Hubbry Logo
Ice cap climateIce cap climateMain
Open search
Ice cap climate
Community hub
Ice cap climate
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Ice cap climate
Ice cap climate
Ice cap climate
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Solar radiation has a lower intensity in polar regions because it is spread across a larger surface area due to its oblique angle of approach. It also travels a longer distance through the atmosphere, resulting in increased absorption and scattering by air molecules in its path.[1]

An ice cap climate is a polar climate where no mean monthly temperature exceeds 0 °C (32 °F). The climate generally covers areas at high altitudes and polar regions (60–90° north and south latitude), such as Antarctica and some of the northernmost islands of Canada and Russia. Most of Greenland is under the influence of an ice cap climate, although the coasts are prone to more influence from the sea, providing more tundra climates. Some regions on the islands of Norway's Svalbard Archipelago facilitate an ice cap climate. Areas with ice cap climates are normally covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation. There is limited animal life in most ice cap climates, which are usually found near the oceanic margins. Although ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life and no civilian communities lie in such climates, there are some research stations scattered in Antarctica and interior Greenland.

Description

[edit]

Under the Köppen climate classification, the ice cap climate is denoted as EF. Ice caps are defined as a climate with no months having a mean temperature above 0 °C (32 °F).[2] Such areas are found around the north and south pole, and on the top of many high mountains. Since the temperature never exceeds the melting point of ice, any snow or ice that accumulates remains there permanently, over time forming a large ice sheet.

The ice cap climate is distinct from the tundra climate, or ET. A tundra climate has a summer season with temperatures consistently above freezing for several months. This summer is enough to melt the winter ice cover, which prevents the formation of ice sheets. Because of this, tundras have vegetation, while ice caps do not.[citation needed]

Ice cap climate is the world's coldest climate, and includes the coldest places on Earth. With an average temperature of −55.2 °C (−67.4 °F), Vostok, Antarctica is the coldest place in the world, and has also recorded the lowest temperature, −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F).[3] The following chart indicates the average and record temperatures in this research station through a year:

Climate data for Vostok Station
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) −14.0
(6.8) 		−21.0
(−5.8) 		−17.7
(0.1) 		−33.0
(−27.4) 		−38.0
(−36.4) 		−33.0
(−27.4) 		−34.1
(−29.4) 		−34.9
(−30.8) 		−34.3
(−29.7) 		−30.8
(−23.4) 		−24.3
(−11.7) 		−14.1
(6.6) 		−14.0
(6.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −27.0
(−16.6) 		−38.7
(−37.7) 		−52.9
(−63.2) 		−61.1
(−78.0) 		−62.0
(−79.6) 		−60.6
(−77.1) 		−62.4
(−80.3) 		−63.9
(−83.0) 		−61.6
(−78.9) 		−51.5
(−60.7) 		−37.2
(−35.0) 		−27.1
(−16.8) 		−50.5
(−58.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) −32.0
(−25.6) 		−44.3
(−47.7) 		−57.9
(−72.2) 		−64.8
(−84.6) 		−65.8
(−86.4) 		−65.3
(−85.5) 		−66.7
(−88.1) 		−67.9
(−90.2) 		−66.0
(−86.8) 		−57.1
(−70.8) 		−42.6
(−44.7) 		−31.8
(−25.2) 		−55.2
(−67.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −37.5
(−35.5) 		−50.0
(−58.0) 		−61.8
(−79.2) 		−67.8
(−90.0) 		−69.1
(−92.4) 		−68.9
(−92.0) 		−70.4
(−94.7) 		−71.5
(−96.7) 		−70.2
(−94.4) 		−63.1
(−81.6) 		−49.8
(−57.6) 		−38.0
(−36.4) 		−59.8
(−75.7)
Record low °C (°F) −56.4
(−69.5) 		−64.0
(−83.2) 		−75.3
(−103.5) 		−86.0
(−122.8) 		−81.2
(−114.2) 		−83.8
(−118.8) 		−89.2
(−128.6) 		−88.3
(−126.9) 		−85.9
(−122.6) 		−79.4
(−110.9) 		−63.9
(−83.0) 		−50.1
(−58.2) 		−89.2
(−128.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 1.0
(0.04) 		0.7
(0.03) 		2.0
(0.08) 		2.4
(0.09) 		2.8
(0.11) 		2.5
(0.10) 		2.2
(0.09) 		2.3
(0.09) 		2.4
(0.09) 		1.9
(0.07) 		1.1
(0.04) 		0.7
(0.03) 		22
(0.9)
Average relative humidity (%) 70.1 68.6 66.2 64.7 64.7 65.5 65.7 65.8 66.2 67.4 68.7 69.8 67
Mean monthly sunshine hours 696.4 566.8 347.3 76.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 203.4 480.2 682.3 708.8 3,761.5
Source 1: [4]
Source 2: Pogoda.ru.net (data for record highs/lows, except for March and August lows, and March high)[5]; (March record low)[6], (August record low)[7], and (March record high)[8]

Locations

[edit]

The two major areas with ice cap climates are Antarctica and Greenland. Some of the most northern islands of Canada and Russia, along with some regions and islands of Norway's Svalbard Archipelago also have ice cap climates.

Extreme northern latitudes

[edit]
Hann Glacier, Greenland
See also: Greenland § Geography and climate

The Arctic Ocean is located in the Arctic region. As a result, the northern polar ice cap is the frozen part of that ocean's surface. The only large landmass in the extreme northern latitudes to have an icecap climate is Greenland, but several smaller islands near the Arctic Ocean also have permanent ice caps. Some places such as Alert, Nunavut despite being characterized as a tundra climate share some characteristics of an ice cap climate, in that although Alert averages above freezing during July and August, during most years the snow does not completely melt except what is in direct sunlight and will often persist from year to year many years in a row without melting completely, but not enough remains to form any kind of glaciation.

