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Gonur Depe
Gonur Depe
Gonur Depe
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Gonur Depe (Turkmen: Goňur depe) is an archaeological site, dated from 2400 to 1600 BCE,[1] and located about 60 km north of Mary (ancient Merv), Turkmenistan consisting of a large early Bronze Age settlement. It is the "capital" or major settlement of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC).

Key Information

Archaeology

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Part of the Gonur Depe ruins, 2011

The site was discovered by Greek-Russian archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi. There he took first pottery shards from surface in 1972,[2] and excavated the site since 1974 to 2013. Sarianidi uncovered a palace, a fortified mud-brick enclosure, and temples with fire altars which he associated with the Zoroastrian religion.[3]

Gonur Depe has a total area of about 55 hectares, and is divided by archaeologists in three main sectors: Gonur North, the Large Necropolis, and Gonur South. The northern part of the complex called Gonur North had a central citadel-like structure about 100 by 180 m (330 by 590 ft) in size.

Gonur North

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The main fortified complex is the almost elliptical sector known as Gonur North, (ca. 330 × 460 m), from ca. 2400 to 1900 BCE, which includes the "Monumental Palace" and annexed buildings, ritual areas and many temples, as well as the "Royal Necropolis" and various water reservoirs.[1] The Monumental Palace was at the centre, (ca. 150 x 140 m), and was surrounded by a double wall, featuring two big courtyards and an axial corridor, as well as a large deposit for products, and inner dwellings which could have been a throne room and audience halls.[4] Near the entry of the Monumental Palace, there were water sources connected to ceramic pipes, maybe for visitors' ritual cleansing.[4]

Bronze tools from Gonur Depe and other BMAC sites.[5]

The Royal Necropolis or Royal Graveyard, located to the southeast in Gonur North, consists of eight underground houses for sepulture and three big pits for the same purpose; artefacts of gold, silver, stone, and bronze were found there, showing the high status of the people buried.[6]: p.31  In the last phase of this necropolis, many objects made of elephant ivory were found, and this level is contemporary to late layers in Altyn Depe in Turkmenistan, and Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan.[1] In excavations at a brick-lined burial pit, grave number 3200 of this Royal necropolis, a horse skeleton was found in period I, dated around 2200 BCE along with a four-wheeled wooden wagon with bronze rims.[7] Archaeologist Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento, mentioning N. A. Dubova's (2015) article, comments that this was an "almost complete skeleton of a foal" resting on the wagon with "wheels circled by bronze bands" and radiocarbon-dated to 2250 BCE.[8] So he considers this horse and the wagon are "one and a half century prior" to similar burials of Sintashta culture.[8] A stone statuette that seems to be a horse with saddle was found in burial number 3210 also in the Royal necropolis and was reported by Sarianidi in 2005, and in burial 3310 parts of a stallion's body were found, the stallion lacked its head, rump, and tail, and was considered as a cult burial of a domestic horse by archaeologist Sarianidi in his 2008 publication.[7]

The Large Necropolis

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There is also a Large Necropolis, with more than three thousand graves of many types in an area of ca. 10 hectares, around 200 m west of Gonur North.[1] Only adults and young people over eight years old were buried in this necropolis, children were buried near houses or in abandoned buildings.[6]: p.33 

In the so-called "tomb of a warrior", number 2380 at this necropolis, a mace head made of bronze and featuring a horse with prominent ears was found.[7]

Mosaics

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Numerous mosaics compositions have been discovered in the Necropolis. These were decorating some of the walls, as well as found on many large wooden trunks and boxes that once held rich royal offerings. These mosaics have been dated to the end of the third millennium BC.[9]

Such mosaics are almost unknown elsewhere in ancient East Asia, yet numerous parallels to these Gonur Depe mosaics have been found in Mari, Syria. Other clear parallels are also found in the Royal Cemetery at Ur.[9]

Gonur South

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Gonur South is a smaller, square complex, (ca.130 × 120 m), about 1.5 hectares in size, inhabited between ca. 1900 and 1600 BCE, fortified with two series of massive concentric walls featuring round towers in their perimeters.[1] The so-called Temenos, also located in Gonur South, is a parallelogram shrine with strong walls, round towers at the corners, and half-towers in the perimeter, that was considered a Soma-cult-related precinct by archaeologist Sarianidi.[6]: p.39  Inside the Temenos a small temple designated as "the fort" was built, the shape of the building is cruciform, bearing twelve round towers, one in each angle of the cross, these towers had a narrow door each one. As it is a later development, this "fort" was not finished, but is very similar to the "fire temple" in Tepe Nush-i Jan.[6]: p.39 

Gonur is among the largest ruins in the Murghab river delta region; over 150 ancient settlements have been found here.

Chronology of the site

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Considering the data of early research in Gonur Depe and recent stratigraphic studies, conducted from 2014 to 2018, Robert M. Sataev, Nadezhda A. Dubova, and Muhamed A. Mamedovone mention five periods, or construction horizons, of this settlement:[10]

Phase Chronology Features
1 (~2500/2300–2000 BCE) the foundation of the site until the construction of the palace.
2 (~2000–1900 BCE) the construction of the palace until the "big fire" in the palace.
3 (~1900–1700 BCE) the restoration of the palace after the fire till it ceased as a residence of the rulers.
4 (~1700–1600 BCE) the departure of the rulers and the use of the palace by common members till its desolation.
5 (~1600–1500 BCE) the desolation of the palace till the abandonment of this territory by the people.

