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The Ratak Chain (Ratak [rˠɑːdˠɑk],[1] Marshallese for 'sunrise') is a chain of islands and atolls within the island nation of the Marshall Islands. It lies to the east of the country's other island chain, the Ralik Chain. In 1999, the total population of the Ratak islands was 30,925.[citation needed]

Key Information

The atolls and isolated islands in the chain are:

The Ratak Chain forms a continuous chain of seamounts with the Gilbert Islands to the south, which are part of Kiribati.

Language

[edit]
Main article: Marshallese language

The Ratak Chain is home to the Ratak dialect (or eastern dialect) of the Marshallese language. It is mutually intelligible with the Rālik dialect (or western dialect) located on the Rālik Chain. The two dialects differ mainly in lexicon and in certain regular phonological reflexes.

References

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Ratak

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The Ratak Chain is the eastern chain of low-lying coral atolls and islands comprising part of the in the central . Also known as the Sunrise Chain, it forms one of two nearly parallel northwest-southeast trending archipelagos in the country, alongside the western (Sunset) Chain. The chain comprises 15 atolls and several islands, including —the national capital and most populous atoll—as well as Ailuk, , Aur, Bikar, Erikub, Likiep, Maloelap, Utrik, and Wotje. Geographically, the Ratak Chain's atolls are characterized by their fragility, with an average elevation of just 2 meters (7 feet) above and surrounding reefs that act as natural barriers against storm surges and erosion. Together with the Ralik Chain, these features contribute to the ' total land area of approximately 181 square kilometers (70 square miles), dispersed across over 1.9 million square kilometers (750,000 square miles) of , making it one of the world's most dispersed nations. The region's tropical climate, influenced by its equatorial position roughly halfway between and , supports diverse marine ecosystems but also heightens vulnerability to climate change impacts like sea-level rise. The Ratak Chain holds cultural and historical significance for the Marshallese people, whose traditional navigation techniques, including the use of stick charts to map swells and island locations, originated in this region. Economically, it serves as a hub for fishing, production, and emerging , with Atoll hosting the country's primary port and international airport.

Geography

Location and Physical Features

The Ratak Chain, the eastern of the two primary island chains in the , lies in the central North , centered approximately at 9°00′N 171°00′E. This northwest-southeast oriented chain extends roughly 1,100 kilometers, comprising 15 atolls and islands that form a dispersed archipelagic feature spanning from about 14°N to 4°N latitude. Geologically, the Ratak Chain originated as a linear series of formed through intraplate volcanic activity during the period, primarily over the hotspot, with ages ranging from 75 to 88 million years. These submerged volcanic edifices subsided over time, enabling upward growth and the development of structures through the accumulation of limestones and calcareous algae, reaching elevations up to several thousand feet above the ocean floor in some cases. The chain represents the northern segment of a continuous seamount province that extends southward to connect with the in present-day . The Ratak Chain features a tropical maritime climate, with average annual air temperatures ranging from 27°C to 29°C and consistently high relative around 80%, moderated by prevailing northeast . Annual rainfall typically measures 3,000 to 4,000 millimeters, concentrated in the southern portions due to the influence of the , though northern areas receive less. Its eastern position exposes the chain directly to moisture-laden , resulting in higher precipitation compared to the leeward western Chain. The low-lying coral landforms are particularly susceptible to tropical cyclones, which occur occasionally from May to November, and ongoing sea-level rise, observed at approximately 3.3 mm per year (1968-2023) with projections averaging 5-6 mm per year through 2050, exacerbating and inundation risks.

