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The Second Sophistic is a literary-historical term referring to the Greek writers who flourished from the reign of Nero until c. 230 AD and who were catalogued and celebrated by Philostratus in his Lives of the Sophists. However, some recent research has indicated that this Second Sophistic, which was previously thought to have abruptly appeared in the late 1st century, actually had its roots in the early 1st century.[1] It was followed in the 5th century by the philosophy of Byzantine rhetoric, sometimes referred to as the Third Sophistic.[2]

Writers known as members of the Second Sophistic include Nicetes of Smyrna, Aelius Aristides, Dio Chrysostom, Herodes Atticus, Favorinus, Philostratus, Lucian, and Polemon of Laodicea. Plutarch is also often associated with the Second Sophistic movement as well, although multiple historians[who?] consider him to have been somewhat aloof from its emphasis on rhetoric, especially in his later work.[citation needed]

The term Second Sophistic comes from Philostratus. In his Lives of the Sophists, Philostratus traces the beginnings of the movement to the orator Aeschines in the 4th century BC. But its earliest representative was really Nicetes of Smyrna, in the late 1st century AD. Unlike the original Sophistic movement of the 5th century BC, the Second Sophistic was little concerned with politics. But it was, to a large degree, to meet the everyday needs and respond to the practical problems of Greco-Roman society. It came to dominate higher education and left its mark on a number of forms of literature. The period from around 50 to 100 AD was a period when oratorical elements dealing with the first sophists of Greece were reintroduced to the Roman Empire. The province of Asia embraced the Second Sophistic the most. Diococceianus (or Chrysostomos) and Aelius Aristides were popular sophists of the period. They gave orations upon topics like poetry and public speaking. They did not teach debate or anything that had to do with politics because rhetoric was restrained due to the imperial government's rules.

Owing largely to the influence of Plato and Aristotle, philosophy came to be regarded as distinct from sophistry, the latter being regarded as specious and rhetorical, a practical discipline. Thus, by the time of the Roman Empire, a sophist was simply a teacher of rhetoric and a popular public speaker. For instance, Libanius, Himerius, Aelius Aristides, and Fronto were sophists in this sense.

Introduction

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The year 146 BC marks the moment in history in which the Romans conquered one of the first civilized empires in the West. Ancient Greece is known for its rich culture, mythology, technology and intellect. In its classical period it was one of the greatest early empires. After the civilization fell to the Roman conquest, the emerging empire would begin to grow following many of the traditions of the Greeks. Mirroring some of their architectural styles and adapting a similar religious cult, the Empire held the Greek culture with reverence to its customs. Throughout its growth, the Romans incorporated the Greeks into their society and imperial life. In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, a renaissance of Hellenic oratory and education captivated the Roman elites. The resurgence was called the Second Sophistic and it recalled the grand orators and teachings of the 5th century BC. “The sophist was to revive the antique purer form of religion and to encourage the cults of the heroes and Homeric gods.”[3]

In this century, the Roman Emperors such as Trajan, Hadrian and others, held these intellectuals in their high esteem. A number of them paid patronage to Athens and other Greek cities in the Empire.[4] Elites sent their sons to be educated in schools developed by these sophists. The Emperor Hadrian sent his adoptive son Antoninus to study under the acclaimed Polemo in Smyrna.[4] The Second Sophistic opened doors for the Greeks to prosper surprisingly, in a number of ways on their own terms. This renaissance enabled them to become a prominent society that the Romans could respect and revere. The sophists and their movement provided a way for the Romans to legitimate themselves as civilized intellectuals and associate themselves with an old imperial pre-eminence. This movement allowed the Greeks to become a part of the Roman Empire but still retain their cultural identity.

Definition of sophist

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Sophism was the revival of the use and value of higher education in the Roman Empire during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. This also included a renewed emphasis and importance of rhetoric and oratory. The practice and teachings were modeled after the Athenian vocabulary of 400 BC, as well as the Hellenic traditions of that time. The sophists were great lecturers and declaimers who esteemed to address various issues of political, economic and social importance.[5] Thus, they served a vast array of positions from educational and social leaders, to ambassadors, Imperial Secretaries and high priests.[6] In these orders, they won the favor of Emperors who would restore their eastern centers of intellect. Some, such as Lucian, heavily favored Atticism (an artificial purist movement favoring archaic expressions), while others, such as Plutarch, favored the Greek of their day (Koine Greek).

