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Desert climate
Desert climate
Desert climate
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Regions with desert climates
  BWh (hot desert climates)
  BWk (cold desert climates)

The desert climate or arid climate (in the Köppen climate classification BWh and BWk) is a dry climate sub-type in which there is a severe excess of evaporation over precipitation. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert climates are dry and hold little moisture, quickly evaporating the already little rainfall they receive. Covering 14.2% of Earth's land area, hot deserts are the second-most common type of climate on Earth after the Polar climate.[1]

There are two variations of a desert climate according to the Köppen climate classification: a hot desert climate (BWh), and a cold desert climate (BWk). To delineate "hot desert climates" from "cold desert climates", a mean annual temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) is used as an isotherm so that a location with a BW type climate with the appropriate temperature above this isotherm is classified as "hot arid subtype" (BWh), and a location with the appropriate temperature below the isotherm is classified as "cold arid subtype" (BWk).

Most desert/arid climates receive between 25 and 200 mm (1 and 8 in) of rainfall annually,[2][3] although some of the most consistently hot areas of Central Australia, the Sahel and Guajira Peninsula can be, due to extreme potential evapotranspiration, classed as arid with the annual rainfall as high as 430 millimetres or 17 inches.

Precipitation

[edit]

Although no part of Earth is known for certain to be rainless, in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, the average annual rainfall over 17 years was only 5 millimetres (0.20 in). Some locations in the Sahara Desert such as Kufra, Libya, record an even drier 0.86 mm (0.034 in) of rainfall annually. The official weather station in Death Valley, United States reports 60 mm (2.4 in) annually, but in 40 months between 1931 and 1934 a total of just 16 mm (0.63 in) of rainfall was measured.

To determine whether a location has an arid climate, the precipitation threshold is determined. The precipitation threshold (in millimetres) involves first multiplying the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then adding 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun summer half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or 140 if 30–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received there. If the area's annual precipitation is less than half the threshold (50%), it is classified as a BW (desert climate), while 50–100% of the threshold results in a semi-arid climate.[1]

Hot desert climates

[edit]
"BWh" redirects here. For other uses, see Bwh (disambiguation).
Namib Desert in Southern Africa

Hot desert climates (BWh) are typically found under the subtropical ridge in the lower middle latitudes or the subtropics, often between 20° and 33° north and south latitudes. In these locations, stable descending air and high pressure aloft clear clouds and create hot, arid conditions with intense sunshine. Hot desert climates are found across vast areas of North Africa, West Asia, northwestern parts of the Indian Subcontinent, southwestern Africa, interior Australia, the Southwestern United States, northern Mexico, sections of southeastern Spain, the coast of Peru and Chile and parts of the Brazilian sertão. This makes hot deserts present in every continent except Antarctica.

At the time of high sun (summer), scorching, desiccating heat prevails. Hot-month average temperatures are normally between 29 and 35 °C (84 and 95 °F), and midday readings of 43–46 °C (109–115 °F) are common. The world's absolute heat records, over 50 °C (122 °F), are generally in the hot deserts, where the heat potential can be the highest on the planet. This includes the record of 56.7 °C (134.1 °F) in Death Valley, which is currently considered the highest temperature recorded on Earth.[4] Some deserts in the tropics consistently experience very high temperatures all year long, even during wintertime. These locations feature some of the highest annual average temperatures recorded on Earth, exceeding 30 °C (86 °F), up to nearly 35 °C (95 °F) in Dallol, Ethiopia. This last feature is seen in sections of Africa and Arabia. During colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the exceptional radiation loss under the clear skies. However, temperatures rarely drop far below freezing under the hot subtype.

Regions with hot desert climates

Hot desert climates can be found in the deserts of North Africa such as the wide Sahara Desert, the Libyan Desert or the Nubian Desert; deserts of the Horn of Africa such as the Danakil Desert or the Grand Bara Desert; deserts of Southern Africa such as the Namib Desert or the Kalahari Desert; deserts of West Asia such as the Arabian Desert, or the Syrian Desert; deserts of South Asia such as Dasht-e Lut and Dasht-e Kavir of Iran or the Thar Desert of India and Pakistan; deserts of the United States and Mexico such as the Mojave Desert, the Sonoran Desert or the Chihuahuan Desert; deserts of Australia such as the Simpson Desert or the Great Victoria Desert and many other regions. In Europe, the hot desert climate can only be found on southeastern coast of Spain as well as small inland parts of southeastern, especially parts of the Tabernas Desert.[5][6]

Sahara Desert in Morocco.

Hot deserts are lands of extremes: most of them are among the hottest, the driest, and the sunniest places on Earth because of nearly constant high pressure; the almost permanent removal of low-pressure systems, dynamic fronts, and atmospheric disturbances; sinking air motion; dry atmosphere near the surface and aloft; the exacerbated exposure to the sun where solar angles are always high makes this desert inhospitable to most species.

Cold desert climates

[edit]
"BWk" redirects here. For other uses, see BWK.
Regions with cold desert climates

Cold desert climates (BWk) usually feature hot (or warm in a few instances), dry summers, though summers are not typically as hot as hot desert climates. Unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold, dry winters. Snow tends to be rare in regions with this climate. The Gobi Desert in northern China and Mongolia is one example of a cold desert. Though hot in the summer, it shares the freezing winters of the rest of Inner Asia. Summers in South America's Atacama Desert are mild, with only slight temperature variations between seasons. Cold desert climates are typically found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates and are usually drier than hot desert climates.