Ice cap climates are not nearly as common on land in the extreme northern latitudes as in Antarctica. This is because the Arctic Ocean moderates the temperatures of the surrounding land, making the extreme cold seen in Antarctica impossible. In fact, the coldest winters in the northern hemisphere are in subarctic climates in Siberia, such as Verkhoyansk, which are much farther inland and lack the ocean's moderating effect. This same lack of moderating oceanic effect, coupled with the extreme continentality of the Russian interior allows for very warm summers in the same areas that experience harsh winters.

Extreme southern latitudes

[edit]
See also: Climate of Antarctica

The continent of Antarctica is centered on the South Pole. Antarctica is surrounded on all sides by the Southern Ocean. As a result, high-speed winds circle around Antarctica, preventing warmer air from temperate zones from reaching the continent.

While Antarctica does have some small areas of tundra on the northern fringes, the vast majority of the continent is extremely cold and permanently frozen. Because it is climatically isolated from the rest of the Earth, the continent has extreme cold not seen anywhere else, and weather systems rarely penetrate into the continent.

Extreme altitudes

[edit]

Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the Andes, the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains, the Caucasus, and the Alps.

Geologic history

[edit]

Ice cap climates only occur during icehouse Earth periods. There have been five such periods in the Earth's past. Outside these periods, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes.[9][10] Factors that cause icehouse Earth include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, and the energy received from the sun. Earth is currently in an icehouse period.

Ice sheets

[edit]
Aialik Glacier, Alaska
Main article: Ice sheet

The constant freezing temperatures cause the formation of large ice sheets in ice cap climates. These ice sheets, however, are not static, but slowly move off the continents into the surrounding waters. New snow and ice accumulation then replaces the ice that is lost. Precipitation is nearly non-existent in ice cap climates. It is never warm enough for rain, and usually too cold to generate snow. However, wind can blow snow onto the ice sheets from nearby tundras.

Ice sheets are often miles thick. Much of the land located under ice sheets is actually below sea level, and would be under the ocean if the ice were removed. It is the weight of the ice itself that forces this land below sea level. If the ice was removed, the land would rise back up in an effect called post-glacial rebound. This effect is creating new land in formerly ice cap areas such as Sweden.

The extreme pressure exerted by the ice allows for the formation of liquid water at low temperatures that would otherwise result in ice, while the ice sheet itself insulates liquid water from the cold above. The causes the formation of subglacial lakes, the largest being Lake Vostok in Antarctica.

Life

[edit]
A polar bear with cub
Further information: Antarctic ecozone

There is very little surface life in ice cap climates. Vegetation cannot grow on ice,[11] and is non-existent except in the warmer fringes that occasionally peak above freezing; even then, it is confined to mosses and lichen. However, the fringes of ice caps do have significant animal and plant life.[12] Most of this life feeds on life in the surrounding oceans. Well known examples are polar bears in the northern region and penguins in Antarctica. Vegetation and soils are removed from valley floors by ice caps,[13] and research has found a "positive feedback between permafrost degradation and vegetation encroachment".[14]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ice cap climate

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The ice cap climate, classified as EF in the system, is a subtype of defined by the mean temperature of the warmest month being below 0 °C (32 °F), ensuring perpetual ice cover without any seasonal thawing. This results in extremely cold conditions year-round, with average annual temperatures often around -29 °C (-20 °F) or lower, driven by high latitudes and minimal solar insolation. is scarce, typically less than 25 cm (10 inches) per year, primarily as due to the low moisture-holding capacity of frigid air, making these regions among the driest on despite their icy appearance. These climates dominate the vast ice sheets of and , extending to high-elevation plateaus and some Arctic Ocean ice packs between 65° and 90° N/S latitudes. Ice thicknesses can reach several thousand meters, forming continental-scale glaciers that influence global sea levels and ocean circulation. No vascular survives due to the unrelenting cold and ice cover, supporting only microbial life in subglacial environments or exposed rock outcrops. As part of the broader group (E), regions play a critical role in Earth's effect, reflecting sunlight and helping regulate global temperatures, though they are highly sensitive to with accelerating ice melt observed in recent decades.

Definition and Classification

Köppen System Criteria

The , designated as the EF subtype in the Köppen-Geiger classification system, is characterized by the average temperature of the warmest month being below 0°C (32°F), ensuring perpetual ice cover without any period of thawing. This criterion distinguishes it from the subtype (ET), where at least one month exceeds 0°C but remains below 10°C. Wladimir Köppen first outlined the foundational principles of his thermal zones in 1884, drawing on vegetation distributions to map climate boundaries, with polar regions initially described as zones of eternal frost. The system evolved through subsequent refinements, including the 1936 edition co-authored with , which formalized the E group for polar climates and introduced the EF designation for areas of unremitting cold. These updates emphasized empirical thresholds based on monthly means to delineate ice-dominated environments. In EF climates, annual average temperatures typically range from -20°C to -60°C, reflecting extreme cold that precludes any melting season and sustains year-round snow and ice accumulation. Recent estimates indicate that ice cap climates cover approximately 10% of Earth's land surface, primarily through extensive glaciers and ice sheets that dominate polar regions.