Atolls and Islands

The Ratak Chain comprises 15 atolls and several isolated islands, spanning approximately 1,200 kilometers from northwest to southeast in the eastern . These formations are primarily coral atolls consisting of narrow rims enclosing expansive lagoons, with a total land area of about 118 km² distributed across low-lying islets rarely exceeding 3 meters in elevation. The chain's islands are built upon ancient volcanic foundations capped by sediments, resulting in diverse structures that support unique marine habitats. Key atolls and islands in the Ratak Chain include , the largest and most populous, along with Maloelap, Likiep, Wotje, Erikub, Ailuk, Utirik, Aur, and others such as , Mili, and isolated features like Mejit and Jemo. Atoll features 64 connected coral islets linked by causeways, forming a nearly continuous landmass that serves as the national capital, with a land area of 9.17 km² enclosing a 295.05 km² . Mejit stands out as a single raised without a , covering 1.86 km² and rising to about 12 meters, representing one of the few elevated formations in the chain. Other notable atolls include Maloelap (land 9.82 km², 972.72 km²) and Likiep (land 10.26 km², 424.01 km²), both characterized by fragmented reef islets surrounding deep central . The following table summarizes land and lagoon areas for select Ratak atolls and islands, based on geological surveys:
Atoll/IslandLand Area (km²)Lagoon Area (km²)Notable Features
9.17295.0564 islets, connected by causeways; urban development on eastern rim
Maloelap9.82972.72Extensive with multiple passes; diverse pinnacle structures
Likiep10.26424.01Historic copra sites; shallow fringing
Wotje8.18624.34Scattered islets; deep lagoon channels
Erikub1.53230.30Remote, uninhabited; intact outer
Ailuk5.36177.34Patch in lagoon; high biomass near passes
Utirik2.4357.73Narrow rim; vulnerable to surges
Aur5.62239.78Southern exposure; abundant genera
Mejit (island)1.86NoneRaised ; no enclosing
Jemo (island)0.16NoneSmall isolated islet; minimal vegetation
Data compiled from geological assessments of Marshall Islands atolls. The lagoons of Ratak atolls host vibrant coral reef ecosystems, with live coral cover varying from 15-60% depending on exposure and human impact; for instance, Majuro's northern lagoon features diverse genera like Echinopora and Lobophyllia, while Ailuk's central pinnacles reach over 35% cover. These reefs support rich marine biodiversity, including schools of reef fish such as surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), snappers (Lutjanidae), and groupers, alongside megafauna like green sea turtles and rays in passes. Seabird populations thrive on remote northern atolls like Bikar, which hosts massive colonies of brown noddies and boobies—as of 2025, protected as part of the Marshall Islands' marine sanctuaries—contributing to nutrient cycling that sustains lagoon productivity in the chain's eastern waters.

History

Early Settlement and Pre-Colonial Era

The Ratak Chain, part of the , was settled by Austronesian-speaking peoples from through successive waves of migration beginning approximately 2,000 years ago, with archaeological evidence indicating initial human habitation around the first century AD. Excavations on , a key Ratak atoll, have uncovered sites such as MJ-Lr2-8 on Laura islet, where yields a date of 2,010 ± 50 , supporting early linked to broader Micronesian expansion. Artifacts from these sites include shell tools like maxima adzes and pearl shell lures, evidencing a adapted to atoll environments. Oral histories preserved in Marshallese traditions further corroborate this timeline, recounting ancestral voyages that established communities on as one of the earliest settled atolls in the Ratak Chain. Traditional navigation techniques enabled these migrations, relying on observations of , currents, and wave patterns to traverse vast Pacific distances from neighboring island groups such as or the . Marshallese voyagers used outrigger canoes equipped with sails, guided by —such as the rising and setting positions of like the —and knowledge of and swells, allowing precise routes to the eastern Ratak atolls. These methods, part of a broader Micronesian seafaring heritage, facilitated not only initial settlement but ongoing inter-atoll travel and resource exchange within the chain prior to external influences. Pre-colonial Ratak society was organized matrilineally through clans known as bwij, where descent and inheritance passed through female lines, emphasizing women's roles in land stewardship and decision-making. At the apex were the iroij (chiefs), hereditary leaders who held ultimate authority over resources and resolved disputes, with the Ratak Chain featuring a paramount iroij laplap overseeing multiple atolls. Below them, alab served as clan elders managing land rights (kajur), allocating usage for cultivation and habitation while ensuring communal access under chiefly oversight, a tailored to the chain's dispersed atolls. Workers, or dri-jerbal, performed labor tied to these rights, forming a tiered structure that maintained social cohesion and resource equity across Ratak communities. In Marshallese cosmology, the Ratak Chain's name, meaning "sunrise," symbolizes its eastern position as the realm of first light, reflected in oral legends portraying it as an origin point for ancestral figures and the dawn of creation. These narratives, transmitted through chants and stories, depict migratory heroes arriving at dawn to , planting and establishing the chain's sacred landscapes as the beginning of human order in the Pacific. Such myths intertwined with navigation lore, reinforcing the Ratak's identity as a place of emergence and renewal in pre-colonial .