The Atacama Desert in Chile
The Gobi Desert in Mongolia

Cold desert climates are typically located in temperate zones in the 30s and 40s latitudes, usually in the leeward rain shadow of high mountains, restricting precipitation from the westerly winds. An example of this is the Patagonian Desert in Argentina, bounded by the Andes ranges to its west. In the case of Central Asia, mountains restrict precipitation from the eastern monsoon. The Kyzyl Kum, Taklamakan and Katpana Desert deserts of Central Asia are other significant examples of BWk climates. The Ladakh region and the city of Leh in the Great Himalayas in India also have a cold desert climate. In North America, the cold desert climate occurs in the drier parts of the Great Basin Desert and the Bighorn Basin in Big Horn and Washakie County in Wyoming. The Hautes Plaines, located in the northeastern section of Morocco and in Algeria, is another prominent example of a cold desert climate. In Europe, this climate only occurs in some inland parts of southeastern Spain, such as in Lorca.[7][6]

Polar climate desert areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions receive very little precipitation during the year owing to the cold, dry air freezing most precipitation. Polar desert climates have desert-like features that occur in cold desert climates, including intermittent streams, hypersaline lakes, and extremely barren terrain in unglaciated areas such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica. These areas are generally classified as having polar climates because they have average summer temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F) even if they have some characteristics of extreme non-polar deserts.[8]

Climate charts

[edit]

Hot deserts

[edit]
Sabha, Libya
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
7
 
 
19
6
 
 
0
 
 
21
8
 
 
10
 
 
26
12
 
 
7
 
 
32
17
 
 
1
 
 
36
22
 
 
0
 
 
39
25
 
 
0
 
 
39
25
 
 
0
 
 
39
25
 
 
0
 
 
38
24
 
 
0
 
 
29
19
 
 
1
 
 
26
12
 
 
1
 
 
20
7
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: World Weather Online
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.3
 
 
66
43
 
 
0
 
 
70
46
 
 
0.4
 
 
79
54
 
 
0.3
 
 
90
63
 
 
0
 
 
97
72
 
 
0
 
 
102
77
 
 
0
 
 
102
77
 
 
0
 
 
102
77
 
 
0
 
 
100
75
 
 
0
 
 
84
66
 
 
0
 
 
79
54
 
 
0
 
 
68
45
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Karachi, Pakistan (bordering on semi arid)
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
11
 
 
26
12
 
 
5.5
 
 
29
15
 
 
3.2
 
 
33
19
 
 
21
 
 
35
24
 
 
26
 
 
36
27
 
 
45
 
 
36
29
 
 
73
 
 
34
28
 
 
105
 
 
33
27
 
 
44
 
 
33
26
 
 
13
 
 
36
23
 
 
0.7
 
 
33
18
 
 
5.6
 
 
28
13
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: NOAA[9]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.4
 
 
79
54
 
 
0.2
 
 
84
59
 
 
0.1
 
 
91
67
 
 
0.8
 
 
95
75
 
 
1
 
 
96
81
 
 
1.8
 
 
96
83
 
 
2.9
 
 
92
82
 
 
4.1
 
 
91
80
 
 
1.7
 
 
92
79
 
 
0.5
 
 
96
73
 
 
0
 
 
91
64
 
 
0.2
 
 
83
56
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
14
 
 
15
5
 
 
20
 
 
17
7
 
 
11
 
 
22
10
 
 
5.1
 
 
26
14
 
 
1.8
 
 
31
19
 
 
1
 
 
37
24
 
 
9.7
 
 
40
28
 
 
8.1
 
 
39
27
 
 
8.1
 
 
35
22
 
 
8.1
 
 
27
15
 
 
7.6
 
 
20
9
 
 
11
 
 
14
4
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: NOAA[10]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.6
 
 
58
40
 
 
0.8
 
 
63
44
 
 
0.4
 
 
71
51
 
 
0.2
 
 
78
57
 
 
0.1
 
 
89
66
 
 
0
 
 
99
76
 
 
0.4
 
 
105
82
 
 
0.3
 
 
103
81
 
 
0.3
 
 
95
72
 
 
0.3
 
 
81
60
 
 
0.3
 
 
67
47
 
 
0.4
 
 
57
40
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Baghdad, Iraq
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
25
 
 
16
5
 
 
17
 
 
19
7
 
 
16
 
 
25
11
 
 
16
 
 
31
16
 
 
3.3
 
 
37
21
 
 
0
 
 
43
25
 
 
0
 
 
45
27
 
 
0
 
 
45
26
 
 
0.1
 
 
40
22
 
 
7.6
 
 
34
17
 
 
24
 
 
24
10
 
 
17
 
 
18
6
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Climate & Temperature[11][12]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
1
 
 
61
40
 
 
0.7
 
 
67
44
 
 
0.6
 
 
76
51
 
 
0.6
 
 
87
60
 
 
0.1
 
 
99
70
 
 
0
 
 
109
77
 
 
0
 
 
112
80
 
 
0
 
 
112
79
 
 
0
 
 
105
72
 
 
0.3
 
 
93
63
 
 
0.9
 
 
75
50
 
 
0.7
 
 
64
43
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Coober Pedy, Australia
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
15
 
 
37
22
 
 
14
 
 
36
22
 
 
11
 
 
32
19
 
 
14
 
 
27
14
 
 
9.4
 
 
22
10
 
 
13
 
 
18
7
 
 
4.8
 
 
19
6
 
 
6.6
 
 
21
8
 
 
8.2
 
 
26
11
 
 
13
 
 
29
14
 
 
15
 
 
32
18
 
 
19
 
 
35
20
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Bureau of Meteorology (1994–2024 normals, extremes to 1965)[13]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.6
 
 
98
72
 
 
0.6
 
 
96
71
 
 
0.4
 
 
90
65
 
 
0.6
 
 
81
58
 
 
0.4
 
 
72
50
 
 
0.5
 
 
65
44
 
 
0.2
 
 
66
43
 
 
0.3
 
 
70
46
 
 
0.3
 
 
78
52
 
 
0.5
 
 
84
58
 
 
0.6
 
 
90
64
 
 
0.8
 
 
94
68
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Lima, Peru
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
0.8
 