Distinctions from Other Polar Climates

The ice cap climate (EF in the Köppen classification) is primarily distinguished from the (ET) by its perpetually subfreezing conditions, where the mean of every month remains below °C, preventing any seasonal thaw. In contrast, the features at least one month with a mean between °C and 10°C, allowing a brief summer period that supports limited growth, such as mosses, lichens, and low shrubs. This absence of warming in ice cap regions results in a barren, ice-dominated landscape with no opportunity for , whereas tundra environments permit sparse plant life that influences and cycles. The EF climate applies to all ice-covered polar areas meeting the temperature criterion, including both smaller ice caps (dome-shaped ice masses typically covering less than 50,000 km²) and vast continental ice sheets (exceeding 50,000 km², such as those in and ). While ice sheets often feature broader peripheral margins that may transition to (ET) conditions due to warmer temperatures near the edges, the core EF areas in both ice caps and ice sheets maintain uniform subzero temperatures across all months, with ice flow and topography interactions varying by scale but not affecting the climatic designation. A key physical implication of these distinctions lies in surface and the regional heat balance, where ice caps reflect 80-90% of incoming solar due to their snow and ice cover, thereby enhancing cooling through reduced absorption of heat. surfaces, with their partial and occasional bare ground, exhibit lower albedo values around 20%, absorbing more and contributing to relatively warmer local conditions during brief thaws. This high reflectivity in ice caps creates a strong for sustained cold, amplifying the climate's extremity compared to the more variable energy balance in regions. Boundary zones between and climates represent narrow transitional areas where mean temperatures hover near the 0°C threshold, often manifesting as latitudinal shifts in polar lowlands or elevational gradients in mountainous settings. In these interfaces, ice coverage begins to thin, allowing sporadic tundra-like vegetation to emerge, which marks the ecological divide while maintaining the overarching polar cold. Such zones highlight the sensitivity of ice cap boundaries to climatic variations, with even minor warming potentially expanding tundra at the expense of ice permanence.

Climatic Characteristics

Temperature Profiles

Ice cap climates exhibit some of the lowest annual mean temperatures on Earth, typically ranging from about -20°C in peripheral regions to as low as -55°C in the central areas of large ice sheets. For instance, monitoring at Summit Station in Greenland records an annual mean of approximately -31°C, reflecting the high-elevation interior conditions of the Greenland Ice Sheet. In Antarctica, the Vostok Station, situated on the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, reports an annual mean temperature of around -55.4°C, underscoring the extreme cold in continental interiors where radiative cooling dominates. These values are derived from long-term surface air temperature measurements at depths of 10-15 meters in the firn, which closely approximate annual air temperatures in dry polar environments, often differing by less than 2°C. Seasonal temperature cycles in ice cap regions are subdued due to the polar day-night , with extended periods of continuous or darkness minimizing solar heating variations. Summer maximum temperatures rarely exceed -2°C, ensuring no monthly mean surpasses 0°C as per the defining criteria of the Köppen EF classification, while winter minima can plummet far below -50°C. Diurnal variations are similarly minimal, often less than 5°C, as the lack of significant daytime heating prevents strong daily fluctuations; instead, weekly surface changes primarily echo broader seasonal trends observed at depths around 1 meter. These patterns result in annual temperature ranges of about 20-30°C, far narrower than in lower-latitude climates, due to the insulating effect of persistent snow cover and limited insolation. Surface temperature inversions are a hallmark of ice cap climates, particularly in , where cold, dense air accumulates in topographic lows, creating stable layers up to several hundred meters thick with temperature increases of 10 K or more over the first 30 meters. These inversions trap cold air near the surface, exacerbating low temperatures during the . Katabatic winds, driven by gravitational drainage of this chilled air downslope from elevated ice domes, further intensify extremes by accelerating cold air flow and promoting clear-sky conditions that enhance . A notable example is the record low of -89.2°C recorded at in July 1983, attributed to such katabatic influences during a period of strong inversion and minimal . Long-term monitoring from stations like Summit, , reveals persistently subzero conditions, with annual means holding steady around -30°C over decades of observations, though warming trends of about 0.09°C per year were noted from 1982-2011 based on near-surface air records, and recent studies confirm that s since the are the highest in at least 1,000 years as of 2023. These datasets, collected via automated weather stations and thermometry, confirm the thermal stability of interiors, where vertical profiles show nearly isothermal upper layers due to high accumulation rates that dampen seasonal signals below 20 meters depth. Such profiles highlight the role of dynamics in maintaining these frigid regimes over millennia.

Precipitation and Weather Patterns

Ice cap climates are characterized by extremely low annual , typically ranging from 100 to 250 mm of equivalent, with the vast majority falling as rather than . This sparse accumulation equates to roughly 0.1 to 0.5 m of depth when considering density variations, contributing minimally to compared to sublimation losses. The low moisture availability stems from cold temperatures that limit atmospheric capacity, resulting in conditions across regions like the interior and 's . However, recent observations indicate increasing in , with more events occurring due to warming, such as rain falling at Summit Station in 2021 for the first time in the observational record. Precipitation in these environments predominantly occurs in non-convective forms, including —fine ice crystals falling under clear skies—and hoarfrost, which forms through direct deposition from supersaturated air onto surfaces. These gentle, widespread events are frequent but contribute a smaller portion to total snowfall, with synoptic storms accounting for 60-80% of annual accumulation in interior sites, as they require minimal dynamic forcing. In contrast, more intense precipitation manifests as blizzards, triggered by cyclonic activity that advects moist air from lower latitudes, leading to heavier snow accumulation and high winds. Weather extremes in ice cap regions frequently involve whiteouts caused by blowing snow, where katabatic winds redistribute existing , severely reducing visibility without new . Clear-sky like can also contribute to these conditions under calm winds, exacerbating disorientation. Persistent low relative humidity, often below 20%, promotes sublimation as the dominant moisture flux, with and directly transitioning to vapor, further drying the surface and limiting net accumulation. Atmospheric circulation plays a key role in modulating these patterns, with the polar vortex encircling the ice caps and strengthening the stratospheric jet stream, which confines storm tracks to coastal zones and inhibits moisture penetration into the interior. This dynamic isolates high-latitude cyclones, resulting in 50-100 storm days per year at Antarctic stations, primarily during winter when cyclonic systems intensify.

