Hubbry Logo
Salt lakeSalt lakeMain
Open search
Salt lake
Community hub
Salt lake
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Salt lake
Salt lake
Salt lake
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
One of two salt lakes in the northern end of the Danakil Depression known as Lake Karum

A salt lake or saline lake is a landlocked body of water that has a concentration of salts (typically sodium chloride) and other dissolved minerals significantly higher than most lakes (often defined as at least three grams of salt per liter).[1] In some cases, salt lakes have a higher concentration of salt than sea water; such lakes can also be termed hypersaline lake, and may also be pink lakes on account of their color. An alkalic salt lake that has a high content of carbonate is sometimes termed a soda lake.[2]

Salt lakes are classified according to salinity levels. The formation of these lakes is influenced by processes such as evaporation and deposition. Salt lakes face serious conservation challenges due to climate change, pollution and water diversion.

Classification

[edit]

The primary method of classification for salt lakes involves assessing the chemical composition of the water within the lakes, specifically its salinity, pH, and the dominant ions present.[2]

Subsaline

[edit]

Subsaline lakes have a salinity lower than that of seawater but higher than freshwater, typically ranging from 0.5 to 3 grams per liter (g/L).[2]

Hyposaline

[edit]

Hyposaline lakes exhibit salinities from 3 to 20 g/L,[3] which allows for the presence of freshwater species along with some salt-tolerant aquatic organisms.[2] Lake Alchichica in Mexico is a hyposaline lake.[4]

Mesosaline

[edit]

Mesosaline lakes have a salinity level ranging from 20 to 50 g/L.[3][5] An example of a mesosaline lake is Redberry Lake in Saskatchewan, Canada.[5]

Hypersaline

[edit]

Hypersaline lakes possess salinities greater than 35 g/L,[2][6] or 50 g/L,[3] often exceeding 200 g/L. The extreme salinity levels create harsh conditions that limit the diversity of life, primarily supporting specialized organisms such as halophilic bacteria and certain species of brine shrimp.[6] These lakes can have high concentrations of sodium salts and minerals, such as lithium, making such lakes vulnerable to mining interests.[6] Hypersaline lakes can be found in the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica, where salinity can reach ≈440‰.[7]

Lake Hillier shoreline with microorganisms including Dunaliella salina, red algae which cause the salt content in the lake to create a red dye

Formation

[edit]

Salt lakes form through complex chemical, geological, and biological processes, influenced by environmental conditions like high evaporation rates and restricted water outflow. As water carrying dissolved minerals (sodium, potassium, and magnesium) enters these basins, it gradually evaporates, concentrating these minerals until they precipitate as salt deposits.[8] Then, specific ions interact under controlled temperatures, which leads to solid-solution formation and salt crystal deposition within the lake bed.[8] This cycle of evaporation and deposition is the main process to the unique saline environment that characterizes a salt lake.[8]

Soltan lake in Iran with salt mounds

Environmental factors further shape the composition and formation of salt lakes. Seasonal variations in temperature and evaporation drive mineral saturation and promote salt crystallization.[9] In dry regions, water loss during warmer seasons concentrates the lake's salts.[9] This creates a dynamic environment where seasonal shifts affect the salt lake's mineral layers, contributing to its evolving structure and composition.[9] Groundwater rich in dissolved ions often serve as primary mineral sources that, combined with processes like evaporation and deposition, contribute to salt lake development.[10]

Biodiversity

[edit]
Salt Lake in Larnaca, Cyprus

Salt lakes host a diverse range of animals, despite high levels of salinity acting as significant environmental constraints.[11] Increased salinity worsens oxygen levels and thermal conditions, raising the water's density and viscosity, which demands greater energy for animal movement.[11] Despite these challenges, salt lakes support biota adapted to such conditions with specialized physiological and biochemical mechanisms.[12] Common salt lake invertebrates include various parasites, with around 85 parasite species found in saline waters, including crustaceans and monogeneans.[11] Among them, the filter-feeding brine shrimp plays a crucial role as a keystone species by regulating phytoplankton and bacterioplankton levels.[13] The Artemia species also serves as an intermediate host for helminth parasites that affect migratory water birds such as flamingos, grebes, gulls, shorebirds, and ducks.[13] Vertebrates in saline lakes include certain fish and bird species, though they are sensitive to fluctuations in salinity.[12] Many saline lakes are also alkaline, which imposes physiological challenges for fish, especially in managing nitrogenous waste excretion.[14] Fish species vary by lake; for instance, the Salton Sea is home to species such as carp, striped mullet, humpback sucker, and rainbow trout.[14]

Stratification

[edit]
Lake stratification in different seasons

Stratification in salt lakes occurs as a result of the unique chemical and environmental processes that cause water to separate into layers based on density.[15] In these lakes, high rates of evaporation often concentrate salts, leading to denser, saltier water sinking to the lake's bottom, while fresher water remains nearer the surface.[15] These seasonal changes influence the lake's structure, making stratification more pronounced during warmer months due to increasing evaporation, which drives separation between saline and fresher layers in the lake, leading a phenomenon known as meromixis (meromictic state), primarily prevents oxygen from penetrating the deeper layers and create the hypoxic (low oxygen) or anoxic (no oxygen) zones.[16] This separation eventually influenced the lake's chemistry, supporting only specialized microbial life adapted to extreme environments with high salinity and low oxygen levels.[17] The restricted vertical mixing limits nutrient cycling, creating a favorable ecosystem for halophiles (salt-loving organisms) that rely on these saline conditions for stability and balance.[17]

The extreme conditions within stratified salt lakes have a profound effect on aquatic life, as oxygen levels are severely limited due to the lack of vertical mixing.[17] Extremophiles, including specific bacteria and archaea, inhabit the hypersaline and oxygen-deficient zones at lower depths.[18] Bacteria and archaea, for example, rely on alternative metabolic processes that do not depend on oxygen.[18] These microorganisms play a critical role in nutrient cycling within salt lakes, as they break down organic material and release by-products that support other microbial communities.[18] Due to limited biodiversity, the restrictive environment limits biodiversity, allowing only specially adapted life forms to survive, which creates unique, highly specialized ecosystems that are distinct from freshwater or less saline habitats.[18]

Conservation

[edit]

Salt lakes have declined worldwide in recent years. The Aral Sea, once of the largest saline lakes with a surface area of 67,499 km in 1960, diminished to approximately 6,990 km in 2016.[19] This trend is not limited to the Aral Sea; salt lakes around the world are shrinking due to excessive water diversion, dam construction, pollution, urbanization, and rising temperatures associated with climate change.[19] The resulting declines cause severe disruptions to local ecosystems and biodiversity, degrades the environment, threatens economic stability, and displaces communities dependent on these lakes for resources and livelihood.[19]

In Utah, if the Great Salt Lake is not conserved, the state could face potential economic and public health crises, with consequences for air quality, local agriculture, and wildlife.[20] According to "Utah's Great Salt Lake Strike Team", in order to increase the lake's level within the next 30 years, average inflows must increase by 472,00 acre-feet per year. This is approximately 33% more than the amount that has been reaching the lake in recent years.[21]

Water conservation is viewed as being the most cost-effective and practical strategy to save salt lakes like the Great Salt Lake.[21] Implementing strong water management policies, improving community awareness, and ensuring the return of water flow to these lakes are additional ways that may restore ecological balance.[21] Other proposed methods of maintaining lake levels include cloud seeding and the mitigation of dust transmission hotspots.[22]

List

[edit]
See also: List of saltwater lakes of China
See also: List of bodies of water by salinity

Note: Some of the following are also partly fresh and/or brackish water.