 
26
21
 
 
0.4
 
 
28
21
 
 
0.4
 
 
27
21
 
 
0.1
 
 
25
19
 
 
0.3
 
 
22
17
 
 
0.7
 
 
20
17
 
 
1
 
 
19
16
 
 
1.5
 
 
19
15
 
 
0.7
 
 
19
15
 
 
0.2
 
 
20
16
 
 
0.1
 
 
22
17
 
 
0.2
 
 
24
19
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology of Peru (SENAMHI)[14]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0
 
 
79
69
 
 
0
 
 
82
70
 
 
0
 
 
81
69
 
 
0
 
 
76
66
 
 
0
 
 
71
63
 
 
0
 
 
68
62
 
 
0
 
 
66
61
 
 
0.1
 
 
65
59
 
 
0
 
 
66
60
 
 
0
 
 
68
61
 
 
0
 
 
71
63
 
 
0
 
 
75
66
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches


Cold deserts

[edit]
Leh, India
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
4.3
 
 
2
−13
 
 
2.5
 
 
4
−9
 
 
1.5
 
 
10
−4
 
 
1.7
 
 
15
2
 
 
0.6
 
 
20
6
 
 
2.9
 
 
24
11
 
 
6.8
 
 
29
16
 
 
6.2
 
 
28
15
 
 
4.4
 
 
23
9
 
 
2.3
 
 
17
0
 
 
0.7
 
 
11
−7
 
 
1
 
 
5
−12
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: [15]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.2
 
 
35
8
 
 
0.1
 
 
40
15
 
 
0.1
 
 
49
25
 
 
0.1
 
 
60
35
 
 
0
 
 
68
43
 
 
0.1
 
 
76
52
 
 
0.3
 
 
83
61
 
 
0.2
 
 
83
59
 
 
0.2
 
 
74
49
 
 
0.1
 
 
62
33
 
 
0
 
 
51
19
 
 
0
 
 
40
11
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Turpan, Xinjiang, China
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
0.9
 
 
−2
−10
 
 
0.5
 
 
7
−4
 
 
0.7
 
 
18
6
 
 
0.9
 
 
28
14
 
 
1
 
 
34
20
 
 
2.6
 
 
39
25
 
 
2
 
 
41
27
 
 
2
 
 
39
25
 
 
1.4
 
 
33
18
 
 
1.2
 
 
23
9
 
 
0.6
 
 
10
0
 
 
0.9
 
 
0
−8
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: China Meteorological Administration[16][17]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0
 
 
28
13
 
 
0
 
 
45
26
 
 
0
 
 
64
43
 
 
0
 
 
82
58
 
 
0
 
 
93
68
 
 
0.1
 
 
102
76
 
 
0.1
 
 
105
80
 
 
0.1
 
 
102
76
 
 
0.1
 
 
91
65
 
 
0
 
 
73
48
 
 
0
 
 
51
33
 
 
0
 
 
31
18
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Damascus, Syria
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
26
 
 
13
1
 
 
22
 
 
15
2
 
 
14
 
 
20
5
 
 
5.6
 
 
25
8
 
 
4.8
 
 
31
12
 
 
0.3
 
 
35
16
 
 
0
 
 
38
19
 
 
0
 
 
38
19
 
 
0.3
 
 
35
15
 
 
6.3
 
 
29
11
 
 
21
 
 
21
5
 
 
24
 
 
15
2
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: NOAA (mean temperature 1961–1990, humidity and sun 1970–1990)[18]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
1
 
 
56
33
 
 
0.9
 
 
60
36
 
 
0.5
 
 
68
41
 
 
0.2
 
 
78
46
 
 
0.2
 
 
88
54
 
 
0
 
 
96
61
 
 
0
 
 
100
65
 
 
0
 
 
100
65
 
 
0
 
 
94
60
 
 
0.2
 
 
84
52
 
 
0.8
 
 
69
41
 
 
0.9
 
 
59
35
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
12
 
 
15
−1
 
 
9.1
 
 
18
1
 
 
6.6
 
 
22
4
 
 
5.6
 
 
26
8
 
 
9.7
 
 
31
12
 
 
17
 
 
36
18
 
 
45
 
 
35
21
 
 
44
 
 
34
20
 
 
36
 
 
31
16
 
 
21
 
 
26
9
 
 
11
 
 
20
3
 
 
16
 
 
15
−1
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: NOAA[19]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.5
 
 
59
30
 
 
0.4
 
 
64
33
 
 
0.3
 
 
71
39
 
 
0.2
 
 
78
46
 
 
0.4
 
 
87
54
 
 
0.7
 
 
96
64
 
 
1.8
 
 
96
69
 
 
1.7
 
 
94
68
 
 
1.4
 
 
88
61
 
 
0.8
 
 
80
48
 
 
0.4
 
 
68
37
 
 
0.6
 
 
58
30
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Aral, Kazakhstan
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
11
 
 
−7
−14
 
 
13
 
 
−5
−14
 
 
16
 
 
5
−4
 
 
14
 
 
18
6
 
 
14
 
 
27
13
 
 
12
 
 
32
18
 
 
8
 
 
34
21
 
 
6
 
 
33
18
 
 
4
 
 
25
11
 
 
14
 
 
16
3
 
 
14
 
 
4
−4
 
 
13
 
 
−4
−11
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Pogoda.ru.net[20]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0.4
 
 
20
6
 
 
0.5
 
 
23
8
 
 
0.6
 
 
42
24
 
 
0.6
 
 
65
42
 
 
0.6
 
 
80
55
 
 
0.5
 
 
90
65
 
 
0.3
 
 
94
69
 
 
0.2
 
 
91
65
 
 
0.2
 
 
77
52
 
 
0.6
 
 
60
38
 
 
0.6
 
 
39
24
 
 
0.5
 
 
24
11
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches
Antofagasta, Chile
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
0
 