Geographic Distribution

Arctic and Northern Hemisphere Sites

The Greenland Ice Sheet dominates the ice cap landscape as the largest contiguous ice mass in the , spanning approximately 1.7 million km² and reaching a maximum thickness of over 3 km at its interior dome. This vast feature, which covers about 80% of Greenland's land surface, serves as a critical repository of freshwater equivalent to roughly 7.4 meters of global if fully melted. Research stations like , situated at the ice sheet's summit elevation of 3,216 meters above , facilitate long-term observations of ice dynamics, atmospheric conditions, and paleoclimate records through ice coring and automated weather monitoring. These sites highlight the ice sheet's role in regional effects and heat exchange with the atmosphere. In the Eurasian Arctic, smaller but significant ice caps characterize the archipelago and , covering approximately 50,000 km² of glaciated terrain in total. 's ice, including major outlets like Austfonna, constitutes the bulk of this coverage at approximately 36,500 km², while adds about 13,700 km² of ice-dominated archipelago. These ice caps experience moderated temperatures and enhanced precipitation relative to more continental Arctic sites due to the influence of currents, particularly the warm West Spitsbergen Current, which transports Atlantic water northward and promotes polynya formation for increased moisture influx. This oceanic moderation results in higher rates during summer but sustains perennial snow accumulation in systems. The Canadian Arctic Archipelago hosts some of the most voluminous peripheral ice caps outside , with those on and Ellesmere Islands exemplifying the region's cryospheric extent and totaling ice volumes exceeding 100,000 km³ across the broader archipelago's 148,000 km² of glaciated area. The Ice Cap, a dome-shaped feature covering about 14,000 km², holds an estimated 3,980–4,110 km³ of ice, with thicknesses up to 880 meters and flow dynamics shaped by underlying . Ellesmere Island's ice caps, including the Prince of Wales Icefield and northern outlet glaciers, contribute the majority of this volume, supporting extensive ice shelves and contributing to episodic calving events that influence regional patterns. These formations underscore the archipelago's sensitivity to atmospheric warming, with land-terminating margins showing accelerated retreat. Satellite gravimetry from NASA's missions has revolutionized monitoring of ice cap mass balance since 2002, quantifying cumulative losses through changes in Earth's field. For the , data indicate an average annual mass loss of 280 ± 16 gigatons from 2002 to 2023, with 2024 losses at 55 ± 35 gigatons (the lowest since 2013), accelerating from coastal outlet glaciers and surface melt. In the Canadian , GRACE observations reveal a comparable trend, with average losses of 61 gigatons per year during 2005–2010, extending to sustained negative balance across peripheral ice caps amid rising air temperatures. These measurements, calibrated against in-situ validations, provide essential context for projecting future contributions to global from ice caps.

Antarctic and Southern Hemisphere Sites

The Antarctic ice sheet, divided into the East Antarctic Ice Sheet and the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, spans approximately 14 million km² and contains roughly 90% of Earth's ice volume. The East Antarctic Ice Sheet dominates, covering about 10 million km² with thick, stable ice domes that have persisted for millions of years, while the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, encompassing around 1.9 million km², features more dynamic marine-based ice prone to grounding line retreat. Dome C, located in the East Antarctic interior at an elevation of 3,233 meters, serves as a critical research site for ice core drilling and climate studies due to its low accumulation rates and extreme cold, with mean annual temperatures around -55°C. In the Southern Hemisphere beyond Antarctica, smaller ice caps and fields occur in high-latitude regions like the Southern Andes and . The , straddling and , covers about 13,000 km² and is the largest such feature outside , fed by moist westerly winds but constrained by surrounding rugged terrain. Other notable examples include the North Patagonian Ice Field (approximately 4,200 km²) and isolated ice caps in the sub- islands, though these are significantly smaller and more fragmented than continental Antarctic systems. The ice caps' isolation stems from their encirclement by the vast , which creates a barrier to via the circumpolar current, resulting in hyper-arid interior conditions with annual often below 50 mm—drier than many sites influenced by adjacent landmasses and open water. This oceanic isolation fosters katabatic winds that scour the surface, enhancing the characteristics and contrasting with the relatively moister, ocean-proximate ice caps. Comprehensive inventories, such as those from the BEDMAP project, have mapped the subglacial beneath the sheets, revealing a complex landscape of mountains, basins, and lakes that influence flow dynamics and stability. BEDMAP datasets integrate , seismic, and data to depict elevations ranging from over 4,000 meters above in the Gamburtsev Mountains to deep subglacial basins below -2,500 meters, providing essential context for modeling evolution. These revelations underscore the continental-scale continuity of caps, far exceeding the scale of northern counterparts.

High-Elevation Ice Caps

High-elevation ice caps form in non-polar regions where extreme altitudes create conditions mimicking polar climates, primarily through adiabatic cooling as air rises over mountain ranges. These ice caps occur above the equilibrium line altitude, where annual snowfall exceeds melting, leading to persistent ice cover classified under the Köppen EF ice cap climate, characterized by mean monthly temperatures below 0°C. Unlike latitude-driven polar ice caps, these are sustained by topographic barriers that enhance orographic precipitation and maintain subfreezing temperatures despite lower latitudes. In the and , high-elevation are prominent due to the region's vast upland terrain averaging over 4,500 m, where cold, dry conditions support extensive ice masses. The Guliya Ice Cap on the northwestern , at elevations exceeding 5,000 m, exemplifies this, with ice thicknesses up to 300 m and a history of preserving climate records spanning millennia through analysis. Similarly, in the , like those in the Range persist above 5,500 m, fed by monsoon-influenced snowfall; while the broader have experienced accelerated mass loss at rates of 0.5–1 m water equivalent per year due to recent warming, exhibit lower losses owing to the regional "Karakoram anomaly." These features contribute significantly to regional water resources, supplying rivers like the Indus and . The host several high-elevation ice caps, particularly in the tropical and subtropical zones of and , where peaks surpass 5,000 m to sustain ice despite proximity to the . The Quelccaya Ice Cap, at 5,200–5,700 m in the Peruvian , is the largest tropical ice cap in the , covering about 44 km² and providing paleoclimate data via annual ice layers that record precipitation variability. In the northern , smaller ice caps on volcanoes like in exist above 5,000 m, though they are rapidly retreating due to reduced snowfall. These ice caps are critical for Andean ecosystems and , regulating downstream . In the , high-elevation ice caps are smaller and more fragmented compared to those in or , occurring primarily above 3,500–4,000 m in glaciated cirques. Examples include remnants on Mount Revelstoke in and the St. Elias Mountains straddling and , where ice persists due to heavy winter accumulation from Pacific storms. These features, often transitioning from valley glaciers to cap-like forms, have lost over 50% of their volume since the mid-20th century, highlighting vulnerability to warming. Tropical examples illustrate the upper limits of ice cap persistence, requiring elevations over 4,000 m to achieve subzero mean temperatures via the environmental of approximately 6.5°C per km. On in , at 4,884 m, the and adjacent ice fields form the western Pacific's only tropical ice caps, with perpetual snow above 4,600 m despite equatorial location; however, they have shrunk by over 80% since 1936 due to rising temperatures. Similarly, Mount Kilimanjaro's ice fields in , situated above 5,500 m, qualify as EF-classified ice caps, with the Northern Ice Field covering 0.95 km² as of recent surveys, though total ice volume has declined by 90% since 1912 from decreased and increased sublimation. Globally, non-polar ice caps number approximately 20 major examples, concentrated in mid-latitude and tropical highlands, and are monitored by the World Glacier Monitoring Service through observations and to track their response to climate variability.

