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A milpa in Central America. The corn stalks have been bent and left to dry with cobs in place to indicate the planting of other crops.

In agriculture, a milpa is a field for growing food crops and a crop-growing system used throughout Mesoamerica, especially in the Yucatán Peninsula, in Mexico. The word milpa derives from the Nahuatl words milli and pan.[1] Based on the agronomy of the Maya and of other Mesoamerican peoples, the milpa system is used to produce crops of maize, beans, and squash primarily.

The land-conservation cycle of the milpa is two years of cultivation and eight years of laying fallow.[2] In the Mexican states of Jalisco and Michoacán and in central Mexico as well as Guanacaste Province Costa Rica, as an agricultural term milpa denotes a single corn plant; in El Salvador and Guatemala, milpa specifically refers to harvested crop of maize and the field for cultivation.

A milpa is a field, usually but not always recently cleared, in which farmers plant a dozen crops at once including maize, avocados, multiple varieties of squash and bean, melon, tomatoes, chilis, sweet potato, jícama, amaranth, and mucuna ... Milpa crops are nutritionally and environmentally complementary. Maize lacks the amino acids lysine and tryptophan, which the body needs to make proteins and niacin; ... Beans have both lysine and tryptophan ... Squashes, for their part, provide an array of vitamins; avocados, fats. The milpa, in the estimation of H. Garrison Wilkes, a maize researcher at the University of Massachusetts in Boston, "is one of the most successful human inventions ever created."

— Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus.[3]

The concept of milpa is a sociocultural construct rather than simply a system of agriculture. It involves complex interactions and relationships between farmers, as well as distinct personal relationships with both the crops and land. For example, it has been noted that "the making of milpa is the central, most sacred act, one which binds together the family, the community, the universe ... [it] forms the core institution of Indian society in Mesoamerica and its religious and social importance often appear to exceed its nutritional and economic importance."[4]

Milpitas, California, derives its name from the Nahuatl term "milpa" followed by the Spanish feminine diminutive plural suffix "-itas".[citation needed]

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Milpa

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The milpa is a traditional Mesoamerican polyculture agricultural system centered on the intercropping of maize (Zea mays L.), beans (Phaseolus spp.), and squash (Cucurbita spp.), often referred to as the "three sisters," which has sustained indigenous communities for at least 7,000 years through symbiotic crop interactions that enhance soil fertility, biodiversity, and food security. Originating with indigenous peoples such as the Maya, the milpa system often involves rotational cycles, such as land preparation through slash-and-burn techniques followed by two years of cultivation and eight years of in traditional Maya systems, to allow natural vegetation regeneration, thereby maintaining balance in forested regions. This practice is predominantly found across , including (notably , , and ), , , and parts of , where it integrates diverse associated crops like chile peppers () and wild species to support nutritional completeness. The milpa's sustainability stems from ecological synergies, such as beans fixing atmospheric to benefit and squash vines suppressing weeds while conserving , enabling resilient yields without synthetic inputs for millennia. However, contemporary challenges including —projected to raise temperatures by 1–3°C and reduce rainfall in by the 2060s—along with socioeconomic pressures shortening fallow periods, threaten its viability and have prompted research into adaptations like improved crop varieties and . Culturally, the milpa remains a of indigenous identity, providing diverse micronutrients and serving as a model for sustainable amid global food system pressures.

Definition and Etymology

Etymology

The term "milpa" originates from the language spoken by the and other Mesoamerican peoples, derived from "mīlpan," a compound of "mīlli" meaning "cultivated field" or "agricultural plot," and "pan" meaning "on" or "atop." This etymology reflects the concept of a field actively sown and maintained for , emphasizing the spatial and functional aspect of planting atop prepared land. The word entered broader usage through Spanish colonial documentation, where it was adapted to describe indigenous farming systems centered on . In , particularly Yucatec Maya, "milpa" was adopted from during periods of cultural exchange in , retaining connotations of a maize-focused cultivated field despite native terms like "ich kool" existing for similar concepts. The term "ich kool" was recognized by the (FAO) of the as part of the "Ich Kool: Mayan milpa of the Yucatan peninsula" Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) in 2022. This borrowing facilitated communication across linguistic groups and with European colonizers, integrating the term into descriptions of traditional polycultures such as the Three Sisters. Early historical references to "milpa" appear in colonial texts by Spanish chroniclers, including Franciscan friar in his 16th-century , where "milpan" is used to denote fields cultivated for food production by Nahuatl-speaking communities. 's ethnographic work, compiled between 1540 and 1585, employed the term to document Aztec agricultural practices, marking its transition from indigenous lexicon to a recorded element of colonial scholarship. This usage helped preserve and disseminate knowledge of Mesoamerican farming amid cultural disruptions.