 
24
17
 
 
0
 
 
24
17
 
 
0.8
 
 
23
16
 
 
0.1
 
 
21
15
 
 
0.2
 
 
19
13
 
 
1.5
 
 
17
12
 
 
0.4
 
 
17
12
 
 
0.8
 
 
17
12
 
 
0.2
 
 
17
13
 
 
0.2
 
 
19
14
 
 
0.1
 
 
20
15
 
 
0.1
 
 
22
16
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Dirección Meteorológica de Chile[21]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
0
 
 
74
63
 
 
0
 
 
74
63
 
 
0
 
 
73
61
 
 
0
 
 
69
58
 
 
0
 
 
66
56
 
 
0.1
 
 
63
54
 
 
0
 
 
62
53
 
 
0
 
 
62
54
 
 
0
 
 
63
55
 
 
0
 
 
65
57
 
 
0
 
 
68
59
 
 
0
 
 
71
61
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Desert climate

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A desert climate, also known as an arid climate, is defined by extremely low annual , typically less than 250 millimeters (about 10 inches), where potential evapotranspiration far exceeds incoming moisture, resulting in persistent dryness, sparse , and adaptations in and to . These climates occupy approximately one-fifth of Earth's surface, spanning diverse regions from subtropical latitudes to continental interiors, and are shaped by factors such as subtropical high-pressure systems that suppress rainfall and topographic rain shadows that block moist air masses. Key characteristics include high solar radiation leading to intense daytime heating, large diurnal temperature swings often exceeding 20°C (36°F), low relative , and minimal , which exacerbate and influence local ecosystems. In the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system, desert climates fall under the "B" group for dry climates, specifically "BW" for true s, where annual is less than 50% of a calculated threshold based on mean annual and seasonality—typically around 2 times the annual in degrees Celsius (adjusted for winter or summer dominance). This threshold ensures that evaporation potential outpaces rainfall, distinguishing deserts from semi-arid steppes (BS). Subdivisions include hot climates (BWh), where the annual mean is 18°C (64°F) or higher and summers can exceed 40°C (104°F), and cold climates (BWk), featuring annual means below 18°C with winters often dropping below freezing, though summers remain warm. Hot deserts like the and Sonoran dominate in the subtropics between 15° and 30° latitude, driven by subsidence, while cold deserts such as the Gobi and occur in mid-latitudes due to distance from oceans or orographic barriers. Desert climates exhibit notable variability in precipitation patterns, often receiving erratic, convective storms rather than steady , with some regions experiencing prolonged droughts interrupted by flash floods. These conditions support unique , including drought-resistant plants like cacti and succulents in hot deserts, and hardy shrubs or grasses in cold ones, while human activities such as and pose challenges through water overuse and . is projected to intensify desert conditions, with rising temperatures potentially expanding arid zones and altering seasonal patterns; however, some models suggest regions like the may experience increased .

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A desert climate is defined as a type of arid climate where annual precipitation is typically less than 250 mm (10 inches), and evaporation rates substantially exceed precipitation, leading to persistent water deficits. This low moisture availability distinguishes desert climates from more humid regimes, emphasizing aridity as the primary controlling factor for ecosystems and landforms. A more precise measure of aridity is the (AI), calculated as the ratio of annual (P) to potential evapotranspiration (PET): AI=PPET\text{AI} = \frac{P}{\text{PET}} Desert conditions are indicated when AI < 0.20, reflecting severe dryness where potential water loss far outpaces supply. Desert climates exhibit more extreme aridity than semi-arid climates (also known as steppes), which receive 250–500 mm of annual or have AI values between 0.20 and 0.50. This threshold-based distinction highlights the transition from sparse vegetation in deserts to grasslands in semi-arid zones. Early definitions of desert climates were established by climatologist Wladimir Köppen in the early 20th century, integrating precipitation thresholds with temperature and vegetation patterns in his influential classification system.

Key Meteorological Features

Desert climates are characterized by a pronounced high diurnal temperature range, where in hot deserts daytime highs frequently exceed 40°C (104°F) due to intense solar heating on sparse vegetation and dry surfaces, while nighttime lows often fall below 10°C (50°F) as rapid radiative cooling occurs in the absence of moisture to retain heat. This results in an average daily temperature variation of 15–20°C, driven by the low thermal inertia of arid soils and clear atmospheric conditions that allow efficient heat loss after sunset. Such extremes influence ecological adaptations, as organisms must endure significant thermal fluctuations without the buffering effects of humidity or cloud cover. Relative humidity in desert climates remains consistently low, typically ranging from 10% to 30%, which accelerates evaporation from surfaces and biological tissues, contributing to the overall aridity. This low moisture content in the air exacerbates water loss through transpiration in vegetation and perspiration in animals, limiting metabolic processes and promoting specialized survival strategies like nocturnal activity. For instance, in regions such as the , these humidity levels persist year-round, reinforcing the environmental stress that defines desert ecosystems. Persistent winds are a hallmark of desert meteorology, with average speeds of 10–20 km/h facilitating the frequent occurrence of dust and sandstorms due to minimal vegetation cover that fails to anchor loose soils. These winds play a critical role in aeolian erosion, transporting fine particles across vast distances and shaping landforms such as dunes while degrading soil fertility through deflation. In areas like the , such wind regimes not only redistribute sediments but also contribute to atmospheric dust loading, which can impact regional air quality and visibility. Deserts typically feature clear skies with over 250 sunny days annually in many regions and annual cloud cover below 10%, allowing uninterrupted solar radiation to intensify surface heating and evaporation. This predominance of clear conditions, as observed in hyper-arid zones like , stems from stable subsidence in high-pressure systems that suppress convective cloud formation. Evapotranspiration rates in deserts are exceptionally high, with annual potential evapotranspiration (PET) often reaching 2,000–4,000 mm, vastly outpacing the scant precipitation that typically falls below 250 mm per year. This imbalance underscores the hyper-arid nature of these environments, where PET—driven by high temperatures, low humidity, and intense sunlight—creates a persistent moisture deficit that perpetuates ecological sparsity.