Formation and Historical Development

Mechanisms of Ice Cap Formation

Ice cap climates develop primarily through a combination of latitudinal and orographic cooling processes that promote persistent low temperatures and accumulation in polar and high-elevation regions. At high latitudes, reduced solar insolation due to the low angle of incoming results in inherently cold conditions, with annual mean temperatures often below freezing. Orographic cooling further enhances this by forcing moist air masses to rise over elevated terrain, such as mountain ranges or emerging ice domes, leading to adiabatic expansion, , and primarily in the form of . This process is particularly evident in regions like the , where the high elevation amplifies cooling and isolates the interior from warmer maritime influences. A key amplifying mechanism in ice cap formation is the high albedo feedback, where initial snow cover reflects up to 80-90% of incoming solar radiation, compared to 10-20% for bare ground or water, thereby reducing surface heating and lowering local temperatures by 5-10°C in the lower atmosphere. This feedback sustains the cold conditions, encouraging further snowfall and ice buildup rather than melt. In polar environments, this positive loop can rapidly expand snow-covered areas, transitioning seasonal snow to perennial ice caps. Variations in , known as , play a crucial role in initiating and modulating development by altering the distribution of solar insolation, particularly at high latitudes. The obliquity cycle, with a period of approximately 41,000 years, changes the and thus the seasonal intensity of sunlight in polar regions, where reduced summer insolation favors snow persistence and ice accumulation. Similarly, the precession cycle, around 21,000 years, shifts the timing of perihelion relative to seasons, weakening summers and promoting glacial inception during aligned low-insolation phases. These orbital forcings have historically triggered ice ages, setting the stage for expansion. Topographic features, such as broad depressions or basins, are essential for stabilizing ice caps by creating zones of net accumulation where snowfall exceeds and ice flow is minimized. In , the occupies a large central topographic basin that funnels inward and restricts outward flow due to the surrounding highlands, allowing to compact into ice over time without rapid dispersal. This configuration maintains a positive in the interior, even under marginal climatic conditions. Threshold models of ice cap persistence emphasize the need for sustained snowfall rates above critical levels to counteract sublimation and limited melt in hyper-arid polar settings. These models integrate factors like and to predict stability, highlighting how slight increases in snowfall can tip regions toward formation.

Geologic and Climatic History

The geologic history of ice cap climates reveals a pattern of episodic glaciations spanning billions of years, with significant developments in the eon. Prior to the , notable ice cap formations occurred during the Andean-Saharan glaciation approximately 460 to 420 million years ago (Ma), when extensive ice sheets covered parts of the , including regions now in the Desert and the , at positions not aligned with modern polar latitudes. Similarly, the Late Paleozoic Ice Age, peaking during the period around 300 Ma, featured widespread ice caps across southern , driven by low atmospheric CO₂ levels and continental configurations that facilitated polar cooling, leading to global drops of up to 100 meters. These pre- events demonstrate that ice cap climates can emerge in tectonically influenced settings without requiring the current polar geography, often tied to assembly and disruptions. The period, beginning 2.58 Ma, marks the onset of the current characterized by recurrent ice cap expansions, with over 50 glacial- cycles documented through paleoclimate records. These cycles intensified after the Mid-Pleistocene Transition around 1 Ma, shifting from 41,000-year obliquity-dominated rhythms to dominant 100,000-year eccentricity cycles, resulting in larger ice volumes during glacial maxima. The current , starting approximately 11,700 years ago, represents a brief warm phase within this ongoing , following the retreat of vast ice sheets that had dominated the Pleistocene. During Pleistocene glacial maxima, such as the around 21,000 years ago, global ice volume reached approximately three times the present level, with an additional 52 million cubic kilometers of ice beyond modern estimates, covering about 30% of Earth's land surface primarily in the and . This expansion lowered sea levels by around 134 meters and was evidenced by deep ice cores, including the EPICA Dome C core from , which spans 800,000 years and captures multiple glacial cycles through trapped air bubbles and isotopic signatures. Paleoclimate proxies like oxygen isotope ratios (δ¹⁸O) in these ice cores provide key insights into past temperatures, where more negative δ¹⁸O values indicate colder conditions and greater extent, reflecting enhanced as snow and reduced summer . Such records confirm the dynamic buildup and decay of ice caps, influenced by orbital forcings and feedback mechanisms like changes.