Core Components and Symbiosis

The milpa system is fundamentally based on a known as the "Three Sisters," consisting of (Zea mays) as the primary stalk crop, climbing beans () for symbiotic nitrogen enrichment, and low-growing squash ( spp.) for ground cover. serves as the structural backbone, growing tall to support the vining beans while providing a source rich in carbohydrates. Beans, in turn, climb the maize stalks, utilizing them as natural trellises to access and optimize space. Squash spreads across the surface with its broad leaves and vines, acting as a to conserve moisture and inhibit weed growth. This core trio forms an integrated planting strategy that has sustained Mesoamerican agriculture for millennia. The symbiotic relationships among these crops create a resilient, low-input micro-ecosystem that enhances and . Beans form root nodules with , fixing atmospheric into a form usable by and squash, thereby reducing the need for external fertilizers and improving yields on nutrient-poor soils by up to 7% through complementary nutrient uptake. provides vertical support for beans, preventing and allowing efficient light capture, while the distinct root architectures— in deeper layers, beans evenly distributed, and squash in intermediate zones—minimize and maximize partitioning. Squash's large leaves reduce evaporation by shading the ground and suppress weeds mechanically, further benefiting the companions by maintaining a weed-free zone without . Together, these interactions yield land equivalent ratios greater than 1, demonstrating superior efficiency over monocultures. While the Three Sisters form the essential foundation, some milpa variants incorporate additional such as chilies ( spp.), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), or (Amaranthus spp.) to diversify and further enhance . These supplements are integrated sparingly to avoid disrupting the core symbioses, emphasizing the system's adaptability to local ecologies.

Agricultural Practices

Site Selection and Preparation

The establishment of a milpa begins with careful site selection, typically focusing on areas of primary forest or in the tropical and subtropical regions of , where fertile and well-drained soils support the system's of , beans, and squash. These sites are chosen for their nutrient-rich profiles, often in limestone-derived landscapes like those in the or , which provide the necessary drainage to prevent waterlogging during the rainy season. Farmers traditionally avoid overused plots or excessively steep slopes, as these increase the risk of and degradation, particularly in areas prone to heavy rainfall; instead, gently sloping hillsides or flat terrains are preferred to maintain soil integrity over multiple cycles. Land preparation employs the traditional slash-and-burn, or swidden, technique, where vegetation is selectively cut during the (typically December to May) to allow debris to dry thoroughly before burning. This timing minimizes risks by ensuring burns occur before the onset of rains, which would otherwise wash away ; the resulting ash layer enriches the soil with essential nutrients like , , and calcium, providing a natural for the initial . The process clears approximately 0.5 to 2 hectares per family unit, a scale sufficient to meet subsistence needs while allowing for sustainable rotation without overexploiting the land.

Planting Techniques and Crop Interactions

Planting in the milpa system commences at the onset of the rainy season, typically between May and June in Mesoamerican regions, aligning with natural precipitation patterns to support seed germination and early crop establishment. Traditional farmers employ simple manual tools, such as dibble sticks to poke holes into the for seed placement or machetes to mark and prepare the sites, reflecting the low-input nature of this indigenous practice. This timing and method ensure efficient use of labor and resources in rainfed fields. The pattern prioritizes as the foundational crop, with seeds sown first in clustered hills spaced 1 to 1.5 meters apart, often 20-30 cm between seeds within each hill to promote dense stands. Approximately 2 to 3 weeks later, seeds—typically 1 to 3 per hill—are planted directly at the base of the young plants, allowing the beans to utilize the maize as a natural trellis. Squash seeds are then interspersed between the maize hills, usually in the row middles, to facilitate vine expansion and full ground coverage without competing excessively for or nutrients. As the crops develop, dynamic interactions enhance the system's resilience and productivity. Young stalks initially shade and protect tender seedlings from excessive sun, while the beans' vines later climb the maturing for vertical growth, optimizing space. Squash vines radiate outward to form a layer, conserving by reducing and deterring through . Additionally, the prickly squash foliage acts as a barrier, repelling pests like raccoons that target ears. These in-field synergies contribute to the symbiotic advantages of the Three Sisters combination, as outlined in the core components of milpa agriculture.

