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Vitis labrusca
Vitis labrusca
Vitis labrusca
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Fox grape
Secure
Secure  (NatureServe)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Vitales
Family: Vitaceae
Genus: Vitis
Species:
V. labrusca
Binomial name
Vitis labrusca

Vitis labrusca, the fox grape, is a species of grapevines belonging to the Vitis genus in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The vines are native to eastern North America and are the source of many grape cultivars, including Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Isabella, Niagara, and many hybrid grape varieties such as Agawam, Alexander and Onaka. Among the characteristics of this vine species in contrast to the European wine grape Vitis vinifera are its "slip-skin" that allows the skin of the grape berries to easily slip off when squeezed, instead of crushing the pulp, and the presence of tendrils on every node of the cane. Vitis labrusca also tends to have strong resistance to mildews and phylloxera. Another contrast with European V. vinifera are unique flavors, best known to most people through the Concord grape.[1] The term "foxy" became a sort of catchall for the wine tasting descriptors used for these American wines that were distinct from the familiar flavors of the European viniferous wines.[2] These flavors have been described as strawberry, raspberry, cotton candy, and "grapey" (because Americans associate these flavors with popular grape juices, candies, jellies and jams, sodas, and more made with Concord grapes). Occasionally, depending on the winemaking, V. labrusca grapes can impart a musky flavor to wine, which some find intriguing while others dislike, but this can be mitigated or increased by winegrowing and winemaking practices. Vitis labrusca is in the parentage of the world's most planted grape variety, Kyoho.

History

[edit]
Concord grapes

According to wine historian Edward Hyams and wine expert Jancis Robinson, Vitis labrusca was probably the species seen by Leif Ericsson growing wild along the coast of Vinland in the 11th century. There is ample evidence that the labrusca was growing wild in North America before Europeans arrived. The vine was not officially identified and recorded until Carl Linnaeus and his peers started cataloging American vine species in the mid-18th century. In the 19th century, Vitis labrusca was among the American vines transported to Europe that were carrying the phylloxera louse that caused widespread devastation to the European vineyards planted with Vitis vinifera.[3]

Also in the 19th century, Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts, cultivated seeds from wild labrusca vines to create the Concord grape which would become an important agricultural crop in the United States.[3]

Vine characteristics

[edit]

The majority of Vitis labrusca grape varieties are red, although white varieties such as Niagara and "pink-skinned" varieties such as Catawba have dark colored berries high in phenolic compounds that produced strongly flavored wines. As the berries near harvest and become fully ripe, they separate easily from the pedicel (berry stem). If the berry is squeezed gently between two fingers, the thick skin will slip easily off leaving the pulp intact as a ball. This trait gives Vitis labrusca the name of "slip skin" grapes. Another trait of labrusca that aids ampelographers in identification of vines and hybrid varieties descended from the species is the large, thick leaves of the vines that have a hairy underside with dense brown or white hairs.[1]

Like many other American vine species, Vitis labrusca has some natural resistance to many grape diseases, including phylloxera. However, its resistance and grafting compatibility is not as high as that of other species, such as Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris and Vitis berlandieri, and it is not often used for commercial rootstock.[1] It is a robust plant, and in many states can be considered weedy or invasive.[4]

Wine regions

[edit]
Botanical features of Vitis labrusca

Vitis labrusca is located along the eastern seaboard of North America from Nova Scotia down to Georgia and westward to the Mississippi River. Among American Viticultural Areas (AVA)s that produce wine from labrusca or hybrids derived from labrusca include Alexandria Lakes, Upper Mississippi Valley, Mississippi Delta, Ohio River Valley, Southeastern New England, Lake Erie as well as several AVAs in the states of New York, Virginia, Ohio, Michigan and Minnesota.[5] In the Canadian Province of Ontario, the use of Vitis labrusca varieties is not permitted by the VQA regulatory and appellation system, except for Vidal, a hybrid grape varietal.[6]

Unlike vinifera, hybrids and Vitis labrusca varieties can better withstand the severe continental conditions of eastern North America with severely cold winters and hot, humid summers. (However, labrusca doesn't do quite as well as varieties like Vitis rotundifolia in the humidity of southeastern US). In fact, in areas of the United States where vinifera does flourish in the west, the conditions during the growing season are often too arid for labrusca vines.[5]