Colonial and Modern Developments

European contact with the Ratak Chain began in 1526 when Spanish explorer sighted the during the , though no immediate followed due to the islands' perceived lack of exploitable resources. In 1885, established a protectorate over the , including the Ratak Chain, after purchasing them from and granting trading rights to the Jaluit Gesellschaft company, which focused on production through via local leaders until direct German administration took over in 1899. German rule lasted until , with minimal changes to traditional structures in the Ratak atolls beyond economic incentives for trade. Japan seized the Marshall Islands, including the Ratak Chain, from Germany in October 1914 as part of its early campaign in the Pacific, occupying the islands without resistance and establishing naval administration from headquarters in Chuuk. Following the 1919 , Japan received a over the islands, transitioning to civilian governance under the South Seas Bureau in 1922, which introduced Japanese-language and infrastructure development in places like Jaluit in the Ratak Chain. During , the Japanese fortified key Ratak atolls, building a major seaplane base on Wotje Atoll with two runways, hangars, and defenses for over 3,000 personnel, and a large airfield on Taroa Island in Maloelap Atoll that supported air raids on Allied targets. The responded with intensive bombing campaigns starting in 1943, dropping thousands of tons of ordnance on Wotje and Taroa to neutralize them as threats, leading to severe Japanese losses from and attrition by 1944; these bypassed atolls underscored the strategic value of the Ratak Chain in post-war U.S. Pacific operations, where captured sites like Kwajalein became major bases. After , the administered the , including the Ratak Chain, as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986, focusing on reconstruction and strategic military use while gradually promoting . The path to accelerated with the adoption of the ' constitution on May 1, 1979, through a that established a republican government separate from the broader Trust Territory. Full came in 1986 via the with the , which ended the trusteeship, provided economic aid, and granted the U.S. defense responsibilities over the Ratak and other atolls. The Compact was amended in 2023, extending U.S. financial and technical assistance through fiscal year 2043 while maintaining U.S. defense responsibilities over the Ratak Chain and other areas. In recent decades, the Ratak Chain has faced environmental challenges from , including accelerated on outer atolls like Wotje due to sea-level rise and intensified wave action, threatening habitability and infrastructure with projections of widespread flooding by 2100. Additionally, U.S. nuclear testing in the 1940s and 1950s, primarily in the Chain, caused fallout that affected Ratak atolls such as Rongelap, leading to health issues like cancers and displacements; compensation efforts include a $150 million fund established under the Compact for affected communities, with ongoing negotiations in the through seeking further remedies for personal and environmental damages.

Administration and Demographics

Political Structure

The Ratak Chain, the eastern group of atolls and islands in the Republic of the , is administratively divided into 10 municipalities that serve as the primary units. These municipalities include Ailuk, , Aur, Likiep, , Maloelap, Mejit, Mili, Utirik, and Wotje, each managing local affairs such as community services and land use under the national framework. Atoll stands out as the capital district, hosting its own structure that coordinates urban development and for the nation's largest population center. Governance in the Ratak Chain operates within a hybrid system blending modern democratic institutions with traditional chiefly authority. At the national level, the unicameral Nitijela (parliament) provides representation, with 15 of its 33 seats allocated to districts in the Ratak Chain based on population distribution. Local involves councils overseen by traditional leaders, including the iroij (paramount chiefs) who hold advisory roles on and customary matters, and alab (elected mayors) who handle day-to-day municipal operations. The U.S. , in effect since 1986, significantly influences this structure by providing defense, financial aid, and economic support, while allowing the to maintain sovereignty over internal affairs. Majuro serves as the central hub for key national institutions within the Ratak Chain, functioning as the for the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The , comprising a and two associate justices, is based there, adjudicating constitutional and high-level legal matters. Additionally, hosts the country's international embassies and diplomatic missions, underscoring its role in foreign relations. The electoral system for the Nitijela emphasizes representation proportional to populations, with Ratak's 10 districts electing senators through popular vote every four years using a plurality/majority system. Larger districts like elect multiple senators—currently five—while most others, such as Ailuk and Utirik, elect one each, ensuring balanced input from both urban and outer island communities. This structure, established post-independence, reflects a brief transition from colonial oversight by , , and the U.S. to full self-governance.