Two sherds in the Geoksjur style of Namazga III period (c. 3200-2800 BCE) were found in Gonur North in the first period of the site, and three radiocarbon samples from Gonur Depe belong to Geoksjur/Sarazm period from narrow walls showing a short-term occupation.[11]

Genetics

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Genetic sequencing of individuals from Gonur finds that the majority of their ancestry is similar to Neolithic Farmers from the Iranian Plateau, with minor amounts of Anatolian Neolithic Farmer, and Eastern European Hunter-Gatherer-related ancestry. A number of outliers at the site, while also being of majority Iranian Neolithic related ancestry, also had some South Asian-related ancestry and less Anatolian-related ancestry, possibly as a result of contact with the Indus Valley Civilisation.[12]

Soma drink

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Sarianidi found what appears to be the boiler for the ritual drink soma, which is mentioned in the Rigveda and also in the Avesta as haoma. Sarianidi says he also found dishes with traces of cannabis, poppy and ephedra. According to him, this discovery strengthens the theory that these were the ingredients of soma.[13]

The excavations of the settlement of Ulug Tepe, near Dushak in south Turkmenistan, found similar implements for making soma drink, described as a "pressure set". The finds were made in the Late Bronze layers.

The implements,

"... consisted of a huge stone mortar and a pestle, a pressing stone with a half-spheric projection in its centre and next to it a similar one with a half-spheric deepening."[13]

South Turkmenistan also belonged to the area of Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex.

Historical context

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Scholars believe that the ancient Oxus river culture (Bactria-Margiana) may have its origin at sites like Anau, on the northern slopes of the Kopet-Dag mountains. Anau dates back to 6500 BCE. Later settlements like Gonur may have been founded by people who moved there from the Kopet-Dag area because of changing climate.[14]

There were increasing incursions of nomadic encampments of the Andronovo culture at the site during the period 1800-1500 BCE. According to Lamberg-Karlovsky, the presence at Gonur of Andronovo pottery (the characteristic ceramics of the Eurasian steppes, where the modern horse was domesticated) certainly implies that the horse was known to the BMAC. However, Sarianidi disregards the steppe connection for the presence of the horse in BMAC.[15]

Mallory (1997) points out that the BMAC fortified settlements such as Gonur and Togolok resemble the qila, the type of fort known in this region in the historical period. They may be circular or rectangular and have up to three encircling walls. Within the forts are residential quarters, workshops and temples.[16]

The site was most likely abandoned after the course of the Murghab River shifted to the west.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Gonur Depe

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Gonur Depe is a major archaeological site situated in the southeastern of , within the ancient delta of the Murghab River, approximately 60 kilometers north of the city of Mary. Dating from roughly 2400 to 1600 BCE, it represents the largest and most prominent settlement of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), also known as the Oxus Civilization, and likely served as the capital of an ancient kingdom called Margush. Discovered in 1972 by Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi during aerial surveys, Gonur Depe has been the focus of extensive excavations since 1974 as part of the Margiana Archaeological Expedition, revealing a fortified urban center spanning over 55 hectares with a palace-temple complex, residential areas, craft workshops, and more than 20 satellite settlements. The site's mudbrick architecture, including multi-roomed structures and underground tombs, reflects advanced and a society with hierarchical social structures, evidenced by elite "royal" burials containing executed retainers, animal sacrifices, and lavish such as and silver vessels, jewelry, etched carnelian beads, ivory combs, and chlorite stone vessels. As a pivotal node in the Middle Asian Interaction Sphere, Gonur Depe facilitated extensive trade networks linking , the Indus Valley Civilization, and the , as demonstrated by artifacts like Indus stamp seals, cylinder seals, and imports that highlight cultural exchanges and technological innovations during the Middle . Ritual practices at the site, including possible preparation in funerary contexts with silver strainers and hearths, suggest connections to early Indo-Iranian religious traditions, while recent discoveries like a 2019 polychrome painting on wood—depicting an anthropomorphic figure and the first of its kind from the BMAC—underscore the site's artistic sophistication and ongoing research potential. Excavations continued in , uncovering new artifacts including cult vessels, seals depicting astronomical motifs, and evidence of production.

Introduction and Location

Geographical Setting

Gonur Depe is situated in the Mary Province of , approximately 60 kilometers north of the city of Mary (ancient ), within the ancient delta of the Murghab River in the broader Merv Oasis region. The site's coordinates are approximately 38°13' N latitude and 62°02' E longitude, placing it deep within the southeastern expanse of the . This location positions Gonur Depe as a key settlement in the relict of the Murghab River, an endorheic system that historically supported communities through its dynamic fluvial network. Topographically, the site occupies a low-lying , or tepe, rising about 4 to 5 meters above the surrounding , constructed on an ancient takyr—a flat, clayey alluvial formation elevated roughly 2 meters above the adjacent terrain. The overall of the area is around 185 to 190 meters above , with the landscape characterized by expansive, gently sloping alluvial plains interspersed with semi-stable dunes, takyr surfaces, and occasional depressions formed by wind and fluvial processes. These features create a visually obstructed yet fertile environment, where subtle elevation variations of less than 10 meters influence site visibility and preservation. The environmental context is defined by an arid semi-desert climate, with annual precipitation averaging about 100 millimeters, primarily occurring in winter and early spring, alongside hot summers exceeding 40°C and cold winters. This harsh setting, part of the vast , historically depended on seasonal flooding from the Murghab River to sustain via canals and floodplains, fostering tugai woodlands along ancient channels despite high and sparse like saxaul and thorn. Paleoenvironmentally, the region experienced significant shifts around 2000 BCE, including river avulsion and a southward retraction of the delta due to increasing aridization and reduced water flow, which altered channel networks and contributed to the eventual abandonment of settlements like Gonur Depe. Today, access to Gonur Depe remains challenging due to its remote location, typically requiring travel from Mary via limited roads through the Karakum expanse. Preservation efforts face ongoing threats from natural , aeolian deflation of takyr surfaces, and illegal , which exacerbate the site's vulnerability in this unstable, sand-obscured environment.