Precipitation Patterns

Rainfall Amounts and Variability

Desert climates are characterized by extremely low annual precipitation, typically ranging from 25 to 250 millimeters globally, though true arid zones often receive less than 25 centimeters per year. This scarcity defines the aridity index referenced in broader climatic classifications, where potential evapotranspiration far exceeds actual rainfall. Extreme examples include the core of the in Chile, where mean annual precipitation falls below 4 millimeters in many areas. Precipitation in these regions exhibits high interannual variability, often quantified by a coefficient of variation exceeding 50% in many arid locales, reflecting the irregularity of rain events. This variability manifests in sporadic, intense downpours that can account for a year's total rainfall in a single storm, frequently triggering flash floods due to the region's impermeable soils and steep topography. For instance, in the , such events underscore the unpredictable nature of water availability, with growing-season coefficients of variation ranging up to 67% over multi-year periods. Seasonal patterns further highlight this variability, with many deserts experiencing bimodal or winter-dominant rainfall influenced by Mediterranean-like systems. In the Negev Desert of Israel, over 90% of annual precipitation occurs during winter months (October to April), driven by cyclonic activity from the . Conversely, convective summer rainfall prevails in monsoon-affected deserts like the in India and Pakistan, where up to 90% of the scant annual total arrives during the July-September southwest monsoon season. Measuring rainfall in desert climates poses significant challenges due to the sparse distribution of rain gauges, often limited to a few stations over vast areas, which underrepresents spatial heterogeneity. Satellite-based estimates, such as those from the mission, have become essential for capturing these rare events, though they require validation against ground data to account for algorithmic biases in low-precipitation environments. In regions like the , the near-absence of gauges necessitates reliance on remote sensing to map even modest rainfall deviations. Post-2000 observations indicate slight precipitation increases in select desert areas, attributed to shifting atmospheric patterns amid climate change, such as enhanced monsoon intensity in the (4.4 mm/year trend) and summer wetting in the and regions. However, these localized gains occur against a backdrop of persistent overall aridity, with many areas like the southwestern showing no reversal in long-term dryness. Such trends emphasize the continued dominance of water scarcity in desert ecosystems.

Mechanisms of Aridity

Deserts are characterized by persistent aridity primarily due to large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns, particularly the subsidence zones associated with the . These cells form as warm air rises near the equator in the , cools and releases moisture as it ascends, then descends in the subtropics around 20–30° latitude, creating high-pressure anticyclones. The descending air warms adiabatically, inhibiting cloud formation and precipitation by increasing atmospheric stability and reducing relative humidity. Geographic features like mountain ranges contribute to aridity through rain shadow effects, where prevailing winds force moist air to rise over windward slopes, leading to orographic lift and heavy precipitation on that side. As the now drier air descends the leeward side, it warms and further suppresses condensation, resulting in arid conditions. For instance, the Sierra Nevada mountains create such an effect for the by blocking Pacific moisture. Coastal deserts experience enhanced dryness from cold ocean currents that promote upwelling of nutrient-rich but cool waters, stabilizing the overlying atmosphere and limiting evaporation from the sea surface. The Benguela Current along southwestern Africa's coast exemplifies this, as its northward flow brings chilly Antarctic waters that cool the air, reduce humidity advection inland, and maintain foggy but precipitation-poor conditions over the Namib Desert. In continental interiors, aridity intensifies due to the great distance from ocean moisture sources, which diminishes the transport of humid air masses as winds traverse vast land areas, leading to low humidity and minimal precipitation. This effect is prominent in regions like central Asia, where barriers such as mountains further isolate the interior from maritime influences. Positive feedback loops exacerbate aridity through surface albedo, where bare desert soils reflect a high proportion of incoming solar radiation—often 30–40%—reducing net energy absorption at the surface compared to vegetated areas. This lower heating limits the energy available for evaporating soil moisture or driving convective updrafts, thereby perpetuating dry conditions and sparse vegetation in a self-reinforcing cycle that aligns with the basic principle of surface energy balance, where reflected shortwave radiation decreases latent and sensible heat fluxes.

Temperature Regimes

Hot Desert Climates

Hot desert climates, classified under the Köppen system as BWh, are defined by mean annual temperatures exceeding 18°C, with hot-month averages typically ranging from 29°C to 35°C and frequent midday peaks between 43°C and 46°C. These regions exhibit minimal seasonal temperature variation due to their subtropical high-pressure dominance, resulting in consistently warm conditions year-round; for instance, the Sahara Desert maintains an annual average of approximately 25–30°C, with summer highs routinely surpassing 45°C. A hallmark of hot deserts is the extreme diurnal temperature range, often exceeding 30–40°C between day and night, driven by the low specific heat capacity of sand and sparse vegetation, which limits heat retention after sunset. During the day, intense solar radiation can heat the ground surface to 70°C or higher in bare areas, as observed in the Lut Desert of Iran, where satellite measurements recorded peaks up to 70.7°C. At night, rapid radiative cooling leads to sharp drops, sometimes to below 10°C in winter months, exacerbating the thermal stress on ecosystems and human activities. Heat waves in hot deserts are frequent and intense, often amplified by blocking high-pressure systems that trap warm air. Historical records include the disputed 56.7°C air temperature in , California, in 1913, though modern verified extremes, such as 54.4°C there in 2020, underscore the region's capacity for lethal heat. These events typically last days to weeks, with temperatures above 50°C becoming more common in interior zones. Subtype variations distinguish coastal hot deserts, like the , from interior ones such as the central . Coastal variants experience milder temperatures, with averages 5–10°C lower than inland areas, due to cool ocean currents that promote frequent fog and reduce diurnal extremes. Interior deserts, conversely, face unrelieved solar exposure, leading to more severe heat. Post-2020 observations reveal increasing frequency of heat domes over hot desert regions, intensifying thermal extremes amid climate change. In the , persistent high-pressure systems in 2021–2025 have driven temperatures above 50°C for extended periods, with events like the 2023 and 2025 heat domes affecting multiple countries and raising wet-bulb temperatures toward human tolerance limits (e.g., exceeding 33°C in August 2025). These trends, linked to amplified greenhouse forcing, have heightened risks of ecosystem disruption and health impacts.