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Salt lake

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A salt lake is a landlocked body of shallow , often endorheic, where dissolved salts and s from inflowing freshwater accumulate to elevated concentrations as exceeds and there is no outlet for drainage. These lakes form primarily in closed or semi-enclosed basins under arid or semi-arid climates with sufficient soluble salt sources from surrounding , resulting in salinities that can range from brackish to hypersaline levels exceeding by factors of ten or more. Distributed zonally across drought-prone regions of all continents, salt lakes exhibit uniformity in their evaporative concentration mechanisms but regional variations in composition, such as dominance in many inland examples. Notable instances include the in —the largest terminal saline lake in the , with variable driven by hydrological inputs and depths averaging 14 feet—and hypersaline bodies like Lake Assal in , where extreme yields densities allowing limited buoyancy. These environments sustain biota, including and halophilic that thrive amid osmotic stresses lethal to typical aquatic life, while serving as key sites for deposits exploited historically for salt harvesting and industrially for and . Patterns of and recrystallization in their beds, influenced by subsurface , produce distinctive polygonal terrains visible from , underscoring their geological dynamism amid ongoing balance shifts from diversion and climate aridity.

Definition and Characteristics

Physical Properties

![Ethiopia - Lake Assale showing extensive salt crusts and mudflats][float-right] Salt lakes vary greatly in size, ranging from small ephemeral playas spanning mere square kilometers to expansive basins like the , which averages about 4,400 km² in surface area at its historical elevation of 4,200 feet (1,280 m) above . Their shorelines fluctuate significantly due to seasonal and infrequent inflows, leading to dynamic expansions and contractions that expose or submerge adjacent mudflats. Most salt lakes are shallow, with typical depths under 10 meters, as exemplified by the Great Salt Lake's maximum depth of 33 feet (10 m); however, outliers such as the Dead Sea achieve depths exceeding 300 meters. This shallowness promotes rapid response to climatic variations, including episodic flooding from rare or river inputs that temporarily alter lake levels and redistribute sediments. Elevated salinity imparts high water densities, reaching up to 1.24 g/cm³ in extreme hypersaline environments like the Dead Sea, which exceeds that of typical (1.025 g/cm³) and results in pronounced effects allowing humans to float effortlessly without exertion. Morphological hallmarks include expansive salt crusts formed by evaporative precipitation, often overlaying mudflats composed of fine silts and clays, with crust thickness varying from centimeters to meters depending on local and saturation.

Chemical Fundamentals

In endorheic basins, salt lake develops through the progressive concentration of dissolved ions as exceeds and surface/ inflow, with no outflow to dilute or export solutes, resulting in (TDS) levels that can range from about 3 g/L upward to near-saturation states exceeding 300 g/L depending on climatic aridity and basin closure. This process originates from ions delivered via inflowing waters, primarily derived from chemical of surrounding catchment rocks and soils, where soluble components like , and accumulate without dilution in hydrologically restricted systems. The ionic composition of salt lakes is typically dominated by sodium (Na⁺) as the principal cation, paired predominantly with (Cl⁻) anions, reflecting the abundance of these ions in products and their under evaporative conditions; however, anion-cation ratios exhibit variability tied to local , such as elevated (SO₄²⁻) in basins influenced by gypsum-rich evaporites or sodium-sulfate waters in arid continental settings with limited marine influence. Cations like magnesium (Mg²⁺) and calcium (Ca²⁺) occur in lesser proportions, often constrained by precipitation of minerals in more alkaline environments, while minor elements like (K⁺) follow sodium trends but remain subordinate. Salt lake waters generally maintain a near neutrality or slightly alkaline (7.0–9.5), buffered by elevated (HCO₃⁻) and (CO₃²⁻) concentrations that resist acidification from atmospheric CO₂ dissolution or organic decay—contrasting with many freshwater lakes, where lower permits pH drops to 5.5–7.0 due to unbuffered formation. This buffering arises from the of or inputs during of and rocks, stabilizing pH against evaporative shifts that would otherwise promote extreme in unbuffered systems.

Classification

Subsaline Lakes

Subsaline lakes exhibit levels ranging from 3 to 20 grams per liter (g/L), exceeding freshwater thresholds (typically below 0.5 g/L) but remaining below seawater's average of 35 g/L, thus serving as transitional aquatic systems between oligohaline and more concentrated environments. This range aligns with moderately saline waters, where dissolved salts impose osmotic constraints less severe than in hypersaline settings but sufficient to exclude many freshwater biota. These lakes often form in semi-arid basins with balanced inflow from and , requiring relatively modest rates to maintain without rapid progression to higher concentrations. Ecologically, subsaline lakes support communities of halotolerant organisms capable of withstanding moderate ionic stress, including algae, invertebrates like certain brine shrimp larvae, and bacteria that accumulate compatible solutes for osmoregulation. However, biodiversity is constrained by osmotic limitations, favoring euryhaline species over strict freshwater forms and excluding extreme halophiles adapted to higher salinities. Primary production relies on nutrient inputs from surrounding watersheds, with salinity gradients influencing stratification and oxygen availability, though less pronounced than in denser brines. Prominent examples include playa lakes in semi-arid regions such as those in the western United States (e.g., certain basins in Nevada) and central Argentina's Pampa, where episodic wetting and drying cycles sustain subsaline conditions without extreme desiccation. These systems contrast with permanent hypersaline lakes by exhibiting greater hydrological variability and supporting intermittent fisheries or bird habitats during low-salinity phases. Economically, subsaline lakes offer intermediate potential for resource extraction, including limited salt harvesting via , though yields are lower than in hypersaline counterparts due to diluted concentrations requiring larger surface areas for . Such operations, as seen in select arid-zone playas, balance viability with reduced environmental disruption compared to intensive in highly evaporated systems.