Maintenance, Harvesting, and Rotation

In traditional milpa systems, maintenance involves minimal intervention to preserve the natural among crops, with hand weeding performed 2–3 times per season to control competition without synthetic herbicides or fertilizers. This labor-intensive practice, often requiring 27–401 person-days per per cycle, is supplemented by the shading effect of squash vines, which naturally suppress weed growth. Pest monitoring focuses on common threats like fall armyworms (Spodoptera frugiperda), managed through that enhances maize's chemical defenses and attracts beneficial such as ladybird beetles and wasps for biological control, significantly reducing pest incidence, with studies showing up to 50% lower damage compared to monocultures. Harvesting in milpa fields occurs progressively as crops mature, typically beginning with ears in to , depending on planting timing and regional , followed by and squash gathered over 2–6 months as pods and fruits ripen. This staged, manual process is labor-intensive, demanding 49–69 workdays per , and allows for selective picking to minimize losses while integrating with crop interactions like bean climbing on stalks. In traditional systems, yields average 1–2 tons per , reflecting the polyculture's efficiency despite lower outputs than modern monocultures, with overall system productivity often exceeding sole cropping via a of 1.08–1.34. The rotation cycle in milpa agriculture sustains soil health through shifting cultivation, where fields undergo 1–3 years of cultivation followed by 5–20 years of fallow to enable natural regeneration via vegetation succession. During fallow, secondary forest or acahual regrows, restoring nutrients and preventing depletion associated with prolonged monoculture, though shorter cycles in densely populated areas can accelerate degradation without interventions like legume cover crops. This approach, rooted in indigenous knowledge, balances productivity with long-term ecosystem recovery, varying by land availability and soil conditions.

History

Origins in Mesoamerica

The origins of the milpa agricultural system trace back to the domestication of its core crops in ancient , beginning with the transformation of wild teosinte into in the Balsas River Valley of southwestern . Archaeological evidence from sites such as the Xihuatoxtla Shelter indicates that this process started around 8700 years ago (approximately 6700 BCE), with starch grain and analyses revealing early cultivation alongside managed landscapes. Further macrofossil remains from Guilá Naquitz Cave in , dated to approximately 6250 calibrated years BP (ca. 4250 BCE), provide some of the earliest direct evidence of domesticated cobs, confirming the region's role as a primary center for this crop's development from its wild ancestor, Zea mays ssp. parviglumis. These findings highlight how initial experimentation with teosinte selection laid the foundation for the maize-centric that would define milpa. By around 1500 BCE, the milpa began to emerge as a fully integrated system, incorporating with beans and squash in early settled communities linked to the formative stages of Olmec and Maya societies. Excavations in the region and other Gulf Coast areas associated with pre-Olmec cultures show residues of these three crops on grinding tools and in middens, suggesting coordinated planting practices that supported population growth in emerging villages. In the , sites like Joya de Cerén and early Preclassic settlements yield archaeobotanical data indicating the simultaneous cultivation of Zea mays, , and spp. by this period, reflecting adaptive strategies to tropical environments. This integration coincided with the rise of complex societies around 1500 BCE in Olmec heartlands, where milpa fields likely underpinned ceremonial and residential centers. Genetic studies further corroborate the alignment of timelines for milpa's key components by the late Archaic period, enabling their symbiotic . Analysis of from remains confirms its divergence from teosinte around 9000 years ago, with varietal diversification by the late Archaic period. For beans, genomic surveys of and domesticated Phaseolus populations trace independent Mesoamerican and Andean origins to approximately 8000 years ago, with archaeological evidence of cultivation and into cultivated lines by ca. 2500 BCE. The common bean () was domesticated separately in these two regions, contributing to the diversity in Mesoamerican . Squash , the earliest of the triad, occurred around 10,000 years ago in highland Mexico, as evidenced by morphological changes in seeds from caves, fully aligning with and bean cultivation timelines by the Early Preclassic era. These developments underscore the milpa's roots in a gradual, multi-crop process that fostered ecological interdependence among the .