Cold Desert Climates

Cold desert climates feature low annual mean temperatures, generally below 18°C, with the coldest months often averaging under 0°C and summers remaining mild, with summer daytime highs typically reaching 20–35°C, and occasionally exceeding 40°C in continental interiors like the . These conditions arise primarily in mid-latitude regions influenced by continental air masses, leading to pronounced seasonal contrasts where winters bring subfreezing temperatures and summers offer only moderate warmth. Unlike hot deserts, the overall thermal regime in cold deserts supports sparse vegetation adapted to cold stress, such as shrubs and hardy grasses, rather than heat-tolerant species. Frost events are common throughout the year, but especially in winter, when temperatures routinely drop below freezing, often resulting in frozen ground that limits soil moisture availability. Occasional snowfall occurs in many cold deserts, particularly those affected by mid-latitude cyclones, with winter precipitation frequently falling as snow rather than rain; for instance, the experiences regular winter snowfall as part of its limited annual precipitation, which totals less than 200 mm in many areas. This snow cover, though thin, contributes to the cryogenic environment and can persist for weeks in higher-elevation zones, exacerbating aridity by reducing evaporation but also posing challenges for ecological processes like seed germination. The majority of cold deserts are situated at elevations exceeding 1,000 m, where adiabatic cooling of descending air masses further depresses temperatures and enhances dryness. Prominent examples include the in South America, which lies at altitudes up to 1,500 m and maintains cool conditions due to its position in the rain shadow of the , and the in the western United States, spanning elevations from 1,000 m to over 3,000 m with similar cooling effects from orographic influences. These highland settings amplify the cold characteristics, distinguishing cold deserts from their lowland, hot counterparts. Diurnal temperature fluctuations in cold deserts can exceed 30°C, driven by intense solar heating during the day under clear skies and rapid radiative cooling at night due to low humidity and sparse cloud cover. Annual temperature variations surpass 20°C, with extreme winter lows contrasting sharply with summer highs, a pattern more variable than the consistently elevated temperatures of hot deserts. Ongoing climate change has introduced warming trends in cold desert regions, leading to reduced snowpack accumulation since the 1990s and shifts toward earlier melt seasons, which intensify aridity by altering water availability and increasing evaporation rates. In the Great Basin, for example, rising temperatures combined with changing precipitation patterns have made the region warmer and drier overall, with snowpack declines contributing to heightened drought risks.

Geographical Distribution

Global Locations

Deserts are found on every continent and collectively cover approximately one-fifth (20%) of Earth's land surface, encompassing a diverse array of hot, cold, and coastal variants. These arid regions span from subtropical latitudes to continental interiors, shaped by persistent low precipitation and high evaporation rates. In Africa, the Sahara Desert dominates as the largest hot desert, extending over 9.2 million square kilometers across the northern part of the continent and influencing climates in more than a dozen countries. The Namib Desert, a narrow coastal strip along the Atlantic in southwestern Africa, covers roughly 81,000 square kilometers and is one of the oldest deserts on Earth. Further inland, the spans about 900,000 square kilometers in southern Africa, transitioning between sand dunes and semi-arid savannas across Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa. Asia hosts several expansive deserts, including the , which stretches 2.3 million square kilometers across the Arabian Peninsula, encompassing sandy seas and rocky plateaus. The , straddling India and Pakistan, covers approximately 200,000 square kilometers in the northwest of the subcontinent. In Central Asia, the , a prominent cold desert, occupies 1.3 million square kilometers across Mongolia and northern China, featuring vast steppes and extreme temperature swings. The in China's Xinjiang region spans about 337,000 square kilometers, known for its shifting dunes and isolation within the . North America's deserts are concentrated in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The covers around 260,000 square kilometers, extending from Arizona through California and into Baja California and Sonora. The , to the north, encompasses approximately 124,000 square kilometers in southeastern California and adjacent states. Further east, the spans 450,000 square kilometers across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and much of northern Mexico. In the interior, the , a cold desert variant, covers about 190,000 square kilometers in Nevada and parts of surrounding states, characterized by basin-and-range topography. Australia's interior is dominated by hot deserts that collectively occupy nearly 20% of the continent's land area, totaling around 1.8 million square kilometers. The , the largest in Australia, extends 348,000 square kilometers across Western Australia and South Australia. The in the east covers 145,000 square kilometers of parallel sand dunes, while the to the north spans 156,000 square kilometers of gravel plains and spinifex grasslands. In South America, the Atacama Desert along Chile's northern coast is the driest non-polar place on Earth, covering about 105,000 square kilometers with some areas receiving no measurable rainfall for decades. The Patagonian Desert, a cold desert in southern Argentina and Chile, extends over 670,000 square kilometers, influenced by the rain shadow of the Andes and strong westerly winds.