Archaeological Significance

Gonur Depe stands as the largest and most complex urban center of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), spanning over 55 hectares and exemplifying peak urbanism in during the period from approximately 2400 to 1600 BCE. As a fortified settlement with monumental architecture, it served as a primary hub within the BMAC, which encompassed around 500 sites in the Murghab River delta and surrounding oases, highlighting the scale of societal organization in the region. This site's inclusion in the World Heritage-listed Ancient underscores its status as a cornerstone of early complex societies in arid . The excavations at Gonur Depe have significantly advanced understanding of proto-urban societies, extensive trade networks, and the foundations of early Indo-Iranian cultures. Evidence from the site reveals sophisticated interconnections, including the importation of from sources in and the , as well as tin likely procured from distant polymetallic deposits in the Pamirs or Hindukush, indicating participation in far-reaching exchange systems that linked to , the Indus Valley, and . Genetic analyses of BMAC individuals from related sites confirm ancestral contributions to modern Indo-Iranian-speaking populations, suggesting cultural and demographic influences that shaped linguistic and ritual traditions in the region. Unique features at Gonur Depe, such as evidence of centralized through structured systems, fortified citadels, and planned residential quarters, demonstrate advanced administrative capabilities in and . Ritual complexes, including monumental temples and elaborate necropolises, point to organized religious practices integrated into daily urban life, further illustrating the site's role as a ceremonial and political core. These elements collectively highlight long-distance trade as a driver of economic prosperity and cultural synthesis. Ongoing excavations as of continue to yield new artifacts, such as seals and vessels, enhancing understanding of BMAC culture. The site's discoveries have profoundly influenced modern by prompting a in perceptions of , positioning it as a cradle of complex societies on par with and the Indus Valley, rather than a peripheral zone. Prior to major excavations beginning in the , the region was underestimated in global of ; Gonur Depe's revelations of irrigation-based oases, metallurgical , and intercultural exchanges have redefined the of Eurasian .

Discovery and Excavations

Initial Discovery

Gonur Depe was discovered in 1972 by Viktor Sarianidi, a Soviet archaeologist leading the Margiana Archaeological Expedition, during systematic surveys of the settlements in the Murghab delta of present-day . Initial surface surveys conducted that year revealed abundant pottery shards scattered across the mound, along with visible remnants of mud-brick structures, which immediately suggested links to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), a network of oasis settlements in . To assess the site's depth and extent, Sarianidi opened preliminary test trenches, or soundings, in , with further ones in 1974; these exposed stratified layers containing monumental mud-brick architecture, including walls and foundations indicative of a large urban center. The site's remote position, approximately 60 kilometers north of the city of Mary (near ancient ), presented logistical challenges for early fieldwork, while the broader Soviet political context restricted international collaboration and initial publicity of the findings until later decades. This preliminary exploration paved the way for more extensive excavations beginning in 1974.

Major Excavation Phases

The major excavation phases at Gonur Depe commenced in the 1970s under Viktor Sarianidi's direction as part of the Turkmen-Soviet Archaeological Expedition, with initial soundings in 1972 and 1974 followed by systematic digs starting in 1974 that revealed palaces and temples in the central complex. During the , the expedition prioritized the citadel area, employing stratigraphic methods to uncover multi-layered architectural features and associated artifacts. These efforts, continuing through the , established Gonur Depe as a key urban center within the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex. After the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, excavations transitioned to Turkmen-Russian collaborations, with international teams joining for specialized work; notably, the Italian Ligabue Study and Centre, led by G. Rossi Osmida, conducted a decade of digs (1992–2002) on the , documenting over 500 burials and conservation needs. In the , focus shifted to the and southern residential zones, with Turkmen-Russian teams in 2014–2015 excavating stratified residential areas and applying radiocarbon sampling to organic remains for dating. Methodological evolution incorporated non-invasive geophysical surveys, such as magnetometry, to map buried structures across unexcavated portions of the 55-hectare site, complementing traditional stratigraphic excavation. Preservation initiatives have emphasized artifact stabilization, including the 2017 restoration and museumification of panels to mitigate sand and desert conditions. Ongoing work by the Turkmen-Russian Margiana Expedition, as of , continues to integrate these techniques while prioritizing site protection. In , the expedition uncovered a cylindrical seal depicting possible astronomical motifs, evidence of production, and an animal skull similar to a horse's, among other artifacts.