"Foxy"

[edit]

According to University of California, Davis viticulture expert A. J. Winkler, outside of the vinifera Muscat family of grapes, Vitis labrusca varieties have the most pronounced aromas among wine grape varieties. While the description "foxy" has been thought to describe a unique, earthy and sweet muskiness that can be perceived in fresh Concord grapes as well as grape juice made from Concord and other labrusca varieties, the flavors also most commonly associated with these grapes include fruity aromas and flavors of strawberry and raspberry. In the 1920s, scientists were able to isolate the aroma compound responsible for the "foxy" musk as methyl anthranilate.[5] These compounds are used to produce grape-flavored juices, candies, sodas, and other "grape-flavored" products.

See also

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References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Vitis labrusca

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from Grokipedia
Vitis labrusca, commonly known as the fox grape, is a species of , woody in the grape Vitaceae, characterized by its climbing habit via tendrils and vigorous growth reaching up to 15–20 meters in length. Native to eastern , it features broad, heart-shaped to three-lobed leaves measuring 10–20 cm long, often with a fuzzy underside and a distinctive musky aroma when crushed, small greenish-white flowers in spring panicles, and clusters of 1–2 cm purple-black berries with a thick waxy bloom that mature in late summer. The fruit has a slip-skin texture, where the pulp separates easily from the skin, contributing to its unique "foxy" flavor profile. This species is indigenous to a wide range across eastern and central , from and southward to Georgia and northern , and westward to , thriving in diverse habitats such as forest edges, woodlands, thickets, riverbanks, and disturbed areas. It prefers moist to dry soils and tolerates partial shade to full sun, demonstrating resilience to a variety of environmental conditions including temporary flooding. V. labrusca is perennially hardy to USDA zones 5–8, with bark that peels in thin strips and tendrils opposite most leaves, aiding its identification from related species like V. riparia. Vitis labrusca holds significant agricultural importance as the primary genetic source for many American bunch grape cultivars, including Concord, Niagara, Catawba, and Delaware, which are prized for their cold hardiness, disease resistance, and suitability for juice, jelly, wine, and fresh consumption. These labrusca-derived varieties exhibit greater adaptability to humid climates and pest pressures compared to European Vitis vinifera grapes, making them staples in North American viticulture since the 19th century. Beyond cultivation, the wild form supports wildlife as a food source for birds and mammals, while its ecological role includes providing cover in native habitats.

Taxonomy and Description

Taxonomy

Vitis labrusca belongs to the family , the genus Vitis, subgenus Euvitis, and section Labrusca. The species was formally recognized and described as distinct by in his 1753 work Species Plantarum. The specific epithet "labrusca" originates from Latin, translating to "wild vine," highlighting its native, uncultivated status in contrast to domesticated species. Taxonomically, V. labrusca shares the diploid chromosome number 2n=38 with Vitis vinifera, the primary Eurasian cultivated grape; however, V. labrusca is distinguished by its native North American origin and inherent resistance to grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae), a pest to which V. vinifera is highly susceptible.

Morphological Characteristics

Vitis labrusca is a woody, deciduous climbing vine that can reach lengths of 15-20 meters (50-65 feet), with a trunk diameter up to 12 inches (30 cm) in mature specimens, featuring shredded brown bark that peels easily. It climbs via forked tendrils arising opposite most leaves, allowing it to ascend trees, shrubs, or supports, and exhibits a branching habit with high vigor and fast growth rates. The leaves are alternate, simple, and large, measuring 4-8 inches (10-20 cm) long and 2-7 inches (5-18 cm) wide, typically oval-cordate or three-lobed with a heart-shaped base and finely serrated (dentate) margins. The upper surface is dull green and mostly hairless, while the underside is densely covered in woolly, brownish-gray hairs, giving a fuzzy texture; petioles are 1.5-2.5 inches (4-6 cm) long with similar woolly pubescence that fades over time. Palmately veined, these leaves are leathery and , contributing to the vine's for climbing and . Flowers are small, greenish-yellow, and approximately 0.1 inches (3 mm) across, arranged in drooping panicles 3-6 inches (8-15 cm) long that emerge opposite leaves in to early summer. They are radially symmetrical with five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and one pistil, exhibiting a sweet musty fragrance; plants may produce unisexual (dioecious) or perfect (hermaphroditic) flowers, leading to variable . Berries develop in loose, pendulous clusters from the inflorescences, forming medium-sized, round to globoid fruits 0.4-0.8 inches (10-20 mm) in diameter, with weights ranging from 1-3 grams and thick peels 0.01-0.03 inches (0.1-0.7 mm). Colors vary from bluish-black to purple, red, or rarely pink, with juicy, sweet-tart flesh imparting a characteristic musky "foxy" flavor; each contains 1-6 , which are larger than those in many other species. As a growth habit, V. labrusca is highly vigorous and cold-hardy, tolerating temperatures down to -20°F to -10°F (-29°C to -23°C) in USDA zones 5-8, though extreme cold can cause trunk splitting. It shows resistance to some fungal diseases like powdery and but remains susceptible to others, notably black rot caused by Guignardia bidwellii, which affects leaves, shoots, and during humid conditions.