Pre-Columbian Development and Spread

By the Late Preclassic period (ca. 1000 BCE–250 CE), milpa agriculture had undergone significant refinements in the , where farmers developed more intensive polycropping techniques integrating (Zea mays), beans (), and squash (Cucurbita spp.) with root crops and fruit trees to enhance and yield stability in tropical environments. These adaptations included managed swidden systems with shorter fallow cycles and elements, allowing for sustained production amid variable rainfall and thin soils. In the Aztec highlands of central during the Postclassic period (ca. 900–1500 CE), milpa practices evolved to incorporate terracing and (raised-field) systems on lake margins, optimizing for nutrient cycling in cooler, higher-altitude settings with volcanic soils. Trade networks facilitated the extension of these techniques, with and associated milpa crops spreading southward to Andean regions by 6700–4000 BP, where they were adapted alongside local staples like potatoes and through exchanges along coastal and highland routes. Milpa systems were integral to urban agricultural landscapes near major centers such as in the Basin of Mexico (ca. 100 BCE–550 CE) and in the northern Yucatan (ca. 600–1200 CE), where surrounding farmlands supported dense populations through diversified plots that minimized erosion and maximized outputs. In the , for instance, milpa cultivation on upland soils sustained regional densities of up to 100 individuals per km² during the Late Classic period (600–900 CE), enabling the growth of polities with thousands of inhabitants while integrating household gardens and intensive infield plots near ceremonial sites. These practices balanced urban demands with , as evidenced by settlement surveys showing nucleated communities reliant on nearby fields for staple production. Archaeological evidence, including pollen records from lake cores and soil profiles across , documents milpa adaptations to diverse ecosystems from highland valleys to coastal plains, revealing shifts in vegetation associated with pollen spikes and disturbance indicators like grasses and weeds since 2500 BCE. In the , such records from sites like northern show early slash-and-burn integrations with manioc and tree crops, while highland pollen data indicate terrace-supported polycultures that conserved in steeper terrains. Aztec pictorial codices, such as those depicting seasonal planting and rituals, further illustrate these refinements, portraying intercropped fields with channels adapted to the Valley of Mexico's seasonal flooding and dry spells.

Post-Columbian Continuity and Evolution

Following the arrival of Europeans in 1492, the milpa system demonstrated remarkable resilience amid colonial pressures to impose Spanish agricultural models and extract tribute labor. Early Spanish chroniclers, such as Jesuit missionary José de Acosta in his 1590 Natural and Moral History of the Indies, documented indigenous maize cultivation as the foundational "bread of the Indies," noting its widespread use in temperate Mexican valleys through irrigation and manual planting, which persisted as a staple despite encomienda systems that diverted indigenous labor to haciendas. Acosta observed that maize fields yielded abundantly—up to 300 fanegas per sowing—and were prepared through boiling, roasting, or grinding into tortillas, integrating seamlessly into both indigenous diets and emerging colonial economies without fundamental disruption to the polyculture practices. In regions like central Mexico, colonial policies attempted to concentrate indigenous populations in reducciones to facilitate control and Christianization, yet milpa farming endured in dispersed settlements, particularly in remote highland and lowland areas, as a means of subsistence and cultural continuity. By the 19th and early 20th centuries, milpa agriculture adapted selectively to colonial and post-independence influences while retaining its core of , beans, and squash. The introduction of metal tools, such as iron hoes and machetes from Spanish sources, replaced wooden digging sticks in many areas, improving efficiency in clearing and tilling swidden plots without altering the rotational system. European crops like , , and potatoes were occasionally incorporated into milpa cycles, especially in highland zones for cash cropping, yet the traditional triad remained dominant in remote indigenous communities, where up to 86% of production occurred on small-scale plots. These adaptations, driven by economic necessities under expansion, preserved the system's ecological and nutritional balance, with beans fixing nitrogen for and squash providing ground cover, even as market pressures grew. The Mexican Revolution of 1910 marked a pivotal evolution for milpa through agrarian reforms that institutionalized communal . Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution established ejidos—collective land grants to peasant communities—redistributing over 100 million hectares from haciendas to indigenous and farmers, thereby safeguarding milpa practices against privatization. In states like and , where milpa dominated, ejidos enabled the continuation of on communal plots, with over 28,000 ejidos formed by the mid-20th century supporting subsistence farming for millions. This reform not only protected traditional rotations but also reinforced milpa's role in rural economies, as ejidatarios used the lands for maize-based systems that resisted full commercialization.