Population and Society

The population of the Ratak Chain was recorded at 30,925 in the 1999 census of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. By the 2021 census, this figure had declined to approximately 26,990 residents across its inhabited s and islands, reflecting broader national trends of emigration driven by economic opportunities abroad and climate-related pressures. Current estimates for 2025 place the Ratak Chain's population at around 26,000, with an annual growth rate of approximately -2.2% amid ongoing out-migration. Over 85% of Ratak's residents live in the , exacerbating challenges such as shortages and strain in this densely populated . The ethnic composition of the Ratak Chain is overwhelmingly Marshallese, a Micronesian group comprising about 92% of the population, with the remainder consisting of small expatriate communities primarily from the , the , and other Asian nations engaged in government, business, or roles. This demographic homogeneity stems from historical isolation and cultural continuity, though intermarriage and temporary migration have introduced limited diversity in urban centers like . Society in the Ratak Chain features a notably young demographic profile, with roughly 50% of the population under 25 years old—34% aged 0-14 and 20% aged 15-24—posing opportunities for a vibrant workforce but also strains on education and employment resources. Urbanization pressures are acute, as rural atolls depopulate in favor of Majuro, leading to overcrowding, loss of traditional livelihoods, and increased vulnerability to environmental hazards like sea-level rise. Health challenges are prominent, including a diabetes prevalence of about 25% among adults aged 20-79, the second-highest globally, largely attributed to shifts toward imported, processed diets high in sugar and fats that contrast with traditional subsistence fishing and farming. This non-communicable disease burden is compounded by limited access to specialized care on outer atolls, contributing to higher rates of complications such as amputations and cardiovascular issues. Education in the Ratak Chain is provided through a network of public primary and secondary schools located on major atolls, serving students from ages 6 to 14 compulsorily, with near-universal enrollment in early grades. Higher education opportunities are concentrated in , where the College of the Marshall Islands offers associate degrees and vocational training, supplemented by an extension center of the that delivers undergraduate programs in fields like and . Literacy rates exceed 97%, supported by bilingual instruction in Marshallese and English, though challenges persist in remote areas due to teacher shortages and resource limitations.