Origins and History

Native Range and Discovery

Vitis labrusca, commonly known as the fox grape, is native to eastern , with its range extending from southeastern Canada, including and , southward through the to , Georgia, and , and westward to the including and . This species thrives in a variety of habitats, including woodlands, forest edges, riverbanks, thickets, and areas of disturbed soil, often climbing high into trees or scrambling over shrubs in moist, well-drained sites. Ecologically, V. labrusca functions as a in disturbed soils, rapidly colonizing open or disrupted areas and contributing to stabilization through its vigorous climbing growth. Its fruits serve as an important food source for , attracting a diverse array of birds, such as cardinals, robins, and cedar waxwings, as well as mammals including deer, raccoons, , and squirrels, which consume the grapes and aid in . The dense foliage also provides cover and nesting sites for birds, enhancing in its native ecosystems. European discovery of V. labrusca dates to the , when French explorer documented abundant wild grapes along the North American coast during his 1524 voyage, noting their prevalence in regions like the Valley. The species received its formal scientific description in 1753 by in his , based on specimens collected from North American woodlands, marking the first for this grapevine. Prior to European contact, there is limited evidence of Native American use of V. labrusca, primarily involving gathering the wild fruits for food and occasional medicinal applications. Indigenous groups such as the utilized the grapes as a remedy for , , and urinary issues, while the employed the vine for fever reduction and pain relief, though such practices were not as extensively documented as those for other native plants.

Cultivation History

Cultivation of Vitis labrusca by in began in the , particularly in , where the species grew abundantly in wild thickets along forest edges and riverbanks, prompting early efforts to propagate it for local use despite initial focus on European Vitis vinifera. These vines, known as grapes for their musky aroma, were gradually domesticated through selection of superior wild strains, transitioning from foraging by to organized planting by colonists seeking alternatives to imported wines. By the early , horticulturists in the Northeast had established small vineyards, laying the groundwork for commercial production. A pivotal advancement occurred in 1849 when Ephraim Wales Bull, a horticulturist in , developed the Concord cultivar through from wild V. labrusca seedlings, creating a hardy, high-yielding variety that became the cornerstone of American grape farming. In the mid-19th century, V. labrusca played a critical role in addressing the crisis devastating European vineyards after the pest's introduction around 1860 via imported American vines. Native American species like V. labrusca exhibited natural resistance to the root-feeding Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, leading to the widespread adoption of European V. vinifera scions onto V. labrusca and related rootstocks starting in the and ; this practice, championed by entomologist Charles Valentine Riley, saved the European wine industry by conferring phylloxera tolerance while preserving vinifera fruit quality, though V. labrusca rootstocks proved less adaptable in warmer climates. Concurrently, V. labrusca cultivation expanded across the , with the Concord variety driving commercial growth in regions like the Finger Lakes and shores, where its cold hardiness and resistance suited the . During the 20th century, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) breeding programs advanced V. labrusca-based hybrids, focusing on enhanced disease resistance to pathogens like downy and powdery mildew from the 1920s through the 1950s, particularly at the Geneva, New York, station where selections incorporated wild V. labrusca genetics for improved vigor and adaptability. Economically, *V. labrusca_ production peaked in the 1910s, with substantial nationwide acreage of Concord grapes dominating eastern output for fresh fruit, wine, and emerging juice markets. The passage of national Prohibition in 1920 severely curtailed wine production, leading to a sharp decline in plantings as many vineyards were uprooted or converted; however, the industry resurged post-repeal in 1933 through the juice sector, bolstered by innovations like Thomas Welch's pasteurized grape juice process from 1869, which transformed surplus Concord grapes into a staple non-alcoholic product and sustained V. labrusca farming into the modern era.