Hyposaline Lakes

Hyposaline lakes are inland bodies with salinities ranging from 3 to 20 grams per liter (g/L), representing a transitional zone between subsaline and more concentrated mesosaline systems where evaporative concentration begins to impose moderate osmotic stress on aquatic . This range often features a mix of and dominance depending on catchment , with sulfate ions prevailing in basins influenced by gypsum-rich sediments or volcanic inputs, contrasting with chloride-heavy in closed basins. Water density typically reaches 1.003 to 1.015 g/cm³, enabling partial meromixis in deeper examples, where denser saline bottom layers resist mixing. Ecologically, hyposaline conditions support a narrowing compared to subsaline lakes, with tolerant like brine flies (Ephydra spp.) and copepods dominating assemblages, while populations decline due to osmoregulatory limits—most freshwater species fail above 10 g/L, though species such as ( mossambicus) persist up to 20 g/L in adapted populations. Early halophilic , including precursors, emerge, contributing to green pigmentation and , but diversity drops as silica solubility decreases. Avian use intensifies for wading birds exploiting amphipods and chironomids, yet vertebrate scarcity reflects physiological barriers, with amphibians absent beyond 5-10 g/L. Fluctuations in salinity, driven by episodic inflows, characterize many hyposaline lakes, such as those in arid Australia's Paroo region, where levels average 5-19 g/L during wet periods, fostering ephemeral blooms of Artemia precursors before concentrating. Siberian soda lakes like Chany have shifted to hyposaline states (13-14 g/L) post-desiccation recovery, altering prokaryotic communities toward haloalkaliphiles. In Iran's endorheic systems, hyposaline phases in lakes like Maharloo support , influencing cycling without yet precipitating widespread evaporites. These lakes highlight causal links between inflow variability and biotic thresholds, with dilution events resetting communities toward subsaline tolerances.

Mesosaline Lakes

Mesosaline lakes feature salinities generally between 5 and 50 g/L , marking a transitional regime where ionic balances support moderate evaporative concentration without extreme precipitation. This range fosters mixed chemistries, including sodium-chloride-sulfate and sodium-bicarbonate profiles derived from of basaltic terrains and atmospheric inputs, enabling the proliferation of microbial mats with layered consortia of oxygenic phototrophs and sulfate-reducing prokaryotes. These mats, often dominated by filamentous such as Microcoleus and Lyngbya , exhibit enhanced diversity compared to hypersaline extremes due to reduced osmotic inhibition and persistent light penetration, contributing to benthic rates of 1-5 g C/m²/day under seasonal wetting. Moderate stresses select for halotolerant and capable of and , with mat thickness reaching 5-10 cm in shallow margins. Faunal assemblages reflect salinity gradients, with teleost fish abundance dropping below 10% of freshwater levels as osmoregulatory costs exceed viability thresholds around 15-30 g/L, yielding invertebrate-dominated food webs featuring persistent Artemia nauplii and ostracods that graze mats and recycle nutrients. Such communities sustain 20-40 macroinvertebrate taxa, bridging pelagic and benthic processes amid fluctuating hydroperiods. In settings like Kenya's , tectonic creates closed depressions with high surface-area-to-volume ratios, amplifying via arid (rates >2 m/year) and fault-guided hydrothermal inflows rich in dissolved ions, as evidenced by progressive basinal infilling over timescales. Examples include variably mesosaline segments of Lake Abbe (Ethiopia-Djibouti border, ~20-40 g/L in inflow zones) and (Kenya, ~10-25 g/L), where extensional faulting confines drainage, fostering ionic buildup without marine incursions.

Hypersaline Lakes

Hypersaline lakes feature dissolved salt concentrations exceeding 50 g/L, often surpassing 200 g/L and approaching saturation limits for dominant ions like sodium and , which constrain further and promote crust formation. Extreme cases include in 's , recording 433 g/L, the highest known natural salinity. in reaches up to 474 g/L, primarily calcium -dominated, enabling persistence as liquid brine amid subfreezing temperatures. The Dead Sea sustains approximately 340 g/L , yielding a of 1.24 kg/L that resists dilution from inflows and fosters vertical stability. In the , the south arm attains hypersaline states up to 330 g/L during prolonged droughts and low elevations, as documented in 2022 when levels dropped to record lows. These conditions drive distinct physical-chemical dynamics, including sequential precipitation as brines concentrate: (NaCl) forms upon exceeding ~360 g/L , creating expansive salt flats in arid basins, while (Na₂SO₄·10H₂O) crystallizes in sulfate-rich, cooler phases, as evidenced in evaporites. Elevated densities engender meromictic stratification, where hypersaline bottom layers exhibit minimal mixing with fresher surface waters, perpetuating chemical inertness and preserving precipitated deposits.

Geological Formation

Endorheic Basin Dynamics

, characterized by internal drainage without outlets to external water bodies, facilitate the formation of salt lakes through the perpetual retention and concentration of solutes introduced by rivers and atmospheric . In these closed systems, water loss occurs primarily via , which removes pure water while leaving dissolved ions behind, leading to increases that can reach hypersaline levels over timescales of thousands of years. Tectonic processes, including fault-bounded , create depressions that trap incoming fluvial sediments and solutes, transitioning from proximal coarse-grained alluvial deposits to distal fine-grained lacustrine , thereby establishing persistent evaporative environments conducive to salt lake persistence. Sediment trapping within subsiding basins enhances solute accumulation by confining materials that would otherwise disperse in exorheic systems, with subsidence rates varying spatially—such as thicknesses exceeding 600 meters in fault-proximal depocenters—promoting vertical stacking of evaporitic layers during episodes of basin isolation. This dynamic amplifies salt buildup, as restricted circulation fosters precipitation, evidenced in geological records by veins and pseudomorphs indicative of episodic hypersalinity in closed lake margins. Pleistocene remnants, such as those in the , preserve these sequences, highlighting how subsidence-driven accommodation sustains long-term solute enrichment independent of external drainage. Isotopic analyses, including clumped isotope thermometry on carbonate tufas combined with radiocarbon and uranium-series , document cyclic filling-drying patterns in endorheic lakes, with examples showing rapid level rises to highstands around 16,000 years ago followed by regressions spanning about 5,000 years. These oscillations, tied to basin-internal processes, concentrate salts during phases, stratigraphically entrenching deposits that define modern salt lake substrates. Such empirical records underscore the causal role of endorheic closure in fostering persistent salinity gradients through iterative solute trapping and evaporative refinement.