Influencing Factors

The formation of desert climates is primarily driven by atmospheric circulation patterns, particularly the subtropical high-pressure systems located between 20° and 30° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, where sinking air inhibits cloud formation and precipitation, establishing permanent dry zones. These highs result from the circulation, in which warm air rises at the equator and cools as it descends poleward, creating stable, arid conditions. Additionally, distance from moisture sources like oceans exacerbates aridity in continental interiors, limiting the inland penetration of humid air masses. Topographic features play a crucial role by generating rain shadows, where mountain ranges force moist air to rise and precipitate on windward slopes, leaving leeward sides dry. For instance, the Andes mountains create such an effect for the , blocking Pacific moisture and resulting in extreme aridity. This orographic barrier enhances desiccation in regions already prone to low rainfall due to their latitudinal position. Oceanic influences, including cold currents and coastal proximity, further determine desert development by stabilizing the atmosphere over land. Cold currents, such as the along South America's west coast, cool overlying air, reducing its moisture-holding capacity and promoting fog over rain, which intensifies coastal aridity. Similarly, the distance from equatorial moisture sources limits the extent of monsoon systems, confining wetter conditions to lower latitudes and allowing deserts to form farther inland. Soil and vegetation feedbacks perpetuate desert conditions through albedo effects, where low organic content in arid soils reflects more sunlight, warming the surface and suppressing precipitation further. Sparse vegetation reduces evapotranspiration, which would otherwise recycle moisture into the atmosphere, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of dryness. This interaction amplifies the initial aridity caused by climatic and geographic factors. While primarily natural, human activities like deforestation in marginal semi-arid areas can contribute modestly to desert expansion by altering local hydrology and increasing erosion, though such influences are secondary to geophysical drivers. Overgrazing and land clearance disrupt vegetation cover, potentially tipping fragile ecosystems toward greater aridity, but global desert climates remain dominated by inherent environmental controls.

Climate Classification

Köppen System

The Köppen climate classification system designates desert climates under the BW subgroup within the B category for arid regions, where annual precipitation is insufficient to support dense vegetation due to high aridity. The B group is identified by annual precipitation (P) falling below a temperature-derived threshold approximating potential evapotranspiration (PET), while the W subtype specifically denotes true deserts where annual P < 0.5 × threshold, approximating a P/PET ratio below 0.5, ensuring extreme water deficiency. This classification originated with Wladimir Köppen's initial framework in 1884, which linked climate to vegetation zones, followed by refinements in 1918 and a comprehensive revision in 1936 by Rudolf Geiger that standardized the criteria. Peel et al. (2007) provided a key modern update by producing a global map based on interpolated long-term monthly temperature and precipitation data from over 4,000 stations covering 1951–2000, enhancing accuracy through spatial analysis techniques. The precise criteria for BW climates rely on the aridity threshold formula, adjusted for seasonal precipitation distribution and annual mean temperature (t in °C):
  • Threshold = 20t + 280 mm if ≥70% of annual P occurs in the coldest six months.
  • Threshold = 20t + 140 mm if ≥70% of annual P occurs in the warmest six months.
  • Threshold = 20t + 200 mm otherwise.
A region qualifies as BW if annual P < 0.5 × threshold, distinguishing it from semi-arid BS steppes. Subtypes further differentiate based on thermal regimes: BWh for hot deserts with t > 18°C annually, and BWk for deserts with t ≤ 18°C, the latter often featuring winter freezing but still extreme . The following table outlines the core BW criteria:
ComponentCriteria
Arid Group (B)Annual P < threshold (PET proxy)
Desert Subtype (W)Annual P < 0.5 × threshold
Hot Desert (h)BW with annual mean t > 18°C
Cold Desert (k)BW with annual mean t ≤ 18°C
The BW category has limitations in polar regions where low temperatures dominate over deficits, assigning those to the E (polar) group instead. Current applications leverage Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for boundary refinement, integrating high-resolution gridded datasets such as those from 1990–2020 to account for observational variability and produce detailed maps at scales down to 1 km.

Other Classification Approaches

Alternative classification systems for desert climates emphasize through moisture balance, thermal regimes, and bioclimatic interactions, often providing nuanced distinctions for regions where alone is insufficient. These approaches typically integrate potential evapotranspiration (PET) with to quantify water availability, offering insights into ecological suitability beyond simple temperature thresholds. The Thornthwaite system, developed in , classifies climates using a moisture index (Im) that compares annual to PET, categorizing regions as dry when Im is less than 0, indicating persistent water deficits suitable for desert . This index accounts for seasonal variations in and oceanity, allowing differentiation of arid zones based on evaporative demand rather than absolute rainfall. Deserts emerge in areas with high PET exceeding , such as the , where the system highlights moisture-limited biomes. UNESCO's aridity classes, formalized in the 1950s and refined through international assessments, delineate desert types by annual thresholds: hyper-arid regions receive less than 50 mm, arid zones 50–250 mm, and semi-arid areas 250–500 mm, focusing on rainfall as a proxy for in non-irrigated lands. These categories, derived from global surveys of dryland extent, prioritize human and ecological vulnerability in vast expanses like the , where hyper-arid conditions dominate over 40% of arid lands worldwide. The framework stems from early UNESCO mappings that integrated soil and vegetation data to define boundaries. The system, introduced in , positions deserts within a triangular scheme integrating annual , biotemperature (the mean above 0°C, excluding frost periods), and potential evapotranspiration ratios to map biomes globally. Deserts occupy low- vertices with biotemperatures between 0–24°C, encompassing both hot and cold variants like the Gobi, where reduced biotemperature reflects seasonal freezing that limits vegetation. This approach excels in linking climate to life forms, classifying polar deserts separately from subtropical ones based on thermal accumulation. In the 1990s, the (UNEP) refined indices by standardizing the ratio of to PET (AI = P/PET), incorporating deficit (VPD) within PET calculations to better capture atmospheric dryness under warming conditions. Regions with AI below 0.05 are hyper-arid, 0.05–0.20 arid, and 0.20–0.50 semi-arid, enabling projections of desert expansion amid , as seen in expanding drylands across and . These updates, detailed in global atlases, enhance precision for policy by accounting for humidity gradients that amplify . Compared to temperature-focused systems, these alternatives often handle cold deserts more effectively by emphasizing and moisture deficits; for instance, Holdridge's biotemperature and UNEP's VPD-inclusive AI better delineate high-altitude plateaus like the , where frost and low humidity create despite moderate totals. Thornthwaite's index similarly reveals dry conditions in montane areas overlooked by simpler schemes, improving ecological zoning for conservation.