Site Layout and Features

Gonur North Complex

The Gonur North Complex constitutes the fortified urban core of Gonur Depe, spanning approximately 35 hectares and dating primarily to the Middle Bronze Age phase of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). This densely built area served as the administrative and ceremonial heart of the ancient Margush kingdom, enclosing a range of monumental architecture within its defensive perimeter. Excavations led by Viktor Sarianidi revealed a planned settlement that underscores the advanced organizational capabilities of its inhabitants, distinguishing it from the more expansive, less formalized southern and peripheral zones. The layout centers on a prominent measuring roughly 100 by 180 meters, surrounded by massive rectangular fortification walls reinforced with towers, which provided defense and demarcated the from outer areas. Key structures include the "Royal ," a sprawling multi-room complex featuring multiple courtyards, columned halls, and administrative chambers, interpreted as the residence of rulers. Adjacent to this are fire temples—rectangular buildings with central altars containing ash deposits and hearths—alongside other ceremonial edifices that highlight the site's religious significance. A central mausoleum-like , possibly linked to burials, further emphasizes the complex's multifunctional role. Evidence of deliberate is apparent in the orthogonal street networks and integrated drainage channels that managed water flow across the site. Buildings were constructed primarily from standardized mud-brick (adobe) units, typically 44 by 26 by 14 centimeters, laid on compacted earthen platforms to ensure stability in the arid environment. These materials facilitated the erection of thick walls and multi-story elements, with remnants indicating sophisticated engineering for the period. The complex's functions as a royal residence and ritual center are inferred from the spatial distribution of high-status artifacts, such as imported luxury items concentrated in the palace and ritual paraphernalia in the temples, pointing to centralized governance and ceremonial activities.

Gonur South and Peripheral Areas

The Gonur South and peripheral areas form the expansive outer zones south of the central at Gonur North, covering more than 20 hectares of dispersed settlements, production sites, and infrastructural elements that facilitated the site's growth during the (ca. 2300–1600 BCE). These regions, investigated through geo-magnetic surveys spanning approximately 26 hectares around Gonur South, include unexcavated fields with traces of streets, walls, and activity zones that supported daily life and economic functions beyond the elite core. Excavations and surveys by Viktor Sarianidi and subsequent teams highlight how these areas extended the urban footprint, integrating residential and utilitarian spaces into the broader Margiana oasis system. Key features encompass industrial zones with and high-temperature installations for firing and , concentrated southeast of the third city wall and in a dedicated workshop quarter about 70 meters south of Gonur South (measuring 20 × 50 meters). , vitrified bricks, and structural anomalies indicate specialized , including in multi-room complexes linked to the site's resource needs. Agricultural plots are evidenced by ancient field boundaries and palaeochannels, reconstructed from satellite data and ground surveys, which trace networks feeding small-scale cultivation along the Murghab delta tributaries. Architecture in these peripheral zones features simpler mud-brick constructions, such as low rectangular houses and storage facilities, detected via magnetic anomalies in unexcavated areas east of the and around Gonur South. These structures, often organized in loose clusters with associated craft quarters, contrast with the fortified monumental to the north and reflect a utilitarian design suited to everyday habitation and work. Economically, these southern and peripheral areas underpinned the citadel's operations by supplying crafted goods, foodstuffs, and labor, with evidence of dispersed low-density occupations suggesting a mixed agrarian-craft economy. Site-wide , inferred from settlement scale and burial data, supported several thousand inhabitants across Gonur Depe, with peripheral zones accommodating a significant portion of non-elite residents.

Necropolis and Burial Practices

The at Gonur Depe, often referred to as the Large Necropolis, is situated approximately 200 m west of in the North Gonur sector of the site, forming a key component of the broader settlement complex in ancient Margiana, . This mortuary area spans approximately 10 hectares and encompasses approximately 2,800–3,000 graves containing over 3,000 individuals, reflecting intensive use over several centuries during the (ca. 2300–1600 BC). More recent excavations in 2014–2015 and a 2019 re-evaluation have further mapped 2,831 graves, enhancing understanding of funerary practices. The site's funerary landscape highlights the social complexity of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), with burial density suggesting a supported by the nearby urban core. Burial constructions at the necropolis vary in form and elaboration, indicating stratified social practices. The predominant grave type is the shaft grave, accounting for about 85% of documented interments, typically consisting of deep vertical pits oriented northward where the deceased were placed in a crouched position. Simpler pit graves make up around 10%, while chamber tombs and cists—often lined with brick or stone—comprise roughly 2–4%, reserved for elite individuals or families and featuring multiple chambers for successive burials over generations. Ossuaries, used for secondary interments, are also present, evidencing practices of bone collection after initial exposure or temporary placement. These elite chamber tombs, such as those numbered 2900 and 1301, demonstrate architectural sophistication akin to domestic structures, underscoring the integration of funerary and residential symbolism in BMAC culture. Funerary accompaniments reveal insights into status and , with varying by complexity. Common inclusions encompass ceramics, such as over 1,800 whole vessels and numerous fragments used for offerings or daily symbolism, alongside jewelry like gold and silver beads, pendants, diadems, earrings, and seals. Weapons, including axes, daggers, arrowheads, and mace-heads, appear in higher-status burials, signaling martial or protective roles. Evidence of , particularly horses, is documented in select elite contexts, such as stallion burials (e.g., 2380) or disarticulated remains like a horse's lower in collective 2900, likely denoting high social standing through symbolic provisioning for the . Burial practices at Gonur Depe exhibit a blend of primary and secondary rites, pointing to extended mortuary sequences. Primary inhumations dominate, but secondary burials occur in 3–4% of graves, involving the reinterment of defleshed bones after exposure on platforms or in temporary pits, as inferred from ossuary deposits and fragmented skeletal remains. This defleshing process, possibly conducted at "dakhma"-like exposure sites, aligns with regional BMAC customs emphasizing purification and multi-stage rituals spanning generations, with collective family tombs facilitating ongoing ancestral veneration. Excavations by the Margiana Archaeological Expedition from 1992 onward, including seasons in 2014–2015, led by V.I. Sarianidi and subsequent teams, have illuminated these patterns through systematic mapping of over 2,800 structures.