Oratorical styles

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A resurgence of educational value occurred during this time and these sophists were at the heart of it. They emphasized the importance of the practice of oratory. Sophists would begin their careers lecturing to groups of students. As they gained recognition and further competence they would begin speaking out to the public.[5] There were two different oratory styles of sophism that developed out of the period of enlightenment: Asianism and Atticism.

Asianism

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Philostratus describes Asianism as a form that "[...] aims at but never achieves the grand style". He adds that its style is more "flowery, bombastic, full of startling metaphors, too metrical, too dependent on the tricks of rhetoric, too emotional".[3] This type of rhetoric is also sometimes referred to as "Ionian" and "Ephesian", because it came from outside of Athens.[7]

Atticism

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The other mode of rhetoric, Atticism, is explained by Philostratus as technique that is exemplified by the sophist Aelius Aristides. He describes Aristides as one who "usually imitates some classical author, aims at simplicity of style, and is a purist, carefully avoiding any allusion or word that does not occur in a writer of the classical period".[3] Atticism drew from Greece’s rich past and originated in its illustrious city of Athens. The lectures and declamations of these sophists were based more upon preparation and the studying of information. Having this basis, they were then able to speak adeptly to their audiences. The sophists generally gave their discourses in Rome or one of three major sophist centres.

Centres and key figures

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The three main centers of sophism were: Ephesus, Smyrna and Athens. The sophists revitalized these cities bringing in wealth, acclaim and foreign interest from around the Empire.[8]

Smyrna was an important Greek city in the Empire at this age. Two noteworthy sophists, Polemon of Laodicea and Aelius Aristides, were educated and taught in this center, attracting the respect of its citizens. They also invited the attention or patronage of Roman Emperors such as Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Although neither of these men called the city their birthplace, both Polemo and Aristides spent much of their time here studying the rhetoric or advocating for its people. Another esteemed sophist in the 2nd century, Herodes Atticus, paved the way for succeeding sophists of Atticism in the great center of Athens.[9] These three eminent connoisseurs of rhetoric were significant sophists of the 2nd century AD. Others succeeding them would strive to replicate and illustrate their immense knowledge of the Hellenic classics and eloquent skills in oratory.

Polemo of Laodicea was the earliest of the trio. He was born in approximately 85 AD and is the only Asianic orator of Smyrna.[10] Like a number of the other sophists, Polemo came from a ranked family.[10] He, therefore, had connections and status with the local administration and it was easy for him to thrive in political and social aspects. Being from an elite family provided him the means and footing to be able study the sophistic discipline. His wealth and political connections allowed him to travel and prosper in his role as an expert of robust rhetoric. Not only was Polemo admired in Smyrna and other surrounding Greek centers of intellect, he was quite popular and venerated in Rome as well. He acted as a sort of advocate for his area. Polemo found a great deal of favor in the eyes of the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus.[4]

The Roman elites and Emperors valued the approval and sponsorship of acclaimed sophists. Herodes Atticus, at one point in time, received up to three letters a day from Emperor Marcus Aurelius.[11] The Emperor also waited three days in Smyrna for the honor of meeting the student of Herodes and Polemo, Aelius Aristides.[12] He then was required to wait one more day, before he was allowed to hear him speak.[12]

It seems that the association and a positive close relationship with these experts of rhetoric were coveted by these imperial officials. The sophists were held with high regard by those in surrounding regions and even by Roman elites and bureaucrats. “No other type of intellectual could compete with them in popularity, no creative artists existed to challenge their prestige at the courts of philhellenic Emperors, and though the sophists often show jealousy of the philosophers, philosophy without eloquence was nowhere.”[6]