Cultural and Social Significance

Role in Indigenous Identities

The milpa serves as a cornerstone of cosmology and identity for indigenous groups such as the Maya and Nahua in , embodying principles of harmony between humans, crops, and the . In Mayan culture, it represents a sacred linkage among , , and community, where the interdependent growth of , beans, and squash mirrors broader cosmological views of reciprocity and balance. This system fosters a worldview that emphasizes interconnectedness, with farmers viewing the milpa not merely as a field but as a living entity that sustains cultural continuity and spiritual practices. Central to this identity is the emphasis on collective labor, as seen in Maya communities where families and neighbors collaborate in planting and maintenance, reinforcing social bonds and shared responsibilities toward the land. Such communal efforts underscore the milpa's role in preserving indigenous autonomy and worldview against external influences, symbolizing resilience and cultural rootedness. Economically, the milpa has historically provided a significant portion of caloric needs—around 70% from alone in traditional Mesoamerican diets in rural areas—enabling self-sufficiency and reducing dependence on external food systems. This reliance on diverse polycultures from the milpa supports household , allowing communities to maintain economic independence and resist market-driven disruptions. Gender divisions in milpa cultivation further strengthen family and ties, with men typically responsible for clearing, burning, planting, weeding, and harvesting fields, while women focus on post-harvest processing such as and grinding. These roles, observed among Maya groups like the Lacandon, promote intergenerational knowledge transmission and collaborative family labor, embedding the milpa deeply within social structures. Among Nahua communities and other groups such as the Zapotec, similar patterns persist, where women's processing work ensures nutritional completeness, solidifying the system's integral place in indigenous relational networks.

Rituals, Traditions, and Knowledge Transmission

The Cha'Cha'ak ceremony, an ancient Maya ritual invoking the rain god Chaak, remains a vital tradition among indigenous communities in the and beyond, where participants gather to pray for rainfall essential to milpa cultivation. This ceremony, with roots in pre-Hispanic times and the Preclassic period (circa 2000 BCE), involves offerings of food, copal incense, and symbolic items placed at sacred sites or cenotes, blending pre-Hispanic beliefs with elements of Catholicism to ensure crop prosperity. Similarly, during the (Día de los Muertos), or Hanal Pixán in Maya communities, families prepare the Ofrenda de la Milpa—an altar featuring maize, beans, squash, and other milpa-derived products as offerings to ancestors, symbolizing gratitude for the earth's bounty and the cycle of renewal. These rituals reinforce communal bonds and the spiritual interdependence between humans, crops, and deities. Knowledge transmission in milpa practices occurs primarily through oral traditions, with elders imparting wisdom on seed selection and planting to younger generations during family and community gatherings. Stories drawn from sacred texts like the , which recounts the creation of humans from maize dough by the gods, embed ecological principles such as and , ensuring that practical skills are learned alongside cultural narratives. This intergenerational approach fosters a holistic understanding of milpa as a living system, where —choosing resilient varieties based on observed performance—preserves both and ancestral lore. Urbanization and migration pose significant threats to these transmission pathways in regions like , where younger community members increasingly move to cities, disrupting traditional elder-youth interactions and leading to the erosion of specialized milpa knowledge. However, preservation efforts, such as community workshops led by Maya organizations, actively counter this by teaching sustainable farming techniques and cultural stories to revitalize practices among participants. These initiatives, often held in rural settings, emphasize hands-on learning to bridge generational gaps and safeguard milpa heritage against modern pressures.

Ecological and Sustainability Aspects

Environmental Benefits

The milpa system significantly enhances through symbiotic and rotational practices. Beans ( spp.), intercropped with , form root nodules with that fix atmospheric , contributing approximately 50–70 kg N/ha annually to the , which supports growth without synthetic inputs. This process reduces nutrient depletion common in monocultures. Additionally, the rotational cycles, involving short cultivation periods followed by extended fallows, prevent by maintaining ground cover and build through the decomposition of crop residues and regrowth, increasing over time. Milpa cultivation promotes by integrating multiple and wild , fostering habitats for over 100 associated , including pollinators, , and wild edibles. In regions like the , the system supports around 160 cultivated plant alongside 40 animal and numerous medicinal , creating a resilient that mimics natural edges. This diversity enhances ecosystem stability, as squash provides shade and weed suppression while beans and create vertical structures that benefit arthropods and other , ultimately bolstering resilience against disturbances. Fallow periods in the milpa cycle play a key role in carbon sequestration by allowing vegetation regeneration, which accumulates biomass and stores carbon in soils and aboveground structures. Properly managed fallows, often lasting 8–20 years, convert slash-and-burn residues into stable anthrosols rich in organic carbon, mitigating emissions from cultivation while enhancing long-term soil carbon stocks. This regenerative aspect underscores the milpa's contribution to climate resilience in Mesoamerican landscapes.