Physical Features

Ice Sheets and Glaciers

Ice sheets in ice cap climates are vast, dome-shaped masses of ice that originate from the center of accumulation and spread outward under their own weight. The anatomy of an ice sheet is divided into distinct zones: the accumulation zone in the interior, where snowfall exceeds melting and adds mass through compaction into ice; the ablation zone near the margins, where melting, sublimation, and calving dominate, leading to net mass loss; and the equilibrium line altitude separating these zones, beyond which flow transitions from slow interior creep to faster marginal dynamics. Ice flow occurs primarily through internal deformation and basal sliding, with velocities increasing toward the periphery due to steeper slopes and reduced friction. For example, the Greenland Ice Sheet has an average thickness of approximately 1.67 kilometers, enabling significant gravitational drive for its radial spread across about 1.71 million square kilometers. Within ice cap regions, glaciers manifest in various forms, including outlet glaciers that channel ice from the main sheet to the sea and expansive ice shelves that float on waters. Outlet glaciers, such as Jakobshavn Isbræ in , are fast-flowing conduits that drain large portions of the , with speeds reaching up to 17 kilometers per year due to calving and dynamic thinning. In contrast, ice shelves, more prominent in , act as buttresses that slow the flow of inland ice by resisting tidal and oceanic forces, though they can disintegrate rapidly under warming conditions. These glacier types differ fundamentally in their interaction with the surrounding environment: outlet glaciers experience high shear stresses and frequent calving events, while ice shelves undergo basal melting influenced by currents. The of ice sheets and glaciers governs their stability, defined by the equation net mass balance = accumulation - , where positive values indicate growth and negative values signal retreat. Accumulation primarily occurs via snowfall in the interior, while encompasses surface melt, calving, and basal melting. Currently, global ice sheets are experiencing a net loss of approximately 400 gigatons per year, driven by accelerated in peripheral zones amid rising temperatures. Subglacial features, such as lakes, play a critical role in modulating ice dynamics by providing basal lubrication that facilitates sliding. , a prominent beneath the , spans about 14,000 square kilometers and influences overlying ice flow through water accumulation and periodic drainage, reducing friction and enabling faster movement in adjacent ice streams. These lakes form in topographic depressions under the pressure-melted base of the ice, altering hydraulic gradients and potentially triggering surges in ice velocity.

Cryospheric Elements

In ice cap climates, permafrost forms a foundational cryospheric element, representing permanently that underlies vast expanses of these regions. In , permafrost is continuous across ice-free areas, often exceeding 500 meters in depth in some regions, as observed in the where thicknesses range from 240 to 970 meters. In contrast, ice cap margins feature discontinuous permafrost, where covers 50-90% of the landscape and is interspersed with unfrozen taliks, particularly along coastal and subsea extents in regions like the Canadian Arctic. Sea constitutes another critical non-glacial frozen component, forming annually through the freezing of in polar oceans surrounding ice caps. In these environments, pack develops as a dynamic cover up to 2 meters thick during winter, driven by thermodynamic growth and influenced by ocean currents and winds, as documented in coastal polynya studies. , persistent open-water areas within the , serve as key features by facilitating enhanced heat exchange and new formation, maintaining ecological hotspots amid the surrounding frozen expanse. Snow cover dynamics play a pivotal role in the evolution of ice cap surfaces, where initial snowfall compacts into layers that gradually densify over time. Fresh snow typically begins at densities around 300 kg/m³, undergoing and compression to transition into firn and eventually solid ice at 917 kg/m³, a process spanning years to centuries depending on accumulation rates and . This densification buffers atmospheric interactions and stores mass, with firn layers often reaching depths of tens to hundreds of meters in stable ice cap interiors. Hydrologic isolation characterizes ice cap environments, where extreme cold minimizes liquid water flow and surface runoff. Virtually all precipitation—over 99%—remains locked within the ice as snow, firn, or glacier ice, with annual runoff negligible at less than 1% of total inputs, as evidenced by Antarctic surface mass balance models showing only 0.9 Gt yr⁻¹ runoff against 2546 Gt yr⁻¹ precipitation. This retention sustains the long-term stability of ice caps by preventing significant water export to surrounding oceans.

Ecology and Biodiversity

Adaptations of Life Forms

Algae in ice cap regions display cryptic growth patterns, forming visible blooms in melt pools and surface films during infrequent summer thaws, where they capitalize on transient liquid water and increased light penetration. Species such as diatoms (Nitzschia frigida) photosynthesize efficiently at subzero temperatures down to -1.5°C within brine channels of or glacial melt layers, maintaining metabolic rates sufficient for accumulation despite salinities ranging from 10 to 60. These blooms, often concentrated in the bottom skeletal layers of ice, can increase algal productivity by up to 10-fold during melt events, supporting brief trophic interactions before refreezing. Birds like the (Pagodroma nivea), endemic to ice caps, adapt through seasonal migration and precise selection tied to ice dynamics. These petrels breed in austral summer on ice-free cliffs and nunataks along continental margins and islands, sometimes up to 440 km inland, where they nest in rock crevices to shield chicks from winds exceeding 100 km/h. During non-breeding periods from March to October, they migrate extensively over , traveling up to 107,000 km annually while foraging at ice edges for and fish, with habitat preferences for high sea-ice concentrations (>50%) and low sea-surface temperatures near -1.8°C to optimize prey availability. Their dense and high metabolic rates further enable endurance in these marginal zones, facilitating return to breeding sites by . On exposed rock outcrops and nunataks within regions, non-vascular life forms such as lichens and mosses exhibit specialized adaptations to extreme cold and desiccation. Cryptoendolithic lichens, embedded within , survive through symbiotic that photosynthesize under low light and temperatures below 0°C, using antifreeze-like compounds and tolerance to endure ice encasement and UV exposure. These communities, dominated by genera like Buellia and Acarospora, form colorful patinas on rocks, contributing to and nutrient cycling in otherwise barren landscapes.