See also

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Bibliography

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References

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Second Sophistic

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The Second Sophistic was a vibrant , rhetorical, and that flourished in the from roughly the 1st to the 3rd centuries CE, with its peak in the . Coined by the sophist Philostratus in his Lives of the Sophists (c. 230 CE), the term distinguishes this era from the "Old Sophistic" of 5th-century BCE figures like and , highlighting a revival of classical Greek oratory and under Roman rule. At its core, the movement emphasized —the Greek ideal of cultural and intellectual formation through rhetoric, philosophy, and literature—manifesting in public performances of declamations on historical or mythological themes, often in an archaic dialect to evoke . Central to the Second Sophistic was the role of professional sophists, itinerant performers who commanded high , , and imperial patronage, traveling across the empire from to Asia Minor and . These orators not only delivered sophisticated speeches but also shaped literary genres, including the Greek novel (e.g., works by and Achilles Tatius), satirical dialogues (e.g., Lucian's True Histories), and historical essays, blending fiction, , and to negotiate Greek identity amid Roman dominance. The movement's stylistic hallmarks included , a deliberate of 5th- and 4th-century BCE prose to reject Hellenistic influences, fostering a sense of cultural purity and elite exclusivity. Prominent figures exemplified the era's dynamism and diversity. , a wealthy Athenian , built grand cultural monuments and mentored emperors like while delivering renowned declamations. , blending sophistry with Cynic , critiqued Roman society in his orations and advised emperors. Other key sophists included Polemon of Laodicea, famed for his extemporaneous speeches; , whose sacred discourses reflected religious piety; and Favorinus of Arles, a who embodied the movement's hybrid Greco-Roman character despite physical disabilities. Philostratus himself chronicled over 50 such figures, portraying them as intellectual celebrities whose rivalries and travels defined the sophistic "circuit." The Second Sophistic's broader significance lay in its role as a vehicle for cultural resistance and adaptation, allowing Greek elites to assert Hellenic superiority while engaging Roman power structures. It influenced diverse fields, from (via Galen's rhetorical treatises) to early (e.g., Tatian's addresses), and extended to Latin adaptations by authors like . By promoting performance culture and textual preservation, it bridged and later Byzantine traditions, underscoring the enduring vitality of Greek letters in a multicultural .

Historical Context

Origins in the Early Roman Empire

The Roman conquest of culminated in the sack of in 146 BC, marking the end of Greek independence and the incorporation of the region into the of , which initially led to cultural suppression and the decline of traditional Greek institutions under direct Roman administration. This period of subjugation disrupted Hellenistic intellectual life, but by the late Republic, Greek cultural elements began to influence Roman elites, setting the stage for a revival. Under (27 BC–14 AD), a deliberate policy of cultural integration fostered a Greek intellectual renaissance, as Roman patrons supported Hellenistic learning to legitimize imperial rule and bridge Greek-Roman divides. Early precursors to the Second Sophistic emerged in this context, notably (c. 60–7 BC), a Greek rhetorician who settled in around 30 BC and advocated for the imitation of classical like and as models for effective discourse. Dionysius's works, including essays on ancient orators and a in Greek, emphasized linguistic purity and rhetorical restraint, influencing Roman education and providing a foundation for later Greek revivalists seeking to reclaim cultural authority within the empire. His focus on prose as an ideal bridged Hellenistic traditions with imperial needs, inspiring Roman rhetoricians to adopt Greek while adapting it to Latin contexts. The movement began to flourish under (54–68 AD), whose encouraged Greek intellectual pursuits among the Roman elite, where —encompassing , philosophy, and literature—became a marker of status and . 's court patronized Greek performers and scholars, elevating sophistic displays as and , with figures like Nicetes of Smyrna exemplifying the era's rhetorical prowess through extempore speeches that blended legal argumentation with literary flair. This integration of Greek education into Roman aristocratic circles helped disseminate sophistic practices, transforming from a provincial relic into an imperial asset. By the late 1st century AD, rhetorical schools had been established across Asia Minor, particularly in cities like Smyrna and , where sophists such as of and his successors trained students in declamation and improvisation, fostering the movement's early institutional base. These centers attracted youth from the eastern provinces, emphasizing performances on historical and mythological themes that evoked , thus solidifying the Second Sophistic's roots amid Roman stability. Emerging oratorical styles, such as a revived , began to take shape here as responses to imperial multilingualism.