Challenges from Modern Pressures

presents profound challenges to the milpa system, primarily through erratic rainfall patterns and intensified droughts that disrupt crop cycles in southern . In the , annual rains have arrived later and lasted shorter periods, contributing to yield reductions in rainfed milpa fields, with farmers reporting drops from previous averages of around 500 kg/ha to lower outputs amid environmental stress. As of 2025, prolonged droughts in the continue to exacerbate these challenges, with multi-year dry conditions reported across 76% of in mid-2024. These conditions also impair fallow land regeneration by limiting recovery and regrowth, shortening essential periods from traditional lengths of 8–10 years or more to shorter durations in some areas due to land and climate pressures. Land pressures from and the expansion of industrial further threaten milpa sustainability by converting diverse plots into monocrop plantations. In Mexico's highlands, milpa cultivation areas declined by 88–113 hectares between 1989 and 2017, now comprising only 5–10% of local cropland as farmers shift to labor-efficient cash crops. The (FAO) attributes nearly 90% of global tropical to , a trend that has accelerated the loss of traditional milpa landscapes in over the past five decades. This conversion not only reduces available land for rotational farming but also fragments ecosystems, intensifying vulnerability to and pest outbreaks. In response, milpa practitioners are implementing targeted to enhance resilience while upholding the system's foundation. The introduction of hybrid varieties, selected for and higher yields, allows integration into intercropped fields alongside native beans and squash, boosting productivity without fully eroding . Complementing this, integrations—such as planting shade-providing trees and shrubs within milpa plots—improve , water retention, and stability, enabling better to variable patterns. These strategies, rooted in , help mitigate yield losses and support ongoing in the face of escalating pressures.

Modern Applications and Recognition

Contemporary Practices in Mesoamerica

In contemporary , the milpa system remains a cornerstone of smallholder agriculture, particularly in regions such as and Yucatán in , the highlands of , and the northern , where it supports for indigenous and rural communities. In alone, around 2 million hectares of production are geared toward family consumption via traditional milpa systems, while Guatemala's maize fields, largely under milpa practices, span about 950,000 hectares as of the early 2020s, and contributes smaller but vital areas of roughly 40,000 hectares for subsistence farming. Modern adaptations to the milpa reflect efforts to balance tradition with environmental regulations and local ecologies. In wetland areas like the Valley of Mexico, raised-bed systems known as chinampas continue to be employed, creating fertile artificial islands in shallow lakes that enhance soil retention and water management for intercropped , beans, and , yielding up to seven harvests per year without extensive . To address restrictions on slash-and-burn practices under Mexican environmental laws aimed at reducing and emissions, no-burn methods have gained traction, incorporating cover crops such as or mulches to suppress weeds, maintain , and prevent while complying with policies promoting sustainable . Economically, milpa supports local markets through smallholder production, where yields of 1-2 tons per of —intercropped for diversified output—sustain household needs and generate surplus for regional in indigenous communities. Government initiatives in , such as the Sembrando Vida program, provide monthly subsidies of around 5,000 pesos (approximately 250 USD) to smallholders cultivating milpa on up to 2 s, aiming to boost productivity, restore forests, and alleviate among approximately 450,000 participants as of 2025. However, the program has faced criticism for contributing to in some areas, with reports indicating significant tree cover loss. These supports integrate milpa into broader rural economies, enabling farmers to access , tools, and while preserving the system's role in systems.

Global Revival and Scientific Interest

In 2010, the inscribed Traditional —ancestral, ongoing community culture, the paradigm—on the Representative List of the of Humanity, recognizing the milpa system as a foundational element that embodies indigenous cosmological views and provides essential sustenance through its of , beans, and squash. This listing has spurred international interest, influencing movements in the and by promoting milpa-inspired as a model for low-input, symbiotic crop guilds that enhance soil health and . Scientific research on milpa has intensified since the early , with studies validating its productivity and resilience amid climate challenges. For instance, agronomic experiments in have demonstrated maize yields of up to 3 tons per in conventional milpa systems, outperforming monocultures in nutrient cycling and pest resistance. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has conducted field-based research in collaboration with Mexican institutions since 2022, focusing on adapting milpa varieties and practices to projected temperature rises of 1–3°C and reduced rainfall by the 2060s, using growth trials and modeling to preserve its ecological benefits. Globally, milpa principles have been adopted in initiatives in and Asia, where systems inspired by milpa are integrated with local techniques like push-pull methods to boost smallholder yields and resilience in . Organizations such as promote "Milpa for Life" models, which revive regenerative polycultures to enhance and incomes for indigenous farmers, as seen in projects supporting over 2,700 families with improved crop integration and natural fertilizers.

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