Climatic and Tectonic Drivers

The primary climatic driver for salt lake formation is persistent , characterized by annual rates exceeding and surface inflow, which concentrates solutes without dilution from outflow. This condition prevails in regions where potential evapotranspiration surpasses inputs by factors of 2–5 times, as documented in global saline lake inventories. Tectonically induced s exacerbate this by orographic blocking of moist air masses; for instance, in the , uplift of the Sierra Nevada since the has created a continental , reducing eastern to 150–300 mm annually while enhancing evaporative demand. Tectonic extension generates the structural traps for these concentrated brines through listric normal faulting, forming horst-graben topography that isolates intramontane depressions. In the Basin and Range, this extension began in the early , circa 23–16 million years ago, coinciding with the of the Farallon slab and transition to transform tectonics along the , producing over 100 km of crustal thinning in places. Faulting not only delineates basins but facilitates influx via and seismic pumping of deep fluids. Volcanism, often synchronous with extension, contributes ions through along faults, discharging soluble salts like NaCl into nascent lakes; examples include caldera systems where hot springs fed saline precursors. This is evidenced by elevated and in fault-proximal sediments, transported from magmatic sources at depths of 1–5 km. Ancient analogs, such as the Eocene Green River Formation (approximately 53–38 million years old), preserve varved saline deposits from tectonically confined lakes under comparable arid-foreland conditions, underscoring multi-million-year stability of these drivers.

Hydrological and Stratigraphic Features

Water Balance and Evaporation

In endorheic salt lakes, water balance is determined by inflows from direct precipitation, ephemeral surface streams, and subsurface groundwater seepage, offset primarily by evaporative losses, as these basins lack permanent outlets to the sea. Evaporation serves as the dominant outflow mechanism, comprising the entirety of non-storage water loss and exhibiting sensitivity to lake surface area, salinity, and climatic variables such as temperature and wind speed. For instance, in the Great Salt Lake, evaporation represents the sole significant outflow, with rates calibrated through mass-balance models showing annual losses fluctuating between approximately 0.8 and 1.2 meters of equivalent depth depending on surface conditions. Episodic inflows, often tied to snowmelt in mountainous catchments or monsoon-driven , introduce variability by temporarily elevating lake volumes and altering hydrological steady states. These pulses contrast with the persistent evaporative sink, leading to pronounced fluctuations; the , for example, rose from a low of about 4,195 feet above in 1982 to a peak of 4,211 feet by 1987, driven by multi-year wet cycles that boosted stream discharges from tributaries like the and Weber Rivers. Such events underscore the imbalance inherent to salt lake , where short-term gains are eroded by sustained high in arid settings. Groundwater contributes a steady, albeit subordinate, inflow component, typically measured through isotopic tracers like to distinguish modern recharge from deeper, older sources. In the , groundwater inflows are estimated at roughly 15% of total inputs based on recent isotope-based assessments, providing baseline stability amid surface flow intermittency but insufficient to offset evaporative dominance during dry periods. analysis, which detects post-1950s atmospheric signals in young , enables quantification of seepage rates and recharge pathways in these systems.

Density Stratification

In salt lakes, density stratification arises primarily from vertical gradients, where denser, hypersaline bottom waters (monimolimnion) underlie fresher or less saline upper layers (mixolimnion), inhibiting vertical mixing and promoting stable layering. This phenomenon, known as meromixis, is common in deeper endorheic basins with limited freshwater inflow, as the high density of s—often exceeding 1.2 kg/L—resists overturn even under thermal influences, maintaining persistent anoxic conditions in lower strata. Empirical profiles from conductivity and density measurements in such systems reveal gradients of 1.2–1.5 × 10^{-2} g cm^{-3} over depths of 2–28 m, driven by evaporative concentration and episodic accumulation rather than temperature alone. In contrast, shallower salt lakes often exhibit holomixis, with seasonal complete mixing facilitated by wind shear or temperature-driven convection, though salinity still dominates density where gradients exceed thermal effects. For instance, in the Great Salt Lake, post-1959 causeway construction induced density stratification in the south arm, with denser north-arm brines (>1.2 kg/L) underflowing into the shallower south, creating layered flows that persist until disrupted by high inflows; conductivity logs from 2011–2013 documented such events, showing salinity contrasts up to 100 g/L over 10–20 m depths. Similarly, the Dead Sea maintained ectogenic meromixis until 1979, when industrial freshwater dilution collapsed the stratification, leading to brief holomixis with full vertical mixing to 300 m depth, as evidenced by uniform salinity profiles dropping from 340 g/L to 300 g/L. Stratification stability can collapse during extreme hydrological events, such as introducing low-salinity inflows that reduce contrasts and trigger mixing; in , 1980s profiles indicated meromictic persistence with interfaces at 20–30 m, but modeled scenarios predict gradient erosion over weeks, verifiable via repeated specific conductance soundings exceeding 100 mS/cm differences. These dynamics underscore 's primacy over stratification in hypersaline contexts, with interfaces often sharpening via double-diffusive processes, as quantified in analogs where rose nonlinearly with up to 300 g/L.

Chemical and Mineralogical Aspects

Ion Composition and Salinity Gradients

Salt lakes exhibit diverse ion compositions, with sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) ions typically dominating, often comprising over 80% of in many systems, alongside significant (SO₄²⁻), magnesium (Mg²⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), and (K⁺). (HCO₃⁻) and (CO₃²⁻) ions also contribute, particularly in less evaporated brines. Ionic ratios vary substantially based on catchment and inflow sources; for instance, carbonate-rich terranes promote elevated Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻ relative to Cl⁻, while evaporite-influenced basins favor Na⁺-Cl⁻-SO₄²⁻ dominance due to dissolution of pre-existing salts like and . In northern pre-Ural saline lakes, Ca²⁺ and HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻ proportions decrease with rising , as SO₄²⁻ concentrations increase from . Such variations contrast with oceanic brines, where Na⁺-Cl⁻ ratios remain more conserved, highlighting the role of local in inland systems. Horizontal salinity gradients form where fresher inflows from rivers or springs mix with concentrated central waters, creating transects of increasing from margins to cores; sampling in has documented such patterns, with salinity rising from ~50 g/L near inflows to over 200 g/L in deeper basins during low-water periods. Vertical gradients often accompany meromixis, with denser, saltier bottom layers persisting due to exclusion during cooling, as observed in where salinity jumps from surface to depths. Temporal shifts in composition arise from episodic dilution by or high inflows, reducing Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations temporarily before reconcentration via ; sediment cores from reveal multi-decadal oscillations tied to climatic wet-dry cycles, with proxy isotopes indicating fluctuations over the past 8,000 years. Porewater profiles in sediments further confirm historical lake-level changes driving ionic dilution events, reconstructed through chloride gradients spanning millennia. These dynamics underscore the sensitivity of salt lake to hydrological forcing over short and long timescales.