Language and Culture

Ratak Dialect

The Ratak dialect, also known as the eastern dialect of Marshallese, is primarily spoken across the atolls of the Ratak Chain in the eastern . It forms one of the two major dialects of the , an Austronesian language within the Micronesian branch, and is characterized by distinct phonological and lexical traits that reflect the geographic and cultural orientation of its speakers toward the sunrise. The dialect plays a central role in local communication, , and media on Ratak atolls, where it is used in , schooling, and community interactions to preserve regional identity. A key phonological distinction between the Ratak and Ralik (western) dialects lies in the treatment of stems beginning with double consonants. In the Ratak dialect, a vowel—typically /ə/ or a similar schwa-like sound—is inserted between the consonants to break the cluster, as in ṃeṃan (from ṃṃan, meaning "full" or "satiated"), whereas the Ralik dialect prefixes a vowel before the cluster, often with an accompanying /j/ glide, resulting in forms like yeṃṃan. This reflex affects word-initial morphology and contributes to subtle pronunciation differences, including variations in vowel quality where Ratak tends toward centralized vowels in certain environments compared to Ralik's more fronted realizations. Additionally, the pronunciation of /k/ in Ratak remains a velar stop at word boundaries but lenites to a voiced -like approximant intervocalically, as in kiki ("sleep"), aligning with broader Marshallese phonotactics but without unique fricative realizations specific to the dialect. These features enhance the dialect's rhythmic flow, suited to the oral traditions of eastern atoll life. Lexically, the Ratak dialect exhibits variations from Ralik, particularly in everyday vocabulary that may reflect environmental adaptations in the eastern chain, including terms for marine and terrestrial elements more prevalent there. For instance, "good" is rendered as hchan in Ratak (inserting /c/ between consonants), contrasting with Ralik ehhan (prefixing /e/), and "come" appears as wstok in Ratak versus itok in Ralik. Such differences extend to local nomenclature, with Ratak favoring forms tied to its "sunrise" etymology—derived from ra ("sun") and directional suffixes indicating the east—potentially influencing expressions for dawn-related phenomena, though comprehensive inventories remain limited. The dialects maintain high mutual intelligibility, estimated through practical usage in inter-atoll communication, allowing speakers to understand each other with minimal adjustment despite these variances. Documentation of the Ratak dialect began in the early 20th century with works by German Catholic missionary P. August Erdland, whose 1906 Wörterbuch und Grammatik der Marshall-Sprache provided the first systematic grammar and dictionary, drawing on Ratak forms alongside Ralik for comparative analysis. This foundational text captured phonological patterns and lexical items, aiding missionary translation efforts. Modern orthography for Ratak Marshallese employs a standardized Latin script with diacritics, such as macrons (ā, ē) for long vowels and hooks (ả, ẻ) for nasalization, developed in the mid-20th century through linguistic standardization by the U.S. Trust Territory administration and refined in subsequent references like the 2016 Marshallese Reference Grammar. This system, distinct from an older missionary orthography, facilitates consistent writing in education and media while accommodating the dialect's 18-vowel inventory and allophonic variations.

Cultural Practices

Cultural practices in Ratak communities revolve around a rich tapestry of navigational arts, communal rituals, , and evolving traditions shaped by historical influences. Central to these practices are the rebbelib stick charts, intricate navigational aids crafted from fronds and shells that encode knowledge of ocean swells, currents, and island positions. In the Ratak chain, these charts particularly highlight sailing directions for eastern atolls, with straight sticks representing the prevailing currents influenced by northeast that dominate the region. Navigators, known as ri-metos, memorized these charts to guide voyages without relying on them at sea, emphasizing the Ratak's exposure to consistent easterly flows. Rituals and festivals underscore seasonal abundance and community bonds, such as the presentation of from pandanus, breadfruit, or coconut trees as tribute to leaders, a practice that honors productivity and social hierarchy. On Aur in the Ratak chain, historical accounts describe pantomimes and songs performed during gatherings, reflecting localized expressions of for harvests. Weaving pandanus leaves into mats, a skill passed among women, produces functional items like floor coverings and ceremonial nieded, often featuring geometric patterns that symbolize resilience and ancestral ties, though specific motifs vary by . These crafts are integral to daily life and rituals, fostering matrilineal cooperation. Oral traditions preserve Ratak-specific myths through epic chants like ikid, navigational song-stories recited in monotone to maintain course and recount voyages, such as the famous "Ikid eo an Vainjin" detailing signs across the islands. Performed at community gatherings, these chants, alongside bwebwenato legends, transmit knowledge of landmarks and histories unique to eastern atolls, including tales from Likiep and Aur about wars and mythical figures. Dialect elements from the Ratak chain enhance these performances, embedding regional identity. Contemporary adaptations blend these elements with , to which approximately 96% of the population belongs as of 2021, including major denominations such as Protestant (about 83%) and Catholic (about 9%). Traditional stick dances, such as jobwa, are now incorporated into national holidays like Gospel Day, where performers honor through rhythmic movements mimicking daily tasks, evolving from pre-Christian rituals to celebrate religious themes. This fusion maintains cultural vitality amid modernization, with dances serving as bridges between heritage and communal .