Examples and Data

Hot Desert Profiles

The Sahara Desert represents a quintessential hot desert climate, characterized by extreme aridity and high temperatures. Annual precipitation typically ranges from 25 to 100 mm across much of the region, with average temperatures between 20°C and 35°C year-round. Data from In Salah, Algeria (1980-2020 averages via NOAA and WorldClim), illustrate this pattern: monthly precipitation remains below 5 mm throughout the year, while average high temperatures peak at 45°C in July and drop to 21°C in January, with lows ranging from 7°C in winter to 30°C in summer. The climate chart for In Salah features a nearly flat precipitation line near zero, contrasting with a pronounced temperature curve that highlights the intense summer heat and mild winters typical of subtropical high-pressure dominance. The in exhibits a hot desert climate with slightly higher and bimodal , totaling 100-300 mm annually, driven by winter storms and summer monsoons. Summer highs frequently exceed 40°C. For (NOAA 1991-2020 normals), monthly averages show high temperatures rising from 20°C in to 41°C in and , with lows from 8°C to 29°C; is minimal in spring (3-6 mm in May-June) but peaks at 22 mm in and 24 mm in . The temperature- graph reveals two distinct rainfall peaks aligning with seasonal weather patterns, underscoring the desert's adaptation to intermittent moisture amid persistent heat. Australia's interior, encompassing vast hot desert regions, receives 150-300 mm of annual , accompanied by extreme heat where records reach 45°C or higher at sites like . Diurnal temperature ranges often span 15-20°C due to clear skies and low humidity. data (1961-1990, updated to 2020) for indicate mean maximum temperatures of 35-38°C from November to February, cooling to 20°C in July, with mean minima from 21°C in summer to 4°C in winter; rainfall averages 42 mm in (wettest) and 5 mm in (driest), reflecting monsoonal influences and sporadic thunderstorms.
DesertRepresentative LocationAnnual Precipitation (mm)Average Annual Temperature (°C)Record High Temperature (°C)Lowest Monthly Precipitation (mm)
In Salah, 202650.6<5
SonoranPhoenix, AZ18024500.5 ()
Australian Interior, 29021455 ()
Data derived from NOAA Global Historical Climatology Network and WorldClim 2.1 datasets (1980-2020 averages).

Cold Desert Profiles

Cold deserts are arid regions characterized by low annual precipitation, typically less than 250 , and winters with temperatures often dropping below freezing, distinguishing them from hot deserts through their temperate to polar climates and potential for snowfall. These environments often occur in continental interiors, high altitudes, or polar latitudes, where rain shadows or distance from moisture sources limit and support sparse like shrubs and grasses adapted to freeze-thaw cycles. Unlike hot deserts, cold deserts experience significant diurnal and seasonal temperature swings, with hot summers in mid-latitude examples but persistent in polar ones. The in and exemplifies a mid-latitude cold desert, spanning over 1.3 million square kilometers in a continental interior influenced by the Asian and Siberian high-pressure system. Annual averages 30 to 140 mm, mostly falling as summer rain, while temperatures range from -34°C in winter to 40°C in summer, creating extreme seasonal contrasts that limit plant growth to - and frost-resistant species like saxaul shrubs. This stems from its position in the rain shadow of the and , resulting in vast gravel plains and dunes with minimal soil development. In , the covers much of and parts of surrounding states, forming a high-elevation basin-and-range province with an average annual of 150 to 300 mm, often as winter snow. Temperatures vary sharply by elevation and season: at mid-elevations like , January averages range from 18°F to 41°F, while July highs reach 86°F with lows around 57°F, accompanied by low humidity and frequent summer thunderstorms delivering up to 12 storm days per month. The region's cold winters and short growing seasons support ecosystems, where freeze events shape and limit . The in southern and represents a cold winter desert south of 40° latitude, covering about 670,000 square kilometers under the influence of the and Antarctic winds. Annual rainfall is low at under 200 mm, concentrated in winter, with average temperatures around 7°C and summer highs reaching up to 34°C, though moderated by constant strong that enhance . This results in a barren landscape of shrubs, tussock grasses, and salt flats, where cold snaps and wind erosion dominate ecological processes. Polar cold deserts, such as the interior, push the boundaries of aridity with annual equivalent to just 150 mm of water, primarily as or fog, classifying it as the world's largest at 13.8 million square kilometers. Temperatures average -60°C in the interior, with records as low as -89°C at , and coastal areas rarely above -10°C in winter, fostering hyper-arid conditions where accumulates slowly into sheets rather than melting. Life here is microbial, adapted to perpetual cold and minimal moisture, highlighting the extreme end of cold desert adaptations.
DesertRepresentative LocationAnnual Precipitation (mm)Average Annual Temperature (°C)Record Low Temperature (°C)Highest Monthly Precipitation (mm)
GobiSainshand, 804-3620 (July)
Great BasinEly, NV2509-3440 (May)
PatagonianPunta Arenas, 2006-2050 (winter)
Antarctic20-60-89<10
Data derived from WorldClim 2.1 and national meteorological services (1980-2020 averages).

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