Microbial and Invertebrate Communities

In ice cap environments, microbial communities persist within ancient glacial ice, where viable bacteria, including , have been isolated from samples with ages exceeding 500,000 years according to referenced studies. These extremophiles demonstrate remarkable longevity, surviving in a frozen state through metabolic . Energy for such subsurface life may derive from , where galactic cosmic rays ionize ice to produce oxidants like and reductants such as hydrogen gas, enabling chemolithoautotrophic metabolism in the absence of . Invertebrate communities in ice caps are dominated by microscopic metazoans inhabiting cryoconite holes—melting depressions on glacier surfaces filled with sediment and meltwater. Tardigrades (water bears) are particularly abundant, reaching densities up to 172 individuals per milliliter in these niches, where they enter anhydrobiosis, a desiccated cryptobiotic state allowing survival of extreme cold and . Nematodes, though rarer and often absent in many sites due to physiological limitations in near-freezing conditions (~0°C), have been documented in low numbers (e.g., 17 specimens across six holes) on select , highlighting their sporadic presence in these transient habitats. Subglacial ecosystems beneath ice caps, such as Antarctic , harbor isolated microbial assemblages adapted to perpetual darkness and high pressure. Accretion ice from Vostok contains diverse , including thermophilic strains indicative of chemosynthetic processes powered by geothermal , where microbes fix carbon via oxidation of minerals or radiolysis-derived compounds. These communities rely on chemolithoautotrophy, with evidence of viable cells respiring organic substrates even after isolation under 4 km of ice. Overall, microbial and invertebrate in environments exhibits low , typically ranging from 10 to 100 taxa per site, reflecting the extreme constraints of and isolation. However, this limited diversity is offset by high , with many taxa uniquely adapted to icy niches, such as novel bacterial lineages in subglacial lakes or glacier-specific populations.

Human and Global Impacts

Exploration and Scientific Study

Human exploration of ice cap regions began with ambitious expeditions during the early 20th century, driven by national prestige and scientific curiosity. Norwegian explorer led the first successful journey to the on December 14, 1911, using dog sleds and strategic depots to traverse the after departing from the Bay of Whales. This achievement preceded the ill-fated British expedition of , which reached the pole 34 days later but suffered heavy losses on the return. In the , early ventures like the Fram expeditions of in the 1890s laid groundwork for understanding ice cap dynamics, though focused more on navigation. The establishment of permanent research infrastructure marked a shift toward sustained scientific presence in the mid-20th century. , the largest Antarctic base, was founded by the in December 1955 as part of to support international geophysical efforts during the . Today, over 70 research stations operate across , representing 29 countries and facilitating year-round monitoring under the . The Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, located at an elevation of 2,835 meters atop the polar plateau, serves as a key hub for deep-field research since its initial setup in 1956. drilling projects, such as the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA), have extracted records extending back 800,000 years from sites like Dome C, revealing paleoclimatic patterns through isotopic analysis. In 2025, the Beyond EPICA – Oldest Ice project successfully drilled a 2,800-meter at Little Dome C, retrieving ice older than 1.2 million years for extended paleoclimate analysis. Technological innovations have expanded access to remote ice cap interiors, enabling non-invasive mapping and data collection. The RADARSAT-1 Antarctic Mapping Project in 1997 produced the first comprehensive, high-resolution radar mosaic of the continent, measuring ice velocity and topography to assess sheet dynamics. More recently, uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been deployed for targeted surveys in inaccessible areas, such as the British Antarctic Survey's 2024 tests of autonomous drones at to image crevasses and surface features. These tools complement ground-based efforts, providing high-resolution data that informs broader cryospheric models. Research stations also supply essential climate records, including and measurements that anchor global datasets. International cooperation is formalized through the Antarctic Treaty, signed on December 1, 1959, by 12 nations active in the region, which designates for peaceful scientific use and prohibits military activities. This framework, now with 58 parties, has fostered collaborative projects and environmental protections, ensuring shared access to research sites. In the , where ice caps fringe habitable lands, indigenous communities contribute observational knowledge of conditions, such as thickness and lead formation, derived from generations of travel and hunting practices. Though direct inhabitation of polar ice caps is impossible, these insights from margins enhance understanding of regional variability.

Climate Change Effects

Ice cap climates are undergoing rapid transformation due to anthropogenic global warming, with observed mass losses from major ice sheets serving as key indicators. The has lost an average of 280 gigatons of ice per year between 2002 and 2021, contributing approximately 0.8 millimeters per year to global through surface melting and calving. In contrast, the has experienced a net mass loss of about 150 gigatons per year over a similar period (2002–2020), where modest gains in from increased snowfall partially offset substantial losses in and the driven by ocean warming and dynamic ice discharge. These changes are exacerbated by threshold tipping points, particularly in vulnerable regions like the (WAIS), where marine ice sheet instability could lead to its potential collapse by 2100 under high-emission scenarios such as SSP5-8.5. Such an event would release vast volumes of ice, contributing up to several meters of over centuries, though projections carry low confidence due to uncertainties in ice dynamics and ocean forcing. loops further amplify melting; for instance, deposition of and growth of on ice surfaces darken the ice, reducing its by up to 5–10% in affected areas and increasing solar absorption, which in turn accelerates surface melt rates by 5–10% during summer in regions like southwest . Looking ahead, IPCC AR6 models project significant volume reductions for ice caps and peripheral glaciers under various emissions pathways, with likely losses of 20–50% of their early 21st-century volume by 2100 in high-emission scenarios, driven by sustained warming and reduced efficiency. This could transform ice-dominated landscapes into in marginal areas, altering local climates from perennial cold and dry conditions to more temperate, vegetated regimes with increased seasonal thawing and degradation.