Economy and Environment

Economic Activities

The economy of the Ratak Chain, part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, relies heavily on and limited agricultural output, with serving as the dominant sector. Tuna and processing, centered in Majuro's canneries, generate nearly 90% of the nation's non-aid export income through purse seine vessel licensing and local processing initiatives that have increased onshore landings to about 5,000 tonnes annually for containerized exports. production from coconuts remains a traditional in the outer atolls, though output has fluctuated with recent surges in deliveries to Majuro's processing facilities amid efforts to revive the sector; however, long-term declines persist due to aging palms and competition from imports. , practiced widely on the small land areas, focuses on , , , and bananas, supporting household food needs but contributing minimally to commercial trade. The services sector is growing modestly, with tourism emerging as a key activity on Majuro, drawn by world-class dive sites featuring coral reefs, drop-off walls, and marine biodiversity in the lagoon and surrounding atolls. U.S. assistance under the Compact of Free Association provides approximately $80 million annually, funding infrastructure improvements such as ports, roads, and utilities that bolster economic resilience and support development projects across the Ratak atolls. Significant challenges constrain growth, including high import dependency for 80-90% of food supplies, predominantly processed items, and nearly all energy needs met by imported fossil fuels, exacerbating vulnerability to global price fluctuations. Arable land is severely limited to about 8% of the total area, restricting large-scale farming and reinforcing reliance on external sources. Key development initiatives in the 2020s include renewable energy projects, such as solar photovoltaic installations on Utirik Atoll combined with wind power for desalination and electrification, aimed at reducing fuel imports and enhancing energy security for remote communities.

Ecology and Conservation

The Ratak Chain, comprising the eastern atolls of the , hosts a rich marine biodiversity characteristic of Pacific coral ecosystems. Its lagoons support over 1,000 species of fish, contributing to one of the highest levels of marine faunal diversity in . Coral reefs fringe nearly all coastlines, forming extensive barrier and fringing systems that enclose large lagoons and provide habitat for diverse communities, including high densities of giant clams in some northern atolls. On land, endemic such as the imperial pigeon (Ducula oceanica ratakensis), restricted to the Ratak Chain, inhabit forested islets, while colonies thrive on uninhabited atolls like Bikar, supporting nutrient cycling that enhances productivity. Environmental threats to Ratak's ecosystems are intensified by its low-lying structure and equatorial position. drives accelerated , at rates of approximately 4-5 mm per year in the region—higher than the global average of about 3.7 mm per year—leading to increased , into freshwater lenses, and frequent flooding across atolls like . The Ratak Chain's eastern exposure heightens vulnerability to El Niño-Southern Oscillation events, which trigger prolonged droughts, episodes, and heightened risks, as seen in the severe 2015-2016 bleaching event that affected significant portions of s, with up to 68% of corals bleached in some areas. Additional pressures include , with macro-debris densities of about 234 items per square kilometer in the lagoons of urban atolls such as , and , which depletes and disrupts trophic balances. Conservation initiatives in the Ratak Chain emphasize community-led protection and regulatory enforcement to safeguard these fragile habitats. The Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority (MIMRA) enforces bans on destructive fishing practices, including the use of explosives, chemicals, and , under the 2020 Fish Harvest Regulations, which apply nationwide and have reduced illegal activities in Ratak waters. Key protected areas include the 2006 Majuro Atoll Conservation Area, part of the broader Reimaanlok national framework, encompassing the atoll's 295 km² lagoon and surrounding reefs to preserve hotspots like beds that support herbivorous species and . Recent expansions, such as the 2025 designation of Bikar and Bokak atolls as no-take marine sanctuaries, further protect over 48,000 km² of pristine Ratak ecosystems, promoting reef recovery and populations through eradication and fishing prohibitions. beds, vital for ecosystem resilience, are monitored under these efforts to mitigate bleaching and impacts.

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  62. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6dd5bba3-6307-4bd1-a66b-a91bdebd3d8f/content
  63. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/marshall-islands
  64. https://micsem.org/article/religion-in-the-marshall-islands/
  65. https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/marshall-islands/festivals-and-events
  66. https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=mh
  67. https://www.thewflc.org/islandforestry/marshalls.pdf
  68. https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-transforms-pacific-islands
  69. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X11003158
  70. https://policycommons.net/artifacts/12670960/marshall-islands-marine-resources-act-1997/13569109/
  71. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2011/273034
  72. https://www.hawaii.edu/cpis/MI/VegTypes/SaltWaterInfo.html
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