Artifacts and Material Culture

Mosaics and Decorative Elements

The mosaics of Gonur Depe represent some of the earliest known examples of figurative and geometric decoration in Central Asian art, primarily discovered in the royal and the North Gonur palace complex. These artworks feature inlaid tesserae crafted from specially prepared minerals such as , , and α-quartz, alongside shells and stones, often combined with painted elements on baked or wooden bases. The technique involves precise cutting of tesserae edges for seamless inlaying, achieving a tessellated surface that evens out variations in material thickness, demonstrating advanced craftsmanship unattested elsewhere in the region during the late third millennium BCE. A prominent example is the "Dragon Mosaic" from tomb 3210 in the royal , depicting a mythical creature with a lion's torso, dragon head, and spread wings, rendered in vibrant and hues that highlight its dynamic pose. Similar figurative compositions, such as battling snakes and dragons or griffins in cartouches, appear on panels from the North Gonur , where initial inlays were uncovered in the , suggesting these designs adorned walls or portable objects in elite settings. The color palette, dominated by for backgrounds and for accents, creates striking contrasts that emphasize the forms' vigor and detail. These mosaics likely held symbolic significance, portraying cosmological themes of struggle between chaos and order—exemplified by dragon-snake combats—as protective motifs in and funerary contexts. Analogies with contemporary art from the Mari palace in indicate shared iconographic traditions, possibly reflecting beliefs in divine guardianship over sacred spaces. The intricate execution, including sintered bridges in tesserae production, underscores the specialized artisanal skills of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex inhabitants.

Other Key Artifacts

Excavations at Gonur Depe have yielded a rich assemblage of portable artifacts that illuminate the of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). Ceramics form a primary category, characterized by painted wares featuring geometric motifs such as lines, zigzags, and interlocking patterns applied in black or red slips on buff or gray fabrics. Over 10,000 ceramic sherds have been cataloged from the site, enabling the development of typologies that facilitate comparisons across BMAC settlements and highlight stylistic continuity from earlier Namazga VI traditions. Metalwork represents another key category, including bronze tools like axes, adzes, and needles, as well as ornaments such as beads, pendants, and intricate jewelry incorporating animal motifs. Analysis of 866 metal objects reveals that approximately 67% consist of , with unalloyed used primarily for jewelry and utilitarian items, indicating advanced alloying techniques. Gold and silver artifacts often feature deliberate alloying for durability and aesthetic purposes. Seals, particularly cylinder and stamp varieties, are prominent among the finds, often engraved with animal motifs including eagles, caprids, camels, and occasionally exotic species like elephants, reflecting symbolic or administrative functions. Examples from Gonur Depe's Middle Bronze Age cemetery, such as an openwork compartment seal depicting an eagle, align with broader BMAC glyptic traditions and suggest influences from Mesopotamian and Indus styles. Trade networks are evidenced by imported materials, including chlorite vessels sourced from eastern Iranian workshops, characterized by compartmented designs and incised decorations, and originating from the Indus Valley, which demonstrate long-distance exchange along overland and possibly maritime routes during the late third millennium BCE. Technological insights derive from remains, including facilities for in the northern sector where crucibles and indicate on-site production, alongside areas dedicated to with spindle whorls and weights, and bead-making involving the and of and other semiprecious stones. These s underscore Gonur Depe's role as a production hub within the BMAC, supporting both local needs and export-oriented craft specialization. Recent excavations as of 2024 have uncovered additional artifacts enhancing understanding of BMAC , including a miniature cylindrical seal made from talc-agalmatolite, a clay bulla fragment with impressions from a rectangular stamp-seal depicting a snake, a clay vessel lid with seal impressions, and stone beads from semi-precious materials such as . A firing was also discovered, providing insights into production techniques. In 2025, finds at nearby Gonur-20 included a set of pyramid-shaped figures, balls, and glazed objects possibly used in games or rituals.