Mineral Precipitation and Deposits

In hypersaline environments of salt lakes, mineral precipitation occurs sequentially as concentrates dissolved ions beyond their limits, governed by thermodynamic equilibria and temperature-dependent curves. (CaSO₄·2H₂O) typically forms early in sulfate-dominated brines once calcium and sulfate concentrations saturate, often at salinities 3-4 times , yielding lenticular crystals or nodular beds on lake floors. In systems with elevated , (Na₂SO₄·10H₂O) precipitates subsequently, particularly under cooler conditions below 32°C, as observed in alkaline saline lakes where it appears as efflorescent crusts before dehydration to thenardite. (NaCl) emerges as the terminal precipitate in mature brines exceeding 300-400 g/L , crystallizing as cubic hopper or chevron crystals that accumulate in vast, laterally extensive layers during repeated wetting-drying cycles. ![Salt deposits in Lake Assale, Ethiopia, illustrating halite precipitation in a modern endorheic basin][float-right] These precipitation sequences produce economically significant evaporite deposits, with halite-dominant accumulations reaching thicknesses of hundreds of meters in ancient analogs like the Permian Basin of and , where cyclic layering reflects episodic lake expansions and contractions under arid climates, yielding over 1,000 feet of salt in the Salado Formation alone. Modern salt lakes, such as those in the , mirror these processes on smaller scales, forming harvestable salt pans that serve as analogs for interpreting Permian evaporite stratigraphy and resource potential, including gypsum for cement and halite for industrial uses. Post-depositional alters primary evaporites through recrystallization, cementation, and mineral replacement, often enhanced by microbial activity in organic-rich sediments. In coastal settings adjacent to salt lakes, sulfate-reducing facilitate dolomitization by generating alkalinity and magnesium enrichment in pore waters, converting precursor or to dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂) via microbially mediated sulfate reduction and methanogenesis, as documented in sabkhas where dolomite rhombs nucleate around bacterial filaments. Such alterations increase rock and permeability, influencing quality in ancient evaporite-carbonate sequences like those of the Permian.

Biological and Ecological Systems

Extremophile Adaptations

Hypersaline environments in salt lakes select for microorganisms capable of tolerating salinities from 15% to near-saturation levels exceeding 30% total dissolved salts, primarily through specialized osmotic and protective mechanisms. , dominant in such systems, often employ a "salt-in" strategy, accumulating intracellular to counter external osmotic pressure, supplemented by acidic proteins that remain stable in high . Many halophilic bacteria, conversely, utilize organic compatible solutes such as , betaine, or , which maintain hydration shells around macromolecules without disrupting enzymatic function, enabling growth at 20-30% NaCl equivalents. A prototypical example is , a flat, square-shaped haloarchaeon that thrives in crystallizer ponds of salt lakes and salterns, where salinities reach 25-35%. isolations demonstrate optimal growth at 18-20% (w/v) NaCl, with a minimum requirement above 14% and doubling times of 1-2 days under these conditions; field metagenomic surveys confirm it constitutes up to 80% of prokaryotic cells in such brines, adapting via gas-vesicle formation for and thin cell walls minimizing diffusion barriers. Among eukaryotes, the unicellular green alga persists in salt lake surface waters at salinities up to 25-30%, lacking a rigid and relying on massive accumulation (up to 50% of cell volume) for turgor regulation. Under compounded stresses of high salinity, intense UV radiation, and nutrient scarcity, it biosynthesizes beta-carotene at concentrations reaching 10% of dry biomass, functioning as a potent quencher of and generated by hypersalinity-induced photooxidative damage. Empirical cultivation experiments validate enhanced carotenogenesis at NaCl levels above 15%, with UV-C pre-treatments further boosting yields by activating stress-response pathways.

Trophic Structures and Biodiversity

Trophic structures in salt lakes are characteristically simple, comprising short food chains limited by hypersalinity that excludes most metazoans, including , resulting in ecosystems dominated by microbial primary producers and specialized grazers. relies on halophilic such as species and , which form the base of pelagic and benthic webs, with detrital pathways linking to organic particles. These systems typically feature two to three trophic levels: autotrophs supporting primary consumers like (Artemia spp.) and brine fly larvae (Ephydra spp.), which in turn sustain higher-order consumers, primarily migratory birds, with minimal predation beyond occasional . Biodiversity remains low, with constrained to extremophiles adapted to salinities exceeding 35 g/L, often yielding monotonous assemblages where Artemia can comprise over 90% of zooplankton biomass during peaks. In the , for instance, the pelagic centers on Dunaliella salina and D. viridis grazed by Artemia franciscana, whose densities reach billions of individuals per cubic meter in optimal conditions, supporting avian populations without intermediate carnivores. fly larvae contribute to benthic productivity by filtering and detritus, achieving shoreline densities of up to 370 million pupal casings per mile, serving as a secondary base for shorebirds. Migratory birds exemplify top trophic reliance, with eared grebes (Podiceps nigricollis) staging in masses of 1.7 million individuals at , each consuming 20,000–30,000 Artemia daily to amass fat reserves for migration, recycling nutrients via excretion that sustains algal blooms. Such dependence creates vulnerability to bottlenecks, as salinity gradients above 150 g/L impair Artemia and survival; in 2022, 's elevated reduced cyst hatch rates to 60% and cyst harvests to 19 million pounds, cascading to emaciated grebe populations and disrupted energy transfer. These dynamics underscore the fragility of salt lake , where episodic hypersalinity spikes prune biomass across levels, favoring resilient microbial loops over complex networks.

Economic and Resource Utilization

Salt and Mineral Extraction

Salt extraction from salt lakes traditionally relied on solar evaporation to concentrate brines and form crystalline halite deposits, with early methods involving manual cutting and transport by camel caravans across regions like Ethiopia's Lake Assal, where blocks were hauled to markets for trade. By the 20th century, mechanized dredging and harvesting from evaporation ponds replaced manual labor in many sites, enabling larger-scale operations such as those at the Great Salt Lake, where solar ponds process brines to yield sodium chloride alongside other minerals. Globally, solar evaporation accounts for a significant portion of salt production, contributing to the over 300 million metric tons of total annual output, though precise lake-specific figures vary by region and include contributions from inland hypersaline bodies. Potash, primarily potassium chloride or sulfate, is extracted from salt lake brines through similar evaporation processes, concentrating potassium-rich solutions in engineered ponds before mechanical separation and refining. Operations at the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake exemplify this, with the latter's facilities producing over 360,000 metric tons of potassium sulfate annually via brine harvesting and solar concentration. Solution mining techniques supplement direct evaporation in some deposits, dissolving potash-bearing strata with water to extract brines for processing. Lithium extraction targets clay-hosted deposits in salt lakes, which constitute approximately 58% of global resources, with methods involving pumping subsurface brines to surface evaporation ponds for solar concentration followed by chemical to isolate or . In Chile's , a leading site, brine is extracted via wells and processed in a series of ponds over 12-18 months, yielding battery-grade lithium products that account for a substantial share of world supply. Emerging direct extraction technologies aim to accelerate recovery but remain secondary to -based systems in current commercial production.