Development Under Imperial Patronage

The Second Sophistic experienced significant institutional growth during the AD, bolstered by direct imperial patronage from emperors such as (r. 98–117 AD), (r. 117–138 AD), and the Antonines, who provided financial support, honorary titles, and resources to prominent Greek intellectuals and cities. , for instance, extended personal favor to sophists like by inviting him onto his chariot and granting him influence at court, while actively promoted Greek cultural revival through appointments and endowments, including the establishment of the Panhellenion league in 131/132 AD to foster pan-Hellenic unity under Roman oversight. The Antonines, particularly (r. 138–161 AD) and (r. 161–180 AD), continued this support by funding rhetorical chairs, reconciling disputes among sophists, and integrating them into administrative roles, such as advising on provincial governance and cultural policy. This patronage extended to tangible grants for Greek cities, elevating their status and infrastructure to reinforce Roman-Hellenic . In 124 AD, granted Athens substantial funds and privileges, transforming it into a premier center for sophistic education and festivals, including enhancements to libraries and public spaces that hosted rhetorical performances. Such imperial largesse not only stabilized urban economies but also positioned sophists as key intermediaries in bridging Greek traditions with Roman authority, allowing them to secure benefits like tax exemptions and public honors for their communities. Sophists played a vital role in civic festivals and imperial administration, where their oratory facilitated cultural integration and diplomatic relations between Greek elites and Roman officials. At pan-Hellenic events like the , sophists delivered declamations on classical themes, such as ' moderated arguments praising predecessors like Polemo, which drew crowds and elevated the prestige of participating cities. In administrative contexts, they served on embassies and as advisors, leveraging their rhetorical skills to negotiate policies on Greek-Roman affairs, as seen in Polemo's governance of Smyrna under , where he resolved disputes and promoted civic harmony. This integration reached a high point in the early 3rd century AD under (r. 222–235 AD), with sophistic networks spanning the empire. However, the political instability of the Crisis of the Third Century following his death in 235 AD led to the fragmentation and gradual decline of the movement. A prominent example of this patronage's impact is Herodes Atticus (c. 101–177 AD), a wealthy Athenian sophist who, with imperial backing from Hadrian and the Antonines, funded major infrastructure projects that embodied the movement's cultural aspirations. Herodes constructed the Odeon of Herodes Atticus in Athens, completed in 161 AD as a venue for musical and rhetorical performances, alongside aqueducts at Olympia and thermal baths at Thermopylae, all dedicated to enhancing Greek civic life under Roman rule. These initiatives not only benefited local populations but also solidified Herodes' role as a broker of imperial favor, mentoring younger sophists and securing honors like senatorial status. As educators at the heart of , reaped these benefits to sustain rhetorical schools and public lectures, fostering a Greek compatible with imperial loyalty.

Definition and Characteristics

The Sophist in Greco-Roman Society

The of the Second Sophistic were defined by Philostratus in his Lives of the Sophists (c. 230 AD) as itinerant teachers and performers of who revived the models of the fifth-century BC , but adapted their practices to the constraints of the by prioritizing verbal display and improvisation over substantive philosophical inquiry. Unlike their classical predecessors, who engaged diffusely with ethical themes like and , these later focused on declamations (meletai) that sketched dramatic types—such as the poor man, the , or the —often on historical or mythical themes, treating as an art form for public spectacle rather than political . This emphasis on performative eloquence allowed them to navigate the imperial context, where direct political participation was limited for Greek elites, transforming sophistry into a means of cultural prestige and entertainment. In Greco-Roman society, sophists held elevated social status as elite performers who earned substantial fees through their public declamations, often delivered in theaters or halls to captivated audiences of fellow elites and admirers. These meletai were improvised speeches on contrived scenarios, blending historical figures like Leonidas or Pericles with fictional elements, and served as high-stakes spectacles that showcased the speaker's wit, memory, and rhetorical flair, akin to modern virtuosos. Their itinerant lifestyle—traveling between cities like Athens, Smyrna, and Rome—fostered a cult of personality, with disciples and fans trailing them, reinforcing their role as cultural icons who amassed wealth and influence without holding formal political office. Sophists were distinct from philosophers in their primary focus on verbal artistry and aesthetic effect rather than ethical or metaphysical depth, though overlaps existed in figures who blended the two traditions. Philosophers pursued truth and moral reform, often critiquing sophists for superficiality, as seen in Platonic dialogues repurposed in imperial debates; sophists, conversely, cultivated style and persuasion for acclaim. exemplifies this overlap, transitioning from a sophistic career of rhetorical display to philosophical oratory emphasizing civic after his , yet retaining performative elements in his speeches. The profession was predominantly male, reflecting the gendered norms of Greco-Roman education and public life, though rare female figures participated in rhetorical circles, such as those associated with intellectual hubs like . Sophists played a key role in educating the sons of Roman elites, imparting skills in and cultural essential for navigating imperial citizenship, social advancement, and administrative roles, thereby preserving Greek heritage amid Roman dominance. This training equipped young men for elite positions, emphasizing rhetorical prowess as a marker of status and indirect influence in the empire.

