensuring compliance with survival cell access protocols. integrates seamlessly with the rear-mounted semi-automatic sequential gearbox, facilitating quick shifts without driver intervention beyond initial actuation. The differential is a mechanical limited-slip type, adjustable via preload and ramp angles to manage distribution between the rear s, preventing excessive spin under . Adjustable preload applies constant bias to both s even off-, while ramp angles determine progressive locking on-, enabling up to 80% lock for superior corner-exit traction by transferring power to the outer with grip. Adjustments are made via preload (constant bias ) and ramp angles (progressive locking under ), set before each event. This setup optimizes stability without relying on prohibited active yaw or traction control systems, as electronic inputs are limited to position via the FIA ECU. Torque vectoring occurs passively through differential bias, directing more torque to the faster-rotating outer wheel during cornering to reduce understeer and enhance turn-in response, thereby improving overall handling stability on varied track surfaces. Durability is mandated by requiring the gearbox assembly—including clutch and differential—to endure at least six consecutive events (practice, qualifying, and race) before replacement, with unauthorized changes resulting in a five-place grid penalty to promote reliability and cost control. The 2026 regulations maintain an 8-speed gearbox with a minimum driveline mass of 22 kg and require steel driveshafts, supporting overall chassis weight reductions.

Aerodynamics

Wing assemblies

Wing assemblies in Formula One cars are critical aerodynamic components that generate to enhance grip and stability, primarily through the front and rear wings. These structures are meticulously designed to balance and drag, influencing the car's overall on the track. The wings interact with to create high-pressure differences, directing air efficiently while complying with strict dimensional and material regulations set by the FIA. The front wing typically features a three-element , consisting of a main plane and two flaps, which allows for precise management of over the car's . Endplates at the outer edges of the wing direct high-pressure air away from the wheels and toward the sides of the car, reducing and optimizing flow to downstream components. This configuration generates approximately 30% of the total on an F1 car, significantly contributing to front-end grip during cornering. The rear wing employs a multi-element setup, with up to four profiles arranged in two closed sections per FIA regulations, to maximize at the rear axle for balanced handling. The uppermost flap integrates the (DRS), which opens by a maximum of 85 mm when activated, creating a slot gap that reduces drag by 20-25% at speeds exceeding 250 km/h. This adjustment allows pursuing drivers to gain straight-line speed for maneuvers within designated zones. Adjustments to flaps are limited to maintain fairness, particularly during conditions after qualifying, where only the front can be tweaked using existing parts to fine-tune aerodynamic balance without altering other bodywork. The rear 's DRS flap, mandatory on all cars since its introduction in 2011, is electronically controlled via the and deactivates automatically outside activation zones or below the speed threshold. These restrictions ensure competitive equity while permitting strategic adaptations. Wings are constructed primarily from carbon fiber composites, selected for their high strength-to-weight ratio and ability to withstand extreme aerodynamic loads. To prevent unfair advantages from excessive flexibility, the FIA enforces rigorous compliance tests on wing profiles, including deflection limits under specified loads—for instance, a maximum 5 mm vertical deflection for front wing flaps under 60 N and 7 mm horizontal for rear wing flaps under 500 N. These static tests verify that wings maintain their designed shape during dynamic track conditions. Looking ahead to 2026, active will introduce movable front and rear wings with rotation systems, replacing the DRS to enable driver-controlled adjustments in zones for enhanced race dynamics. These systems, including X-mode actuators, will allow rear wing flap opening in a low-drag configuration while maintaining fail-safes to the high-downforce position, promoting more agile and efficient management.