Biological Harvesting and Industrial Uses

Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) cysts are a primary biotic resource harvested from hypersaline salt lakes, particularly the in , where they serve as a foundational feed in global . Cysts are collected during winter months when they float to the surface, processed to yield nauplii for larval rearing in and operations. The 2022–2023 harvest from the yielded 19.6 million pounds of cysts, contributing to an industry valued at up to $60 million annually and employing around 150 seasonal workers. This lake alone supplies approximately 40% of the global demand for cysts, supporting production of an estimated 10 million metric tons of seafood yearly. Harvesting is regulated by state agencies, such as Utah's Division of Wildlife Resources, with quotas set based on annual population assessments to maintain ecological balance. Halophilic microalgae like Dunaliella salina, which thrive in salt lake environments, are exploited for their high β-carotene content, a pigment accumulated as a protective response to extreme salinity, UV exposure, and nutrient limitation. Extracted β-carotene from D. salina is used in nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and as a natural food colorant due to its antioxidant properties and superior bioavailability compared to synthetic alternatives. The global market for D. salina-derived β-carotene was valued at $145 million in 2024, with annual production estimated at around 1,200 tons of the compound, often sourced from natural or semi-natural hypersaline systems mimicking salt lake conditions. Commercial extraction involves biomass harvesting via or , followed by solvent or supercritical CO₂ processing to isolate the . Industrial applications extend to leveraging these biological resources for broader economic activities, including centered on observable biotic phenomena such as dense swarms attracting migratory birds or algal blooms imparting vivid colors to lake shores. In regions like the , such attractions generate local revenue through guided tours and visitor fees, though access is often limited by seasonal salinity fluctuations and weather. These uses underscore the dual role of salt lake biota in sustaining niche industries while highlighting the need for to prevent amid environmental variability.

Environmental Changes and Human Interactions

Natural Variability and Cycles

Salt lakes, as closed-basin systems, exhibit pronounced natural variability in volume, salinity, and extent driven by imbalances between inflow, outflow, and modulated by climatic and astronomical forcings. Interannual to multi-decadal fluctuations often correlate with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which alters regional and temperature patterns, thereby influencing hydrological inputs to endorheic basins and resulting in lake level changes of meters over single cycles. Low-frequency climate modes, such as those evident in tree-ring reconstructions of levels, demonstrate pre-20th-century oscillations tied to preferred timescales of regional aridity and pluvials, with amplitudes reflecting inherent climatic instability rather than external perturbations. On millennial scales, orbital parameters like Earth's obliquity impose rhythmic cycles on precipitation and lake , as documented in astronomically tuned sedimentary sequences from salt lake deposits, where 41,000-year obliquity modulations align with layered and formations indicative of repeated wetting-drying transitions. Paleoclimate records from hypersaline systems, such as fluid inclusions in Lop Nur , reveal arid intensification at the Late Pleistocene-Holocene boundary, with chemistry shifts signaling natural escalations under orbitally modulated insolation changes. Proxy indicators, including morphology and ratios (e.g., Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca), reconstruct pre-industrial oscillations in saline lakes, capturing transitions from mesohaline to hypersaline states (often exceeding 100 g/L ) in response to climatic drying events. During the Medieval Climate Anomaly (ca. 900–1300 CE), certain crater lakes with saline profiles, like Alchichica in , registered prolonged drying phases, evidenced by reduced diversity and geochemical signatures of heightened evaporation. Exposed salt flats during lowstands naturally facilitate mobilization, a recurrent process in arid paleolakes where wind erosion of efflorescent crusts generates saline aerosols, as reconstructed from aeolian laminations in basin-margin sediments and observed in drying-stage mechanics of modern analogs. These cycles underscore the dynamic equilibrium of salt lakes under unperturbed regimes, with emissions serving as both a consequence and modulator of regional .

Anthropogenic Influences and Declines

Human activities, particularly upstream diversions of river inflows for and urban supply, have been the predominant driver of volume declines in several major salt lakes, according to hydrological assessments that isolate anthropogenic extraction from climatic variability. In the , diversions have consumed approximately 62-71% of potential river inflows, contributing to a 73% loss of the lake's volume since the 1980s, far exceeding the roughly 9% attributable to climate-driven factors like reduced . Similarly, in , expansion of irrigated has extracted the majority of basin inflows, with studies identifying as the primary factor in reducing delivery to the lake by over 70% since the late , overshadowing effects in models. Urban growth has compounded this by increasing domestic and industrial demands, further diminishing contributions in monitored sub-basins by 20-40%. These diversions have exposed vast lakebed sediments, triggering recurrent dust storms laden with and concentrated in legacy deposits from historical inflows, which models link directly to anthropogenic rather than natural variability. In the basin, such events have elevated airborne particulate concentrations, with levels in exposed soils exceeding safe thresholds and dispersing via wind erosion of desiccated flats. Hydrological simulations confirm that without these human-induced exposure, dust mobilization would remain minimal, as wetter conditions suppress aeolian .

Conservation Approaches and Controversies

Mitigation Strategies

Water rights reallocation and efficiency upgrades represent key interventions to stabilize salt lake levels by reducing diversions and enhancing upstream conservation. In the case of the , Utah's 2022 legislative session enacted multiple bills promoting agricultural optimization, municipal pricing reforms, and voluntary leasing of rights to redirect flows toward the lake, collectively aiming to conserve substantial volumes amid ongoing declines. These measures included incentives for upgrades and fallowing programs, which temporarily increased lake inflows by approximately 100,000 acre-feet through coordinated reductions in consumptive use. Governor Spencer Cox's November 2022 proclamation further suspended new appropriations of surplus waters in the basin to prioritize existing ecological needs. Engineering adjustments to , such as dikes and causeways, help manage internal distribution and gradients within divided lake arms. For the , the Utah Department of Natural Resources modified the railroad causeway berm in 2022 by raising it 4 feet to restrict flow from the fresher north arm into the saltier south arm, thereby preventing acute spikes that could harm populations. This adjustment, informed by hydrological modeling, maintained mixing ratios while supporting commercial harvesting viability. Subsequent legislative authorization in 2025 enabled further berm elevations up to 4,192 feet to adapt to variable lake levels. Ongoing monitoring through gauge networks and technologies enables by providing on , , and inflows for timely interventions. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) maintains gauges, such as those at Saltair Boat Harbor and Saline, , to track south arm elevations since the early 2000s, informing depletion thresholds that trigger mandatory cutbacks. Complementary altimetry and from NOAA's have documented level fluctuations over multi-year periods, facilitating basin-wide accounting models for water shepherding. These tools support iterative adjustments, such as optimizing releases from upstream reservoirs during wet cycles to counteract anthropogenic drawdowns.