Cultivation and Distribution

Growing Requirements

Vitis labrusca thrives in cool to temperate climates, particularly those providing 1000 to 1500 chill hours below 7.2°C to ensure proper bud dormancy and break. These vines are well-adapted to regions with minimum winter temperatures not dropping below -25°F (-32°C) and offering at least 150 frost-free days during the , along with approximately 2000 above 50°F (10°C) for fruit maturation. While tolerant of higher levels compared to European grape species, V. labrusca requires sites with excellent air circulation to minimize fungal disease pressure, such as and black rot. Optimal soil conditions for V. labrusca include well-drained, fertile loamy soils with a range of 5.5 to 7.0, though slightly acidic conditions around 5.5 enhance availability, particularly iron. Deep sandy loams are preferred to support extensive systems, and vines perform best on gently sloping sites that prevent waterlogging and accumulation in low-lying pockets. Poor drainage can lead to , so amending heavy clays with or selecting elevated locations is essential. Propagation of V. labrusca is commonly achieved through dormant hardwood cuttings taken in late winter, selecting stems 1/4 to 1/3 inch in diameter with three buds, which root readily when stored cool and moist before spring planting. onto rootstocks, such as those resistant to or adapted to specific soils, is also practiced to improve vigor or disease tolerance, though own-rooted vines suffice in many native ranges. Vines should be spaced 2 to 3 meters (6 to 10 feet) apart in rows to allow for canopy development and air flow, with a typical row spacing of 2.5 to 3 meters. Effective management involves annual cane pruning during , where up to 90% of the previous season's growth is removed to direct energy toward fruiting spurs, typically leaving 30 to 50 buds per vine on a balanced like the four-arm Kniffin. Training to a sturdy trellis or arbor supports the vigorous growth, while targets common threats such as Japanese beetles, which defoliate leaves, and birds, which damage clusters—netting or targeted insecticides are standard practices. Regular monitoring for fungal pathogens is crucial, with cultural practices like canopy thinning promoting drier conditions. Mature V. labrusca vines, reaching full productivity after 3 to 5 years, can yield 5 to 10 tons per under good management, with individual vines producing 5 to 10 pounds of fruit by the third year. Yields vary by and site but emphasize the importance of consistent and fertility to sustain production.

Major Production Regions

Vitis labrusca, commonly known as the fox grape, is primarily cultivated in the northeastern and midwestern United States, where its cold-hardy nature suits the region's climate. The major production hubs include New York and in the Northeast, along with and in the Midwest, particularly around the and regions. These areas benefit from the species' adaptability to cooler temperatures and shorter growing seasons, supporting both commercial vineyards and wild populations. In New York, which hosts over 35,000 acres of vineyards predominantly planted with V. labrusca varieties like Concord, production focuses on juice and table grapes. In 2023, U.S. production of V. labrusca grapes, led by the Concord , totaled approximately 150,000 tons, with significant contributions from these states. Michigan harvested about 50,000 tons of Concord grapes across roughly 6,500 acres that year. and also contributed notably, with yields supporting local facilities, though exact state breakdowns vary due to influences. However, production in 2024 was substantially reduced due to severe winter cold snaps and spring freezes, with over 40% losses reported in New York's Concord vineyards and lighter harvests in . Internationally, V. labrusca cultivation remains limited but notable in select regions. In , Ontario's industry incorporates V. labrusca varieties such as Concord and Niagara for juice production, leveraging similar temperate conditions to the U.S. Northeast. stands out as a key exporter, where V. labrusca accounts for about 80% of total production, primarily for juice, with 2023 yields exceeding 1.7 million tons overall across southern states like . Experimental plantings occur in parts of and , including and northern , where hybrids derived from V. labrusca are tested for disease resistance and cold tolerance, though commercial scale is minimal compared to native V. vinifera dominance. Economically, V. labrusca underpins the U.S. grape juice market, comprising around 90% of non-table grape production and fueling a multi-billion-dollar industry centered on Concord processing. In the Finger Lakes region of New York, it sustains rural economies through juice cooperatives and related , generating jobs and supporting over 35,000 acres of farmland. This sector's stability aids small-scale growers, with annual revenues tied to consistent demand from major processors. Production faces challenges from imported juices, particularly from , which compete on price and volume in the U.S. market, pressuring domestic yields. Since the 2000s, has exacerbated variability, with warmer winters and erratic reducing yields in the Northeast and Midwest by up to 20% in affected years, prompting adaptations like delayed . These factors highlight the need for resilient hybrids to maintain economic viability.