Chronology and Dating

Occupational Phases

The occupational phases of Gonur Depe are delineated through stratigraphic analysis of architectural layers, ceramic assemblages, and settlement patterns, revealing a sequence of development from initial settlement to eventual abandonment. These phases, primarily identified by Viktor Sarianidi and refined by subsequent researchers including stratigraphic studies from 2014–2018, reflect the site's evolution within the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), with transitions evidenced by rebuilds over earlier structures and shifts in pottery styles from coarse, hand-made wares to finer wheel-thrown forms. Phase 1 (ca. 2500/2300–2000 BCE) marks the foundation of the site until the construction of , characterized by the initial influx of BMAC populations who established a fortified and basic residential structures on the takyr . Stratigraphic includes the lowest building horizons with simple mud-brick walls and early deposits indicating connections to southern Central Asian traditions. This phase saw the layout of the central , or "Kremlin," with preliminary zoning for elite and communal areas. (Sarianidi 2007) Phase 2 (ca. 2000–1900 BCE) corresponds to the palace construction until the "big fire," featuring monumental building projects such as the and temple complexes. Artifactual evidence from this period includes increased production of standardized and seals, alongside architectural rebuilds that expanded the North Complex to over 10 hectares. from organic remains in these layers supports this timeline, aligning with the site's role as a regional center. Phase 3 (ca. 1900–1700 BCE) encompasses the restoration until it ceased to serve as a residence, witnessing a gradual decline with the abandonment of outer peripheral areas attributed to shifts in the Murghab River course, which altered water availability and prompted contraction of the settlement. Stratigraphic overlays show partial demolitions and infills, while styles exhibit hybridization with local elements, marking a transitional period. This phase is evidenced by reduced artifact density in peripheral zones and evidence of repair rather than new construction in the core areas. Phase 4 (ca. 1700–1600 BCE) involves the departure of elites and use of the palace by commoners until desolation, with sparse reoccupation primarily in the southern areas amid environmental . Key indicators include thin occupation layers with scant artifacts, such as reused older , and minimal structural modifications, signaling a diminished . Phase 5 (ca. 1600–1500 BCE) represents the final desolation leading to site abandonment.

Dating Methods and Evidence

The chronology of Gonur Depe relies primarily on of organic remains, including charcoal from hearths and short-lived plant materials such as seeds, which provide reliable temporal markers for the site's occupation phases. Over 170 radiocarbon measurements have been obtained across various studies, with about one-third utilizing (AMS) techniques in international laboratories, and calibrated using the OxCal software with the IntCal20 curve to yield dates spanning approximately 2500–1500 BCE. A 2025 study on minor necropoleis added 57 AMS dates, calibrated to a single curve, further supporting the BMAC timeline without significant revisions. Analysis of more than 50 samples from the site's core structures and settlement layers indicates a peak occupation around 2100 BCE, with calibrated ages clustering between 2200–2000 BCE and standard deviations generally ranging from 40–80 years post-calibration; for instance, seven dates from Gonur North fall between 2500–2400 BCE, supporting an early establishment phase. These results draw from systematic sampling across excavation units, excluding dates with large errors to enhance precision. Potential uncertainties in the radiocarbon data, such as the from long-lived tree samples that could overestimate ages, have been mitigated by favoring short-lived specimens like annual seeds and herbaceous , which better reflect the actual period of site use. Complementary evidence comes from stratigraphic sequencing, where layered deposits at Gonur Depe align with dated sequences from nearby BMAC sites like Togolok and Dzharkutan, reinforcing the overall timeline without introducing significant discrepancies. of select pottery has occasionally been employed to cross-verify chronologies, though it plays a secondary role to radiocarbon results.

Cultural and Religious Practices

Soma Drink Rituals

Excavations at Gonur Depe, particularly in the northern temple complex, have uncovered evidence interpreted by archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi as supporting the preparation of a ritual drink akin to the soma of Vedic traditions and of Avestan texts, dating to approximately 2000 BCE. Sarianidi identified specialized structures within the site's , including shrines and fire altars, where psychoactive substances were processed for ceremonial use. These findings led him to suggest that the drink served a hallucinogenic purpose in religious rites, marking Gonur Depe as a potential cradle for early Indo-Iranian cult practices. However, this interpretation has been widely disputed in scholarly literature, with independent residue analyses, such as that by Bakels (2003), identifying broomcorn millet rather than narcotics in the vessels, questioning the psychoactive claims. Sarianidi reported stone basins and ceramic vessels containing what he identified as residues of ephedra (Ephedra sp.), (), and (), which he interpreted as the primary ingredients for the soma-haoma beverage. In the Gonur shrine, analysis of bowls from private ritual rooms reportedly revealed traces of both and ephedra, while similar vessels at nearby Togolok 21 sites in Margiana yielded ephedra and remains, including pollen in a tube. These residues were said to indicate a composite mixture, likely fermented or mixed to enhance psychoactive effects, consistent with textual descriptions of the drink's preparation. Subsequent studies have not confirmed these specific traces, attributing vessel contents to common grains instead. Artifacts associated with the ritual include pressing stones, stone mortars, pestles, and strainers with perforations, used to extract juices from after soaking in large gypsum-lined vats or "small baths." Grinding platforms and fermentation vessels, often found in "white rooms" adjacent to altars, facilitated the processing steps, with wool or cloth likely employed for straining the liquid. Such equipment underscores a standardized procedure for producing a sacred , distinct from everyday activities, though its exact nature remains debated. The rituals occurred in dedicated temple enclosures at Gonur North, featuring double-chambered hearths for purification and fire offerings, pointing to structured ceremonies involving priestly mediation around 2000 BCE. While paralleling the Avestan haoma cult's emphasis on immortality and divine communion, the Gonur practices exhibit Central Asian adaptations, such as the integration of local flora. These site-specific elements highlight the BMAC's potential role in evolving proto-Zoroastrian traditions, though connections to specific Indo-Iranian rites are hypothetical.