References

  1. https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Physical)/Physical_Geography_and_Natural_Disasters_(Dastrup)/10:_Global_Climates_and_Change/10.03:_Koppen_Classification_System
  2. https://www.d.umn.edu/~tzhu/geog1414/global_climates.htm
  3. https://nsidc.org/learn/parts-cryosphere/sea-ice/why-sea-ice-matters
  4. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/1597/2023/
  5. https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_%28Physical%29/Physical_Geography_and_Natural_Disasters_%28Dastrup%29/10%253A_Global_Climates_and_Change/10.03%253A_Koppen_Classification_System
  6. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/physgeoglabmanual1/back-matter/appendix-2-koppen-climate-classification-system/
  7. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-ice-cap-climate.html
  8. https://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/Paper_2011.pdf
  9. https://www.gktoday.in/ice-cap-climate/
  10. https://wmo.int/topics/cryosphere
  11. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/earth-and-atmospheric-sciences/global-climate
  12. https://wmo.int/topics/glaciers-and-ice-caps
  13. http://www.climatedata.info/forcing/albedo/
  14. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/arctic/
  15. https://www.climatetypesforkids.com/tundra-climate
  16. https://www.thephysicalenvironment.com/Book/climate_systems/tundra_1.html
  17. https://www.interact-gis.com/Home/Station/75
  18. http://www.nerc-bas.ac.uk/icd/gjma/vostok.temps.html
  19. https://sseh.uchicago.edu/doc/cuffey_ch_9.pdf
  20. https://people.ohio.edu/dyer/TPE/tpe_3e/climate_systems/icecap.html
  21. https://atmos.uw.edu/~sgwgroup/DC/pubs/invPaper/HudsonBrandt2005.pdf
  22. https://glaciers.pdx.edu/fountain/MyPapers/NylenEtAl2004.pdf
  23. https://www.aari.ru/expeditions/russian-antarctic-expedition/vostok-eng
  24. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/grl.50456
  25. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05517-z
  26. http://www.polarmet.osu.edu/PolarMet/PMGFulldocs/cullather_bromwich_jc_1998.pdf
  27. https://www.colorado.edu/atoc/2022/02/01/remote-and-autonomous-measurements-precipitation-northwestern-ross-ice-shelf-antarctica
  28. https://polarmet.osu.edu/RIME/abcc.pdf
  29. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021GL092942
  30. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/11/2345/2017/
  31. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2008JD009968
  32. https://mausamjournal.imd.gov.in/index.php/MAUSAM/article/download/960/803/3457
  33. https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/weather/
  34. https://www.usgs.gov/water-science-school/science/sublimation-and-water-cycle
  35. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/69832/noaa_69832_DS1.pdf
  36. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/131/2/1520-0493_2003_131_0289_dacomc_2.0.co_2.xml
  37. https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2024/greenland-ice-sheet-2024/
  38. https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/geography/ice/
  39. https://www.ige-grenoble.fr/Antarctica-working-for-2-months-at-40oC-to-complete-the-Little-Dome-C-camp
  40. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386i/chile-arg/wet/southpat.html
  41. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1386i/report.pdf
  42. https://discoveringantarctica.org.uk/oceans-atmosphere-landscape/atmosphere-weather-and-climate/key-factors-behind-antarcticas-climate/
  43. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2000JB900449
  44. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-025-04672-y
  45. https://www.bas.ac.uk/project/bedmap-2/
  46. https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glaciers-and-climate/observing-and-monitoring-glaciers-and-ice-sheets/mapping-worlds-glaciers/
  47. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2200835119
  48. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87710-4
  49. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6197230/
  50. https://e360.yale.edu/features/andes-meltdown-new-insights-into-rapidly-retreating-glaciers
  51. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386h/indonesia/indonesia.html
  52. https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/79084/ice-loss-on-puncak-jaya
  53. https://news.osu.edu/mountaintop-glacier-ice-disappearing-in-tropics-around-the-world/
  54. https://wgms.ch/global-glacier-state/
  55. https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/globalchange/lectures/climate-change-and-the-ice-ages/
  56. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/20490/noaa_20490_DS1.pdf
  57. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20140011827/downloads/20140011827.pdf
  58. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3357779/
  59. https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/earth-science/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/
  60. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386c/p1386c.pdf
  61. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1904242116
  62. https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/context/etd/article/4143/viewcontent/McConnell_Erin_Final_8.14.2019.pdf
  63. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-35983-y
  64. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1712062114
  65. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01610-2
  66. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/quaternary-period.htm
  67. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825224002642
  68. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18897-5
  69. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1411762111
  70. https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02404-z
  71. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06763
  72. https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/topics/cryosphere/glaciers/glacier-power/what-is-glacier-anatomy
  73. https://phys.org/news/2014-02-greenland-fastest-glacier.html
  74. https://nsidc.org/learn/parts-cryosphere/glaciers/science-glaciers
  75. https://science.nasa.gov/earth/explore/earth-indicators/ice-sheets/
  76. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/iceflow-sensitivity-to-boundary-processes-a-coupled-model-study-in-the-vostok-subglacial-lake-area-antarctica/0FAFDF49A4227F6E56F6427034EADE6B
  77. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL106912
  78. https://os.copernicus.org/articles/20/1677/2024/os-20-1677-2024.pdf
  79. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/phoc/47/7/jpo-d-16-0224.1.pdf
  80. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/240/3/1935/7954745
  81. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/19/4061/2025/
  82. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00021/full
  83. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1278229/full
  84. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0706970104
  85. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5992382/
  86. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5095211/
  87. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1208607109
  88. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10452-019-09707-2
  89. https://www.eje.cz/pdfs/eje/1996/03/07.pdf
  90. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-025-05971-6
  91. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3960894/
  92. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0908274106
  93. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1873965210000149
  94. https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/museums/seabee/explore/online-reading-room/historic-topics0/Antarctica.html
  95. https://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/ail/amundson-scott-south-pole-station
  96. https://frammuseum.no/polar-history/expeditions/the-third-fram-expedition-1910-1914/
  97. https://www.comnap.aq/antarctic-facilities-information
  98. https://www.bas.ac.uk/media-post/historic-drilling-campaign-reaches-ice-more-than-1-2-million-years-old/
  99. https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/data/projects/ramp
  100. https://www.bas.ac.uk/media-post/first-flights-of-uncrewed-aircraft-in-antarctica/
  101. https://www.ats.aq/e/antarctictreaty.html
  102. https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/arctic-zone/essay_gearheard.html
  103. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211011-the-inuit-knowledge-vanishing-with-the-ice
  104. https://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/30/greenland-ice-loss-2002-2021/
  105. https://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/31/antarctic-ice-loss-2002-2020/
  106. https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/31158/
  107. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-9/
  108. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01738-w
  109. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017GL075958
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.