Varieties and Breeding

Principal Cultivars

The principal cultivars of Vitis labrusca include several historic varieties selected for their adaptability, productivity, and distinctive sensory qualities, primarily developed in the in the . These cultivars form the backbone of American production for non-vinifera uses, emphasizing traits like cold hardiness and robust growth suited to the species' native range. 'Concord', the most widely grown V. labrusca , was developed in 1849 by in , from wild vines of the species. It produces medium-sized clusters of blue-black, slip-skin berries with high yields, ripening in mid-September, and is noted for its vigorous growth and disease tolerance. 'Niagara', a white-berried variety, originated in 1868 from breeding efforts by C.L. Hoag and B.W. Clark in , and has become the leading in the United States due to its large clusters of sweet, greenish-white, slip-skin fruit. It exhibits strong vigor and reliable production, with berries ripening in late summer. 'Catawba', a red hybrid , was introduced in 1823 by viticulturist John Adlum and gained prominence through cultivation by in , where it became a key variety for its moderate vigor and late-season ripening of copper-red berries. It offers balanced cluster sizes and good adaptation to eastern climates. '', featuring small pinkish-red berries, emerged in the 1840s in , or , and is valued for its early ripening (mid-September), aromatic flavor, and relative resistance to compared to European grapes. The shows compact growth and consistent yields in cooler regions. Selection of these principal V. labrusca historically prioritized high yield potential, desirable flavor profiles with the species' characteristic muskiness, and tolerance to common diseases and cold climates, ensuring suitability for commercial and home cultivation in .

Hybrid Development

Hybridization efforts involving Vitis labrusca began in the mid-19th century to address the limitations of native American grapes, such as susceptibility to certain diseases and lower wine quality compared to , while preserving the cold hardiness and distinctive flavor profile of labrusca. By the 1880s, systematic breeding programs focused on crossing V. labrusca with V. vinifera to combine the robust "foxy" aroma and slip-skin characteristics of labrusca with the finer acidity, berry size, and disease resistance of vinifera. Early pioneers like Edward S. Rogers conducted controlled crosses starting in 1851, using V. labrusca varieties such as 'Carter' as seed parents pollinated with V. vinifera pollen to produce hybrids with improved vigor and adaptability to eastern U.S. climates. Major breeding programs emerged in the early 20th century, with the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva serving as a hub for interspecific hybridization. At Geneva, breeders utilized V. labrusca-derived germplasm in crosses to develop cold-hardy varieties suited to northern regions, often incorporating backcrossing to stabilize traits like phylloxera resistance and reduced vigor. Similarly, the University of Arkansas Fruit Breeding Program has produced V. labruscana hybrids (crosses between V. labrusca and V. vinifera) since the mid-20th century, targeting enhanced fruit quality for table grapes and juice production in humid southern environments. Techniques in these programs typically involve emasculation of flowers, manual pollination, and selective propagation over multiple generations to introgress resistance genes while minimizing undesirable flavors. In modern breeding since the 2000s, (MAS) has accelerated development by identifying genetic markers for key traits such as cold hardiness—derived from V. labrusca's to freezing temperatures—and reduced "foxy" notes through targeted elimination of methyl anthranilate-related genes. Programs like VitisGen, involving collaborators from Cornell and , employ genomic tools to facilitate precise crosses, shortening breeding cycles from decades to years and enabling hybrids with balanced flavor profiles for wine production. These efforts prioritize sustainable traits, including resistance, without relying on extensive applications.