Social and Religious Insights

The society at Gonur Depe exhibited a hierarchical structure, characterized by distinct palaces and more modest commoner housing areas within the fortified and peripheral zones. residences, often integrated with temple complexes, featured complex layouts with multiple rooms, hearths, and access to spaces, contrasting with simpler, smaller dwellings for the general that included basic rectangular structures and workshops. This architectural differentiation, combined with disparities in such as luxury metals and ceremonial items for elites versus minimal ceramics for others, indicates a stratified with a , middle , and lower tiers comprising approximately 4%, 85%, and 11% of the , respectively. Religious practices at the site centered on , evidenced by rectangular fire altars in temple enclosures, often layered successively and associated with ash deposits containing carbonized bones, pointing to proto-Zoroastrian rituals involving purification and offerings. Animal iconography, prominently featured in seals and amulets depicting composite creatures like griffins and dragons, underscores the symbolic role of in belief systems, possibly representing protective deities or cosmological forces. Zodiac-like motifs on these artifacts, including sequential animal representations, suggest early astronomical or calendrical elements integrated into . Insights into daily life reveal a pastoral-agricultural economy, with faunal remains dominated by sheep and goat (over 50% of assemblages) supplemented by horse and cattle, indicating herding as a core activity alongside crop cultivation. Gender roles appear differentiated, with female-associated artifacts like jewelry and adornments suggesting specialized ornamental practices, while male indicators include tools and weapons. Community organization likely included a priestly class, inferred from restricted temple access via encircling walls and the presence of ritual paraphernalia in select contexts, overseeing ceremonies such as the proposed soma drink ritual.

Scientific Studies

Genetic Analyses

Genetic analyses of human remains from Gonur Depe, a key site of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), have provided insights into the population's ancestry, , and connections to broader migrations in . In the late , researchers extracted from over 40 skeletons dating to approximately 2500–1600 BCE, primarily from burial contexts such as kurgans. These studies involved whole-genome sequencing, with libraries prepared for Illumina platforms and enriched for around 1.2 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to achieve sufficient coverage for population-level analyses. Admixture modeling, using tools like qpAdm, revealed that the main genetic cluster at Gonur Depe consisted predominantly of local farmer-related ancestry, with approximately 60–80% derived from Iranian Neolithic sources (e.g., ), 12–26% from Anatolian farmers, and 2–12% from West Siberian Hunter-Gatherers (WSHG). Several outliers showed admixture with pastoralist ancestry, ranging from 11–50% related to Yamnaya or Central Middle to Late groups, mixed with 50–89% Iranian farmer components and minimal Anatolian influence. This component, appearing around 2100–1700 BCE, indicates gene flow from populations into the BMAC region. Comparisons with modern Central Asian groups, such as and , highlight continuity in the Iranian farmer ancestry while underscoring the localized nature of the BMAC gene pool. Subsequent studies, such as a 2022 analysis of an individual from nearby Ulug-depe and 2024 data from additional Gonur samples, reinforce these ancestry patterns without major contradictions. Y-chromosome haplogroup analysis identified in some male samples associated with ancestry, supporting linguistic and archaeological evidence for migrations into the region. Other haplogroups included H1a1d2 in outliers and diverse basal types like CT and in the main cluster. was notably low, evidenced by related individuals and elevated inbreeding coefficients, suggesting within small, closely knit communities over several centuries. No genomic evidence for specific health conditions, such as or dental pathologies, was reported in these analyses, though broader osteological studies complement the genetic data.

Isotopic and Environmental Studies

Isotopic analyses of human remains from BMAC sites, including those in the Margiana region near Gonur Depe, have revealed patterns of limited population mobility and a predominantly supplemented by . (^{87}Sr/^{86}Sr) and oxygen (δ^{18}O) isotope ratios in from individuals at nearby Ulug Depe and Dzharkutan indicate low variation consistent with local origins, with strontium values clustering within narrow regional baselines (e.g., 0.7078–0.7085 at Ulug Depe) and oxygen values ranging from -6.9‰ to -3.8‰, suggesting residential mobility of less than 50 km during childhood. These signatures align with the arid, low-altitude environment of the Murghab Delta, where Gonur Depe was situated, implying that most inhabitants were born and raised locally without significant long-distance migration. Carbon (δ^{13}C) and nitrogen (δ^{15}N) isotope data from bone collagen further elucidate dietary practices, pointing to a reliance on C3 plants such as wheat and barley, with contributions from herded animals. At Ulug Depe, human δ^{13}C values average -19.4‰ (±1.1‰), indicative of a terrestrial C3-dominated diet with minimal marine or C4 plant input, while δ^{15}N values around 13.3‰ (±1.0‰) reflect moderate trophic levels from pastoral resources like sheep and goats under arid conditions. Similar patterns emerge at Dzharkutan, with δ^{13}C averaging -19.2‰ and δ^{15}N at 12.1‰, underscoring a mixed agro-pastoral economy where animal protein was secondary to plant foods, adapted to the delta's irrigated agriculture. These isotopic profiles, representative of BMAC subsistence in the Gonur Depe vicinity, highlight efficient resource use in a challenging environment without evidence of nutritional stress from over-reliance on pastoralism. Faunal isotope studies corroborate human dietary inferences and confirm herding practices central to the economy. Oxygen isotope analysis of sheep and goat remains at Ulug Depe shows δ^{18}O values around -4‰, consistent with local water sources and seasonal grazing in the Murghab floodplain, while carbon values indicate partial C4 forage consumption (e.g., -17.1‰ to -13.9‰ in cattle), suggesting managed pastures with millet or wild grasses. Nitrogen levels in ovicaprids (10.0–12.4‰) reflect water-stressed vegetation, aligning with the herding of transhumant flocks that supported Gonur Depe's urban population without extensive wild game hunting. Paleoenvironmental reconstructions link the decline of Gonur Depe around 1800 BCE to progressive aridification in southern . cores from the basin reveal a shift toward drier conditions from approximately 3850 , with declining arboreal and rising xerophytic taxa indicating reduced humidity that impacted the Murghab Delta's by the late . analysis of the Murghab River demonstrates channel retraction and increased aeolian deposition starting in the mid-4th , correlating with diminished fluvial input and oasis contraction that likely strained Gonur Depe's systems and contributed to site abandonment. These changes, while not abrupt, fostered ecological instability around 1800 BCE, exacerbating resource scarcity for BMAC settlements like Gonur Depe.