Policy Debates and Trade-offs

Policy debates on salt lake management frequently revolve around the trade-offs between imposing regulatory limits on water use—particularly in agriculture—and mitigating economic disruptions from lake decline. In the case of Utah's Great Salt Lake, advocates for caps on diversions argue that unchecked agricultural consumption exacerbates desiccation, potentially exposing lakebeds that require $1.5 billion in initial dust suppression measures and $15 million in annual maintenance to address toxic particulate risks to public health and infrastructure. Opponents, including agricultural stakeholders, highlight that such restrictions threaten sectors contributing $1.5 billion to $2.2 billion annually to Utah's economy through brine shrimp harvesting, mineral extraction, and tourism, warning of thousands of job losses and broader supply chain impacts without assured hydrological recovery. Critics of aggressive regulatory approaches question projections of irreversible collapse, pointing to the Great Salt Lake's historical fluctuations—including a 20-foot rise from 1963 to 1986 followed by declines—as evidence of natural resilience that regulatory caps may undervalue. Empirical analyses attribute roughly 91% of recent volume losses to human water diversions for and urban expansion rather than climatic , which accounts for only 9%, thereby challenging causal emphases on CO2-driven effects over modifiable upstream allocations. This perspective favors voluntary incentives, such as payments to farmers for fallowing fields, over mandates that could disrupt property-based water rights and ignore adaptive historical patterns. Conflicts among stakeholders underscore tensions between private riparian rights and ecological public goods, as seen in ongoing litigation over Utah's water management. Ranchers and farmers defend legally allocated diversions as protected entitlements essential for sustaining amid , arguing that blame for lake shrinkage unfairly targets them while overlooking urban and industrial demands. Environmental litigants, invoking the , have sued the state since 2023 to enforce minimum lake levels through enforced cutbacks, prioritizing and air quality over economic continuity and asserting state fiduciary duties supersede private claims. These cases illustrate how property rights frameworks clash with collective resource imperatives, often amplifying economic versus ecological valuations without resolving underlying allocation primacy.