Core Practices of Rhetoric and Education

The of the Second Sophistic emphasized exercises as the pinnacle of rhetorical training, conducted exclusively in to emulate classical models and revive archaic linguistic purity. These exercises included suasoriae, deliberative speeches advising historical or mythical figures on courses of action, such as urging to burn his writings or to cross the , and controversiae, forensic debates on fictional legal disputes involving ethical dilemmas, like cases of or inheritance conflicts. Such practices, rooted in earlier Hellenistic traditions but intensified during this period, trained students to improvise persuasive arguments while adhering to strict stylistic norms, fostering both intellectual agility and performative skill. Rhetorical techniques focused on linguistic virtuosity through figurae verborum (figures of word, such as and ) and schemata lexeos (sentence structures, including anaphora and ), which added flair and emotional impact to speeches. These methods, drawn from grammarians like and systematized by contemporaries such as Hermogenes of Tarsus in his treatise On Types of Style, enabled sophists to manipulate , , and for aesthetic effect, prioritizing display over practical utility. Training progressed from basic —memorizing and syntax from classical texts—to advanced , where students composed and delivered extemporaneous declamations on given themes, honing spontaneity under . Education occurred primarily in private schools established by prominent sophists in centers like , where figures such as maintained institutions attracting elite students from across the empire. This progression mirrored the broader , starting with foundational literary analysis and culminating in public performances that tested mastery of idiom and invention. Amid Roman political dominance, these practices preserved Hellenic identity by insulating and culture from Latin influences, though bilingual elites navigated challenges in maintaining purist while engaging Roman administration, viewing as a bulwark of cultural autonomy.

Oratorical Styles

Asianism and Its Features

Asianism emerged in the in Asia Minor around the third century BCE but gained renewed prominence during the Second Sophistic from the first century AD onward, particularly in the eastern Roman provinces where it reflected regional rhetorical traditions. This style was characterized by ornate, rhythmic prose composed of short, antithetical clauses, heavy reliance on metaphors, word-play, poetic vocabulary, and contrived phonetic effects designed to evoke strong emotional appeals in audiences. , writing in the late first century BCE, critiqued Asianism harshly for its excess and lack of restraint, describing it as an "alien Muse, sprung from some Asian sewer" that prioritized bombastic rhythms and figures over harmonious composition, contrasting it with the balanced simplicity of classical oratory. A key proponent of Asianism was Polemon of Laodicea (c. 88–144 AD), a from Asia Minor who epitomized the style through his public performances in festival oratory, where he engaged audiences with improvised declamations on Homeric themes and historical events like the Persian Wars. Polemon's speeches emphasized hypokrisis—the dramatic delivery involving expressive gestures and vocal modulation—to heighten emotional impact and captivate listeners at civic festivals and games, such as those in Smyrna and , thereby reinforcing local patriotism and cultural identity. His approach transformed oratory into a theatrical , aligning with Asianism's focus on audience immersion rather than strict argumentation. Despite its popularity, Asianism faced significant criticism for its perceived bombast and superficiality, with the term "Asiatic" becoming a pejorative label for overly florid and verbose that lacked substance. By the second century AD, the style evolved into hybrid forms, blending its rhythmic and emotive elements with restraint in the works of some sophists, as part of a broader stylistic that highlighted tensions between regional expressiveness and classical imitation. This evolution allowed Asianism to persist as a vital force in imperial Greek culture, influencing public discourse while adapting to critiques of excess.