Historical Context

Role in the BMAC Civilization

The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), also known as the Oxus Civilization, was a network spanning approximately 2300–1700 BCE across regions in modern-day , , and northern , characterized by urban settlements, irrigation systems, and extensive trade connections. Gonur Depe emerged as a central site within this complex, often regarded as its "capital" due to its scale and prominence in the Margiana oasis of the Murghab River delta. Recent research as of 2025 has confirmed its special role as a key administrative and ritual center. Covering around 55 hectares in its main phase, it featured the largest fortifications among BMAC sites, including massive mud-brick walls and citadels that enclosed palaces, temples, and residential areas, underscoring its role as a political and administrative hub. Gonur Depe contributed significantly to the BMAC's cultural unification through standardized and seals that defined the complex's stylistic coherence. Monumental structures at the site, such as the "Royal Palace" and fire temples with distinctive orthogonal layouts and baked-brick elements, exemplified a shared BMAC architectural tradition that influenced settlements across Margiana and . Similarly, the production of and stamp seals at Gonur Depe, featuring geometric, zoomorphic, and anthropomorphic motifs like eagles and composite creatures, established a unifying glyptic style that circulated widely, serving administrative, ritual, and trade functions throughout the BMAC. These artifacts, often made from materials like and steatite, highlight Gonur's role in disseminating standardized that reinforced across the network. Economically, Gonur Depe functioned as a vital hub, leveraging its oasis location for intensive , advanced , and strategic trade. canals drawn from the Murghab River supported cultivation of crops such as free-threshing , , peas, lentils, and chickpeas, enabling surplus production that sustained a large population estimated at several thousand. workshops at the site produced copper-base tools, weapons, and ornaments, with evidence of local smelting and alloying techniques that integrated into broader BMAC networks. As a nexus on overland routes, Gonur facilitated trade in luxury goods like , tin, and , connecting Central Asian oases to regions as far as the and Indus Valley, thereby driving economic integration within the BMAC. The site's prominence waned around 1700 BCE, marking the broader decline of the BMAC, attributed to a combination of internal of resources leading to soil salinization and reduced agricultural yields, alongside external pressures from pastoralist migrations, possibly including Andronovo-related groups from the north. These factors prompted a shift toward smaller settlements and pastoral economies, with Gonur Depe's main abandoned by circa 1700 BCE while peripheral areas persisted briefly into the late second millennium.

Connections to Neighboring Cultures

Gonur Depe served as a pivotal node in the Middle Asian Interaction Sphere, facilitating extensive trade and cultural exchanges with the Indus Valley Civilization during the late third millennium BCE. Excavations have uncovered an Indus dated to 2170–2050 BCE, directly evidencing commercial ties that likely involved the exchange of luxury goods such as and beads. Additionally, etched beads and standardized weights akin to those used in the Indus system suggest regulated commerce around 2000 BCE, with Indus merchants adapting products for BMAC markets. These artifacts indicate not only economic interaction but also the flow of administrative technologies, as s were employed to authenticate traded commodities. Interactions with the and broader steppe pastoralists are attested through bronze artifacts, including horse gear and weapons, reflecting technological and possibly migratory influences from the Eurasian s during the Middle to Late . Horse components and weaponry found in Gonur Depe graves point to the adoption of pastoralist equestrian practices, which may have integrated with local BMAC traditions around 2000–1700 BCE. Such items, including ornaments and tools, highlight shared metallurgical expertise between BMAC urban centers and mobile Andronovo groups, fostering a culture. Genetic evidence further supports limited admixture in the region, consistent with these cultural contacts. Ties to Mesopotamian and Iranian regions are evident in chlorite artifacts and cylinder seals, which demonstrate stylistic borrowing and elite exchanges across the . Four foreign-origin cylinder seals, including one inscribed with an Akkadian animal scene, were discovered at Gonur Depe, indicating influences from Mesopotamian administrative iconography during the early second millennium BCE. vessels, sourced from southeastern Iranian workshops, feature motifs adapted into BMAC styles, suggesting artisanal transmission and trade in prestige goods. These connections underscore Gonur Depe's role in a wider network linking urban centers of the with Central Asian oases. Provenience studies of artifacts reinforce these exchanges, with beads and inlays at Gonur Depe traced to the Sar-e-Sang mines in , , approximately 500 km to the southeast. This semi-precious stone, prized for its deep blue hue, traveled vast distances via overland routes, exemplifying the scale of BMAC commerce and resource procurement networks. Isotopic analyses confirm as the primary source for such materials in , highlighting sustained interactions with highland mining communities.

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