Underbody and ground effects

The underbody of a Formula One car, particularly since the 2022 technical regulations, relies heavily on ground effect aerodynamics to generate downforce through low-pressure suction created by accelerating airflow beneath the vehicle. This design reintroduces Venturi tunnels integrated into the floor, which narrow the airflow path to increase velocity and reduce pressure, drawing the car toward the track surface. The floor structure, defined by a reference plane starting 650mm forward of the front wheel axis and extending rearward, forms these tunnels with strict dimensional limits, including a maximum floor width of 2000mm and edge radii not exceeding 100mm. In practice, these underbody elements can contribute up to 60% of the car's total downforce while producing minimal drag compared to wings. At the rear, the diffuser plays a critical role in managing the expanding airflow from the Venturi tunnels, featuring a multi-vane configuration to optimize exhaust flow and recover efficiently. The diffuser's design is constrained by regulations, including a maximum height of 150mm at the and an exit width narrowed to 750mm from previous eras, ensuring controlled expansion without excessive turbulence. Up to four vanes per side help seal the low-pressure region, enhancing suction while adhering to flexibility tests that limit deflection under aerodynamic loads. Sidepods and bargeboards direct high-pressure air around the Venturi channels, minimizing interference and feeding clean flow to the underbody for optimal performance. These components, positioned forward of the floor edges, create vortices that seal the tunnels against ground proximity losses. Compliance with ground clearance is enforced via plank wear checks on a 10mm-thick wooden assembly spanning 1030mm longitudinally. The plank, measured at six points for no more than 1mm wear post-race, prevents teams from running excessively low setups that could amplify ground effects unsafely; titanium skid blocks embedded within it limit total area to 24,000mm². Early 2022 implementations of these ground effect designs led to porpoising, an oscillatory bouncing from aerodynamic sensitivity to variations, prompting FIA interventions. To mitigate this, 2023 regulations banned excessive flexibility—termed "flexi-floors"—by raising edges 15mm, increasing diffuser throat height by 10mm, and imposing stricter deflection limits (maximum 2mm under 5000N load). These changes reduced porpoising risks while preserving core ground effect principles, as confirmed by post-season technical directives. Looking ahead, the 2026 regulations will simplify underbody designs to promote closer racing, narrowing maximum floor width by 150mm and introducing in-washing wheel configurations with wake control boards on sidepods to clean airflow and reduce dirty air wakes. This shift aims for less aggressive Venturi profiles, balancing with improved following capabilities without fully abandoning ground effects.

Suspension and steering

Suspension components

Formula One cars employ a system at all four s, utilizing independent upper and lower wishbones to precisely control movement and maintain contact with the track. This setup is typically configured with either pushrod or pullrod linkages front and rear, where the pushrod design mounts the rod higher on the and lower on the assembly to push against the spring and damper during compression, while the pullrod variant reverses this orientation to pull the components. Teams select these configurations based on aerodynamic packaging and center-of-gravity optimization; for instance, many opt for pushrod at the front and pullrod at the rear to lower the for better airflow. The geometry of these systems incorporates anti-dive and anti-squat characteristics to minimize pitch changes under braking and acceleration, respectively, by directing forces through the suspension to counteract movement and preserve aerodynamic stability. Anti-dive at the front elevates the instant center to reduce nose dive, while rear anti-squat geometry raises the driveline to limit squat, allowing stiffer setups without excessive variation. Inboard dampers, often supplied by Sachs or Penske, are mounted centrally on the for protection and adjustability, featuring hydraulic systems that allow real-time tuning of compression and rates via cockpit controls or pit adjustments. A third element, typically a damper or spring-damper assembly linking the front or rear suspension, provides heave control by decoupling vertical body movement from individual compliance, ensuring consistent platform attitude under varying loads. Kinematic optimization focuses on camber and curves generated during suspension travel, ensuring the remains optimal through corners by inducing negative camber gain to counter body roll and adjustments for balanced slip angles. These curves are engineered via wishbone pivot points and rocker linkages, simulated to maximize lateral grip without compromising straight-line stability. Since the FIA banned systems in 1994—citing safety risks from high cornering speeds and potential failures—F1 relies on passive setups fine-tuned for each track's demands, balancing stiffness for with compliance for bump absorption. Under the 2026 regulations, suspension arms will be narrower to accommodate the slimmer car profile, with overall width reduced by 100 mm to 1900 mm and track widths adjusted accordingly, promoting more agile handling and closer racing.