Uses and Products

Table Grapes and Culinary Applications

Vitis labrusca grapes, particularly cultivars like Niagara, are widely consumed fresh as table grapes due to their juicy texture and sweet flavor, making them suitable for snacking. These grapes typically exhibit moderate to high levels, contributing to their appeal for direct eating. The Niagara variety, in particular, produces large, greenish-white clusters that ripen midseason and are prized for their tangy sweetness. In processed foods, Vitis labrusca grapes play a prominent role, especially the Concord cultivar, which is used in jams, jellies, and pies. Concord grapes were first processed into unfermented juice in 1869 by Dr. Thomas Welch, laying the foundation for products like grape jelly introduced in 1923. Their bold flavor and natural content make them ideal for these preserves, where the skins are often separated to enhance texture. Concord grapes are also a staple in traditional pies, where their skins and pulp provide a distinctive deep purple filling with a balance of sweetness and tartness. Other culinary applications of Vitis labrusca include limited production of raisins, constrained by the grapes' relatively high acidity, which affects drying quality compared to lower-acid varieties. The young leaves of the vine are edible and can be cooked to impart a pleasant acidic flavor, though they are less commonly used in dishes like due to their musky aroma. Additionally, the seeds are extracted for oil production, yielding a functional oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids through methods like supercritical CO2 extraction. Nutritionally, Vitis labrusca grapes offer about 67 calories per 100 grams of raw fruit, along with notable levels of , approximately 4 mg per 100 grams. They are high in , including , a stilbene compound concentrated in the skins that supports heart health. These grapes also contain other bioactive polyphenols that contribute to their overall antioxidant capacity.

Wine and Juice Production

Vitis labrusca grapes, particularly the Concord , are primarily processed into using hot-pressing methods that involve heating the crushed grapes to 60-63°C with pectolytic enzymes to maximize color extraction and yield approximately 820 liters per metric ton. This technique extracts the deep purple pigments characteristic of Concord grapes, followed by thermal to ensure shelf stability and prevent microbial spoilage. In the United States, Concord grapes dominate the market, accounting for the vast majority of production and serving as the benchmark for red grape juice quality worldwide. For wine production, Vitis labrusca varieties such as Catawba and yield sweet red and white styles, often with low alcohol content typically ranging from 10-12% ABV due to the grapes' inherently high acidity and lower sugar levels at harvest. Catawba produces spicy white or pink wines with crisp acidity, while results in semi-sweet, fruity whites suitable for still, sparkling, or expressions. These wines emphasize the grapes' bold, aromatic profiles and are typically off-dry to balance the elevated acidity. Processing begins with destemming and crushing the grapes to release the , often incorporating rice hulls for improved yield in production from slip-skin varieties. proceeds with () to compensate for low initial sugars and mitigate acidity, using to convert sugars into alcohol while retaining some residual sweetness. Commercially, New York State leads in Vitis labrusca wine production, particularly in the Finger Lakes and Lake Erie regions, where examples include sparkling Catawba and semi-sweet Delaware wines from local wineries. These wines also feature prominently in kosher markets, with brands like Manischewitz exporting sweet Concord-based products globally for religious and cultural use.