References

  1. https://www.lakehomes.com/info/lifestyles/all-you-need-to-know-about-salt-lakes
  2. http://english.isl.cas.cn/rs/psk/
  3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721018507
  4. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/utah-water-science-center/science/great-salt-lake
  5. https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/gsl/physical_char/
  6. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/saltiest-lakes-in-the-world.html
  7. https://www.leeds.ac.uk/news-science/news/article/5250/origins-of-mysterious-patterns-created-by-salt-deserts
  8. https://geology.utah.gov/popular/great-salt-lake/commonly-asked-questions/
  9. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2332/report.pdf
  10. https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/92445-deepest-hypersaline-lake
  11. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2057/report.pdf
  12. https://scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=114021
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Dead-Sea-composition_fig1_271625861
  14. https://ugspub.nr.utah.gov/publications/open_file_reports/ofr-724.pdf
  15. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0412/report.pdf
  16. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825224000473
  17. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214581824000168
  18. https://aquaticbiosystems.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-1448-7-2
  19. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/elements/article/19/1/22/623141/Making-Salt-from-Water-The-Unique-Mineralogy-of
  20. https://www.usgs.gov/water-science-school/science/saline-water-and-salinity
  21. https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/density-effects/measuring-salinity
  22. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/inland-saline-lakes
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10813219/
  24. https://academic.oup.com/femsec/article/93/8/fix091/3950317
  25. http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.als.20150503.03.html
  26. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/environmental-sciences/saline-lakes
  27. https://coringmagazine.com/article/salt-lakes/
  28. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8172734/
  29. https://www.ilec.or.jp/wp-content/uploads/pub/Vol.6_Management_of_inland_Saline_Waters.pdf
  30. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1452&context=geosciencefacpub
  31. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1307&context=nrei
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10884861/
  33. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-12871-6
  34. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8825391/
  35. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-79578-7
  36. https://www.dsmz.de/research/microorganisms/archaea-and-extremophile-bacteria/projects/microbial-mats-of-saline-lakes
  37. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00248-024-02442-8
  38. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3547742/
  39. https://aquaticbiosystems.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-9063-8-6
  40. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-82527-z
  41. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0016703769900398
  42. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Saline-lakes-names-underlined-within-the-lake-series-in-the-floor-of-the-Gregory-Rift_fig1_225243913
  43. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hypersaline-environment
  44. https://camelclimatechange.org/camel/hypersaline_lak.html
  45. https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/76147-saltiest-lake
  46. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5623196/
  47. https://www.pnra.aq/it/project/540/confining-window-life-recovery-and-analysis-bio-signatures-cacl2-saturated-don-juan
  48. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7653288/
  49. https://scisoc.confex.com/scisoc/2025am/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/169302
  50. https://growtheflowutah.org/2025/07/31/great-salt-lake-slips-toward-2022-record-low/
  51. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1598&context=spacegrant
  52. https://ugspub.nr.utah.gov/publications/reports_of_investigations/ri-283/ri-283.pdf
  53. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2005WR004084
  54. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221458182500597X
  55. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/9/10/798
  56. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/15/10/1077
  57. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article/132/11-12/2669/584695/Clumped-isotope-constraints-on-changes-in-latest
  58. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288306.2024.2307523
  59. https://geo.libretexts.org/Sandboxes/ajones124_at_sierracollege.edu/Geology_of_California_%28DRAFT%29/08%253A_Basin_and_Range/8.01%253A_Regional_Extent_and_Overview_of_the_Basin_and_Range
  60. https://www.nps.gov/grba/planyourvisit/the-great-basin.htm
  61. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1994/0246/report.pdf
  62. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/20/5/1247/646605/Recognition-of-crustal-extension-in-the-Basin-and
  63. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987120300906
  64. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adh8183
  65. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/500021px
  66. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/2000/4221/report.pdf
  67. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2012WR011908
  68. https://geology.utah.gov/map-pub/survey-notes/a-lake-divided-a-history-of-the-sprr-causeway-and-its-effects/
  69. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/cir913
  70. https://www.sltrib.com/news/2024/12/19/great-salt-lake-groundwater-plays/
  71. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/FS-134-99/
  72. https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.4319/lo.1993.38.5.1008
  73. https://www.usgs.gov/publications/density-stratified-flow-events-great-salt-lake-utah-usa-implications-mercury-and
  74. https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.4319/lo.1985.30.3.0451
  75. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214581825005269
  76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225475665_Geolimnology_of_salt_lakes
  77. https://ugspub.nr.utah.gov/publications/water_resources_bulletins/WRB-12.pdf
  78. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02904362
  79. https://conservancy.umn.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a977831e-ee76-4b4e-8fca-390adaf2fcc8/content
  80. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0009254195001298
  81. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sed.70023?af=R
  82. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022PA004558
  83. https://phys.org/news/2025-08-year-history-great-salt-lake.html
  84. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-00371-w
  85. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969721054802
  86. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/11/2/141
  87. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/51/9/818/624242/A-Mars-analog-sulfate-mineral-mirabilite-preserves
  88. https://geo.libretexts.org/Courses/SUNY_Potsdam/Sedimentary_Geology%253A_Rocks_Environments_and_Stratigraphy/07%253A_Chemical_Biochemical_and_Other_Sedimentary_Rocks/7.01%253A_Evaporites
  89. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsl/books/edited-volume/1655/chapter/107475818/Depth-indicators-in-Permian-Basin-evaporites
  90. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254122005162
  91. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230020235_Microbial_dolomites_from_carbonate-evaporite_sediments_of_the_coastal_sabkha_of_Abu_Dhabi_and_theri_exploration_inplication
  92. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC98969/
  93. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1224877/
  94. https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/42/3/353/4909803
  95. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0020968
  96. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378109704006032
  97. https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2164-7-169
  98. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7923581/
  99. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1319562X19301287
  100. https://microbiologyjournal.org/%25CE%25B2-carotene-production-of-uv-c-induced-dunaliella-salina-under-salt-stress/
  101. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/ES10-00091.1
  102. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-024-05684-2
  103. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/9/1468
  104. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337705964_Structure_and_Trophic_Relations_in_Hypersaline_Environments
  105. https://wildlife.utah.gov/gslep/wildlife/brine-flies.html
  106. https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/gsl/foodweb/brine_flies/
  107. https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/gsl/foodweb/birds/
  108. https://www.hcn.org/issues/55-6/south-wildlife-how-the-tiny-brine-shrimp-can-help-protect-the-great-salt-lake/
  109. https://www.ksl.com/article/51078163/the-gap-between-the-great-salt-lakes-arms-is-closing-what-does-that-mean-for-salinity
  110. https://www.saltworkconsultants.com/ancient-salt-trade-and-its-value/
  111. https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol1/2019/myb1-2019-salt.pdf
  112. https://geology.utah.gov/map-pub/survey-notes/utahs-potash-resources-and-activity/
  113. https://www.saltworkconsultants.com/potash-extraction-techniques/
  114. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304386X25000520
  115. https://www.usgs.gov/media/before-after/lithium-mining-salar-de-atacama-chile
  116. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652624040848
  117. https://www.sltrib.com/news/environment/2024/01/22/who-will-feed-world-if-great-salt/
  118. https://grist.org/sponsored/from-sea-monkeys-to-great-salt-lake-gold-marine-stewardship-council/
  119. https://www.deseret.com/utah/2023/12/9/23989720/saving-great-salt-lake-important-for-a-critical-international-industry-harvesting-brine-shrimp/
  120. https://wildlife.utah.gov/gslep/harvests/totals.html
  121. https://marketintelo.com/report/dunaliella-salina-beta-carotene-market
  122. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1543147/full
  123. https://wildlife.utah.gov/gslep/wildlife/brine-shrimp.html
  124. https://esa.org/blog/2019/03/06/conservation-model-benefits-both-ecological-and-economic-needs-of-great-salt-lake/
  125. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0311544
  126. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1226&context=water_rep
  127. https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2014_derose_r001.pdf
  128. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article/136/7-8/3277/633457/Stepwise-astronomical-tuning-of-obliquity-driven
  129. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5703717/
  130. https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/16/2095/2019/
  131. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260012396_Ostracod_shell_chemistry_as_proxy_for_paleoenvironmental_change
  132. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379122002475
  133. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/environmental-science/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1110679/full
  134. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1300&context=nrei
  135. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2024JD042693
  136. https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/the-aridification-of-the-great-salt-lake
  137. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-57150-y
  138. https://scitechdaily.com/the-great-salt-lake-is-rapidly-shrinking-researchers-call-for-urgent-action/
  139. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/05/us/great-salt-lake-utah.html
  140. https://pws.byu.edu/great-salt-lake
  141. https://www.mdpi.com/2306-5338/11/12/209
  142. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10402381.2016.1211202
  143. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/environmental-science/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2021.603916/full
  144. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X2400921X
  145. https://www.usu.edu/ilwa/reports/2022/great-salt-lake/5d-toxic-dust
  146. https://www.sltrib.com/news/environment/2023/09/19/heres-what-great-salt-lakes-dust/
  147. https://science.utah.edu/news/toxic-dust-hot-spots/
  148. https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322%2824%2900249-5
  149. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2024GL112154
  150. https://www.choicesmagazine.org/choices-magazine/submitted-articles/how-agricultural-water-conservation-can-save-the-great-salt-lake
  151. https://water.utah.gov/research-universities-and-state-agencies-team-up-to-offer-solutions-for-great-salt-lake/
  152. https://www.fogsl.org/advocacy-issues/water/protecting-lake-levels
  153. https://ffsl.utah.gov/uncategorized/dnr-modifies-great-salt-lake-causeway-breach-in-response-to-salinity-issues/
  154. https://www.usu.edu/today/story/great-salt-lake-berm-modification-informed-by-usu-research
  155. https://www.ksl.com/article/51386067/utah-lawmakers-pass-bill-to-raise-great-salt-lake-berm-during-special-session
  156. https://webapps.usgs.gov/gsl/data.html
  157. https://growtheflowutah.org/laketracker/
  158. https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/news/noaa-satellites-show-changes-the-great-salt-lake-over-twelve-years-through-enhanced-color-imaging
  159. https://attheu.utah.edu/science-technology/strike-team-updates-roadmap-for-rescuing-great-salt-lake-identifying-how-much-water-is-needed/
  160. https://greatsaltlakenews.org/latest-news/fox-13/great-salt-lakes-dust-could-cost-1-5-billion-to-fix-with-costs-skyrocketing-as-more-lakebed-is-exposed
  161. https://www.sltrib.com/opinion/commentary/2021/12/21/brad-wilson-we-must-act/
  162. https://ilovehistory.utah.gov/the-great-salt-lake/
  163. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/10/utah-great-salt-lake-collapse-imminent
  164. https://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/5425669-utah-farmers-water-conservation/
  165. https://www.npr.org/2024/03/11/1235980748/farmers-accused-of-drying-up-the-imperiled-great-salt-lake-say-they-can-help-sav
  166. https://www.hcn.org/articles/water-environmental-groups-sue-utah-over-crisis-at-the-great-salt-lake/
  167. https://www.kuer.org/politics-government/2023-09-06/environmentalists-sue-utah-over-failure-to-stop-the-great-salt-lake-from-shrinking
  168. https://lawreview.colorado.edu/print/volume-96/great-salt-lake-and-the-future-of-environmental-law-brigham-daniels-elisabeth-parker-karrigan-bork-andrew-p-follett-and-danny-dudley/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.