Steering wheel and controls

The steering wheel in a Formula One car serves as the primary interface between the driver and the vehicle, integrating directional control with a complex array of electronic and mechanical adjustments essential for high-speed . Constructed primarily from carbon fiber for its lightweight strength and durability, the wheel incorporates hundreds of components, including fibreglass, , , and elements, allowing it to withstand extreme forces while remaining compact at approximately 28 cm in diameter. Custom-molded grips, made from varying rubber compounds, provide vibration-dampening and ergonomic fit tailored to each driver's hands, which can be adjusted during the season to optimize comfort and feedback under g-forces exceeding 5g. Modern F1 steering wheels feature over 20 buttons, switches, and dials, transforming the device into a multifunctional command center that enables real-time adjustments without diverting the driver's focus from the track. Key controls include the "Strat" switch for managing Energy Recovery System (ERS) modes, such as deploying or harvesting energy from the MGU-K and MGU-H units to optimize power output; a pit limiter that caps speed at 60 km/h (37 mph) during pit lane entry, or 80 km/h (50 mph) at select circuits as per FIA approval; a dedicated (DRS) activation to open the rear wing flap for ; and a drink that pumps hydration fluid—typically an electrolyte mix—from a rear-mounted pouch through a tube to the driver's mouth, crucial for maintaining performance in races lasting up to two hours. Rotary dials and scroll knobs allow precise tuning of brake bias, distributing braking force between front and rear axles in increments to suit track conditions, and differential settings for distribution across entry, apex, and exit phases of corners, enhancing traction and stability. A quick-release mechanism, featuring a concentric on the , facilitates rapid attachment and detachment, enabling drivers to enter and exit the in under five seconds during emergencies or qualifying sessions. Power steering in F1 cars employs a system integrated with the car's overall for the gearbox and , driven by an engine-powered to provide variable assistance that reduces steering effort without electronic control, as mandated by regulations to preserve direct mechanical feedback. This setup delivers up to 20 Nm of assistance, allowing drivers to manage the immense —up to 4,000 pounds at high speeds—while maintaining precise control and road feel, particularly in low-speed corners where steering loads peak. The , integrated into the steering wheel's central display, provides critical through a high-contrast LCD screen and LED arrays, including RPM indicated by 15 color-coded shift lights that illuminate progressively to signal optimal upshift points, current gear position, and sector-specific lap times with delta comparisons to the driver's best or team target. Additional such as battery charge and ERS status is shown, ensuring drivers can react instantly to performance metrics. For the 2025 season, F1 requires driver cooling systems when a heat hazard is declared by the FIA (typically for ambient temperatures ≥31°C), to combat extreme heat conditions, using a liquid-cooled vest with tubing to circulate cooled fluid, powered by a battery, increasing the minimum mass by 5 kg (to 805 kg) to accommodate the hardware. This update enhances driver endurance in hot climates, directly influencing steering inputs by reducing physical .

Tyres and braking

Tyres and wheel rims

has been the sole tire supplier for since 2011 and will continue until at least 2027, providing all tires used in the championship. The tires are designed specifically for the series, with 18-inch wheel rims introduced in 2022 to improve aesthetics and handling by reducing sidewall flex. Front tires measure 305 mm in width, while rear tires are 405 mm wide, both with an overall diameter of 720 mm to fit the rim size. For dry conditions, offers six slick compounds labeled C1 through C6, where C1 is the hardest and most durable for high-abrasion tracks, and C6 is the softest for maximum grip on low-wear circuits. selects three of these compounds for each Grand Prix weekend, nominated as hard (white sidewall), medium (yellow), and soft (red), to suit the track characteristics. Each driver receives 13 sets of dry slick tires per standard race weekend, comprising two sets of hards, three mediums, and eight softs, though allocations adjust slightly for sprint weekends to 12 sets total. Regulations require drivers to use at least two different dry compounds during a dry race, promoting strategic variety in pit stops and tire management. Slick tires feature a smooth treadless surface to maximize and grip on dry asphalt. For wet conditions, intermediate tires have a partial tread pattern with shallower grooves covering about 20% of the surface to disperse standing up to 3 mm deep, while full wet tires include deeper, circumferential grooves occupying 29% of the surface to handle heavier rain exceeding 4 mm depth. Each driver gets four sets of intermediates and three sets of full wets per weekend. Tire pressures are closely monitored, with minimum starting pressures set at approximately 23 psi for rears and 25 psi for fronts, adjusted per event by based on track data to prevent overheating and ensure safety. Wheel rims, constructed from AZ70 or AZ80 for strength and lightness, must comply with FIA specifications, excluding the . These rims include integrated components like drive pegs, spacers, and monitoring sensors, and are fitted with aerodynamic covers. To optimize , teams use electric warmers that heat s to 70-100°C before installation, reducing initial lap time losses from cold rubber. Looking ahead to 2026, the 18-inch rim size will remain unchanged, but tire widths will narrow by 25 mm at the front (to 280 mm) and 30 mm at the rear (to 375 mm) to reduce overall car weight and drag. will emphasize sustainable rubber compounds, incorporating more recycled and bio-based materials to align with Formula One's environmental goals while maintaining performance.