Flavor and Sensory Profile

Chemical Composition

Vitis labrusca grapes exhibit a characteristic sugar and acid balance that contributes to their suitability for juice and production. At maturity, total soluble sugars typically range from 15% to 25% of fresh weight, predominantly composed of glucose and in nearly equal proportions, with glucose often slightly higher. Titratable acidity generally falls between 0.6% and 1.0% (6-10 g/L as equivalents), reflecting higher overall acidity compared to . This elevated acidity stems from a greater proportion of malic acid relative to , with malic acid comprising up to 40-50% of total organic acids in many cultivars, in contrast to the lower malic content (20-30%) typical in V. vinifera. The of ripe berries usually ranges from 3.0 to 3.5, supporting microbial stability in processed products. Phenolic compounds and volatiles define key aspects of V. labrusca's biochemical profile, particularly in the skins and pulp. Anthocyanins, responsible for the red and black cultivars' pigmentation, are concentrated in the skins at levels of 0.5-1.0 g/kg fresh weight, with malvidin-3,5-diglucoside as a predominant form contributing to color stability. Among volatiles, methyl anthranilate stands out as a signature compound, present at concentrations of 0.1-1.0 mg/kg in berries, imparting the distinctive "foxy" aroma associated with labrusca-type grapes. Total phenolics in the fruit range from 0.5-2.0 g/kg, varying by cultivar and environmental factors, with higher levels in skins than pulp. Nutritional compounds in V. labrusca include a range of polyphenols with potential health benefits, alongside varietal-specific differences. Seeds are rich in , a hydrolyzable reaching 10-50 mg/kg, which exhibits properties. Polyphenols such as flavanols and contribute to the overall capacity, with total content often exceeding 1 g/L in juices derived from the berries. The Concord notably contains elevated levels, up to 50-150 mg/kg in skins, higher than many V. vinifera varieties under similar conditions. Analytical methods for quantifying these components rely on chromatographic techniques for precision. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is widely used to separate and measure sugars, organic acids, phenolics, and volatiles, often coupled with UV or diode-array detection for identification. For instance, reversed-phase HPLC enables quantification of anthocyanins and methyl anthranilate with detection limits below 0.01 mg/L, while ion-exchange HPLC assesses acid profiles. These methods confirm the compositional variability across cultivars, aiding in quality control for processing.

"Foxy" Aroma Characteristics

The "foxy" aroma characteristic of Vitis labrusca grapes is defined as a distinctive wild, musky scent reminiscent of muscadine, primarily resulting from the presence of at concentrations typically ranging from 0.04 to 6.44 ppm during grape maturation, along with synergistic compounds such as 2-aminoacetophenone. This compound imparts a unique olfactory profile that sets V. labrusca apart from other species. Sensory descriptors of the foxy aroma include intensely grapey and candied notes, often accompanied by subtle animalic and rubbery undertones, which become perceptible at a detection threshold of approximately 0.045 ppm for in matrices. In cultural contexts, the foxy aroma is highly valued in traditional American products like juice and jellies, where it enhances the nostalgic, bold flavor profile, but it is frequently perceived as an undesirable defect in premium wines, prompting breeding programs since the early 1900s to reduce or eliminate its intensity through hybrid development. This aroma markedly contrasts with the refined fruity elegance of grapes and often persists in interspecific hybrids incorporating V. labrusca germplasm, influencing their sensory acceptance in .

References

  1. https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/VILA8
  2. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/vitis/labrusca/
  3. https://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/ec-1639-growing-table-grapes
  4. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=vila8
  5. https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/fox_grape.html
  6. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Vitis%20labrusca
  7. https://ag.missouristate.edu/StateFruit/_Files/MS29grapeguide.pdf
  8. https://extension.usu.edu/yardandgarden/research/grapes-in-utah.pdf
  9. https://uthort.tennessee.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/228/2024/01/PB1475-Grape-Growing-in-TN.pdf
  10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/vitis-labrusca
  11. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0283324
  12. https://floranorthamerica.org/Vitis_labrusca
  13. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=301151
  14. https://bygl.osu.edu/node/400
  15. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10380014/
  16. https://ucanr.edu/site/uc-master-gardeners-san-luis-obispo-county/grapes-home-gardeners
  17. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/michigan-s-recent-cold-snap-grapevine-cold-hardiness-report
  18. https://www.apsnet.org/publications/phytopathology/backissues/Documents/1977Articles/Phyto67n12_1501.pdf
  19. https://www.fs.usda.gov/nsl/Wpsm/Vitis.pdf
  20. https://tnyards.utk.edu/vitis-labrusca/
  21. https://www.bannermanvineyard.com/history.html
  22. https://discoverandshare.org/2021/10/05/grafting-the-grape-indigenous-use-of-grapes/
  23. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft967nb63q&chunk.id=d0e189&toc.id=&brand=ucpress
  24. http://www.concordgrape.org/bodyhistory.html
  25. https://extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/extd8/files/documents/ec1463.pdf
  26. https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/geneva-ny/plant-genetic-resources-unit-pgru/docs/cold-hardy-grape-collection/
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