Brake systems

Formula One cars employ advanced carbon-carbon disc brake systems designed for extreme deceleration forces, capable of slowing vehicles from speeds exceeding 300 km/h to a standstill in seconds. The brake discs measure up to 330 mm in diameter for the fronts (typically 328 mm) and up to 280 mm for the rears, with a maximum thickness of 32 mm, constructed from carbon-carbon composite materials that provide superior heat dissipation and structural integrity under high thermal loads. These discs are paired with matching carbon-carbon pads, which generate friction through interleaving layers of to manage heat buildup and prevent fade during prolonged use. The , typically six-piston designs supplied by manufacturers such as or AP Racing, clamp the discs with aluminum housings reinforced for rigidity, ensuring precise modulation of braking force. The system withstands operating temperatures up to 1000°C during intense braking zones, where kinetic energy is rapidly converted to heat; carbon-carbon materials excel here by increasing friction coefficient as temperatures rise, unlike steel brakes that suffer from thermal expansion issues. Brake-by-wire technology, introduced in 2014 to accommodate hybrid energy recovery, controls the rear axle hydraulically via electronic actuators integrated with the engine control unit, allowing dynamic adjustment without a direct mechanical linkage from the pedal. This setup provides ABS-like modulation to prevent wheel lock—full anti-lock braking remains banned under regulations—while maintaining driver feel through a hydraulic front circuit. Cooling is achieved through ducts channeling air from the front wing endplates directly to the brake assemblies, optimizing airflow to dissipate heat without compromising aerodynamic efficiency; teams adjust brake bias electronically, typically distributing 50-65% of force to the front axle for balanced stopping. During braking, the motor generator unit-kinetic (MGU-K) harvests up to 120 kW of electrical energy from the decelerating wheels, supplementing the mechanical braking action. Disc durability is engineered for 300-500 km of track use before replacement, with interleaving in the carbon matrix aiding fade resistance by promoting even heat distribution and minimizing surface glazing. Overall braking performance is ultimately constrained by tire grip limits, where maximum deceleration—often exceeding 5g—is achieved just before the onset of wheel lock.

Electronics

Engine control unit

The Standard Electronic Control Unit (SECU), supplied by McLaren Applied Technologies since 2008 with the supply contract extended by the FIA until 2030, serves as the centralized electronic system managing the Formula One car's power unit operations, ensuring uniformity across all teams through FIA-mandated standardization. This unit processes inputs to regulate critical functions such as fuel injection, limited to a maximum flow of 100 kg/h, ignition timing with one coil and spark plug per cylinder, and turbocharger boost pressure via the Motor Generator Unit for Heat (MGU-H), which maintains a fixed speed ratio up to 125,000 rpm. Communication between the SECU and other vehicle systems occurs over a Controller Area Network (CAN) bus, enabling real-time data exchange for power unit control, energy recovery systems, and transmission management while adhering to FIA-approved wiring protocols. To promote performance parity, the SECU's core is frozen and homologated by the FIA, with identical base software provided to all competitors and limited updates permitted—up to five team applications per season in 2025—requiring submission of for approval. Teams may overlay developed in-house or by third parties atop this standard framework to optimize race strategies, such as energy deployment and shift points, without altering the underlying ECU hardware. Since 2008, traction control has been prohibited through the standardized ECU to emphasize skill, though launch control modes and anti-stall functions remain permitted to prevent shutdowns during starts or low-RPM scenarios. The SECU incorporates advanced diagnostics for real-time fault detection, monitoring hybrid modes including MGU-Kinetic (MGU-K) limits up to 200 Nm and energy store charge deltas, as well as gear shift sequences to ensure compliance and safety. It logs extensive data accessible to the FIA for scrutineering, including readings from driveshafts, and provides unlimited access during events. For the 2026 regulations, the ECU will be updated to integrate control of active , such as driver-adjustable front and rear wing flaps, alongside enhanced electric power management with MGU-K output increased to 350 kW, replacing systems like DRS. Data from the SECU is also fed to the display for driver feedback on power unit status.

Sensors and data systems

Modern Formula One cars are equipped with approximately 300 sensors that monitor a wide array of performance parameters during race weekends as of 2025. These include accelerometers to measure g-forces experienced by the car, strain gauges on suspension components to assess structural loads, and GPS units for precise track mapping and positioning. Additional sensors track temperatures and s to optimize grip and , aerodynamic loads on wings and bodywork via and strain measurements, and fuel usage through flow meters to ensure . The data collected by these sensors is transmitted wirelessly to the pit wall at a rate of approximately 2 Mbps, enabling real-time by engineers. This stream includes critical metrics such as tire conditions, aerodynamic performance, and fuel consumption, allowing teams to make immediate adjustments to car setup or . Onboard, an integrated captures this information for deeper post-session review, with systems like McLaren Applied's ATLAS handling over 1,000 channels at sampling rates up to 1,000 Hz to preserve high-fidelity records. The FIA mandates standardized data logging through the ECU to ensure compliance with technical regulations, requiring cars to record at least two hours and fifteen minutes of per session without interruption. Teams supplement this with proprietary to refine and aerodynamic setups, processing the raw feeds into actionable insights for gains. For 2025, regulations have expanded participation in free practice sessions to two per car, doubling the track time and associated data logging opportunities during testing to support development and team evaluation. inputs are briefly processed by the ECU for basic control functions before full transmission.

Performance

Power and speed capabilities

Modern Formula One cars in 2025 are equipped with hybrid power units that deliver a total output of approximately 1,000 horsepower (746 kW), combining the internal combustion engine's roughly 700 horsepower with contributions from the Energy Recovery System (ERS), which adds up to 160 horsepower during peak deployment. This power enables straight-line performance that pushes the limits of , with top speeds routinely exceeding 360 km/h on long straights like those at , where the 2025 record reached 365 km/h set by . Acceleration is equally impressive, with cars achieving 0-100 km/h in about 2.6 seconds and 0-300 km/h in approximately 7-8 seconds, aided by the low-drag configuration activated by the (DRS), which opens the rear wing to reduce aerodynamic resistance. The DRS mode lowers the from around 0.9 in high-downforce race trim to approximately 0.7, allowing for quicker straight-line bursts while maintaining overall efficiency. Fuel efficiency remains a critical factor under the 110 kg race fuel limit, enabling cars to cover typical Grand Prix distances of about 305 km on that allocation, equivalent to roughly 2.77 km per kg of fuel. Looking ahead to 2026 regulations, power output is projected to stay similar at around 1,000 horsepower, but with a 30 kg reduction in minimum car weight to 768 kg, potentially enhancing further.

Handling and track performance

Formula One cars exhibit exceptional handling on circuits, characterized by their ability to generate high lateral g-forces during cornering, often exceeding 5g at the apex of demanding turns such as Suzuka's Turn One or Spa's Eau Rouge. These forces arise from the integration of aerodynamic downforce, tire grip, and suspension tuning, pushing drivers sideways with intensity equivalent to several times their body weight. Teams fine-tune the car's aerodynamic balance—primarily through front and rear wing adjustments—to manage oversteer (rear-end sliding) or understeer (front-end pushing), ensuring neutral handling that optimizes cornering speed and stability. This balance is critical, as an imbalance can lead to loss of control, with aero setups often biased toward slight understeer for high-speed stability. Braking performance further enhances track capability, allowing cars to decelerate from 100 km/h to 0 in approximately 15-20 meters while entering corners at speeds over 250 km/h, such as the approach to Silverstone's Copse or 's Lesmo curves. This rapid slowdown, achieved through carbon-ceramic brakes and aero-assisted deceleration, enables precise into turns, where weight distribution aids in maintaining balance by shifting load forward for better front grip. Overall lap times reflect these dynamics, with pole positions like the 1:19.555 set by at in 2021 serving as benchmarks influenced by track surface evolution—such as resurfacing that increases grip over sessions—and regulatory changes like tire compounds or aero restrictions. Setup configurations involve key trade-offs tailored to circuit demands, with high-downforce packages—featuring larger wings and diffusers—deployed at tight, low-speed tracks like to maximize cornering grip, often at the expense of straight-line speed. In contrast, low-downforce setups prevail at high-speed venues like Spa-Francorchamps, prioritizing reduced drag for faster sectors while accepting marginally lower cornering limits. is evaluated through sector times, which isolate handling efficiency in specific track portions, allowing teams to quantify trade-offs like a 0.2-0.5 second gain in twisty sectors versus losses on straights. The reintroduction of ground-effect aerodynamics in 2022 marked a significant evolution in handling, aiming to enhance close racing by reducing dirty air sensitivity and improving following distances to under one second. However, initial implementations triggered porpoising—a bouncing that caused rapid fluctuations in and load—reducing grip during braking and direction changes, particularly on high-speed straights where cars could jump up to 40 mm at 300 km/h. By 2023-2025, regulatory tweaks like height limits and team adaptations mitigated these issues, restoring consistent grip and enabling more aggressive overtaking without excessive performance loss.

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