Atticism and Classical Revival

Atticism emerged as a rhetorical movement in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, advocating for an austere and imitative style modeled on the oratory of 5th-century BCE , which emphasized cultural and linguistic purity as a form of ideological resistance to perceived Hellenistic excesses. This revival positioned as the pinnacle of eloquence, prioritizing simplicity, clarity, and the use of periodic sentences—structured clauses that build suspense and resolve in balanced rhythms—to convey unadorned truth over ornamental display. Promoted by critics like Caecilius of Calacte in the BCE, who authored treatises comparing figures such as and to earlier models, Atticism sought to restore the perceived authenticity of classical prose by rejecting post-classical innovations in vocabulary and syntax. Central to this revival were Demosthenes and Lysias as exemplary models, with Caecilius highlighting Demosthenes' mastery of vehement yet precise expression and Lysias' inventive plainness that concealed rhetorical artifice through everyday words and natural flow. Lysias' style, in particular, exemplified Attic virtues through concise narratives and periodic constructions that enhanced clarity without ostentation, as seen in speeches like Against Eratosthenes, where earnest simplicity underscored moral and logical force. The formation of the canon of ten Attic orators—Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Lycurgus, Aeschines, Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Dinarchus—further institutionalized this ideal, with Caecilius' lost work On the Character of the Ten Orators playing a key role in authenticating texts and establishing stylistic norms around the Augustan era. Debates arose over "true Atticism" versus archaism, where purists criticized excessive use of rare or obsolete Attic words as deviating from the living clarity of classical models, favoring instead a balanced imitation that preserved accessibility and ideological integrity. In the Second Sophistic, (117–c. 185 CE) epitomized purity through his rigorous adherence to classical norms, as demonstrated in the Panathenaic Oration (c. 155 CE), a lengthy to that employed Demosthenic periodicity and Lysian simplicity to evoke cultural nostalgia and Hellenic superiority under Roman rule. Aristides' prose, untainted by Koine influences, served as a linguistic bulwark against linguistic dilution, positioning not merely as stylistic preference but as an ethical stance where verbal purity mirrored moral virtue. This philosophical undertone, linking rhetorical restraint to personal and civic integrity, resonated in later , where figures like Emperor Julian (r. 361–363 CE) drew on models to align linguistic discipline with philosophical ascent toward the divine. Such ideals occasionally surfaced in oratorical contests, where Atticists vied against Asianist rivals for imperial favor.

Key Centers and Figures

Primary Geographical Centers

The primary geographical centers of the Second Sophistic were concentrated in the Greek-speaking eastern provinces of the , particularly in Minor, where cities like and Smyrna served as hubs for rhetorical education and performance. , the Roman capital of the province of , featured prominent infrastructure such as the , which housed over 12,000 scrolls and included statues symbolizing wisdom (Sophia) and virtue (), facilitating scholarly study and rhetorical preparation. The city's theaters, odeons, and baths hosted declamations and public displays, underscoring its role in sophistic activity amid its neokorie status and homonoia coinage celebrating imperial harmony. Similarly, Smyrna emerged as a vibrant center for sophistic training, exemplified by the rhetorical school of Polemon, and supported imperial festivals that integrated oratorical contests with civic celebrations, including those endorsed during the reigns of and . Its gymnasia and public spaces enabled elite-funded events like athletic agones tied to , reinforcing the city's cultural prominence alongside Pergamon's Asklepieion as sites for rhetorical and healing practices. Athens functioned as the intellectual capital of the movement, revived through Hadrian's philhellenic initiatives that included the establishment of new academies and the Library of Hadrian, adorned with 100 Phrygian columns and serving as a nexus for Greek paideia. The Diogeneion gymnasium and the Academy hosted chairs of rhetoric, originally founded by Vespasian and expanded under imperial patronage, where declamations drew crowds in odeons and agoras, symbolizing a classical revival amid the production of Attic sarcophagi depicting panhellenic myths. Lesser centers like Alexandria and Antioch contributed to the network, with Alexandria's Museum and estimated population of 200,000 to 1 million supporting orators such as Theon and Sarapion despite its underrepresentation in contemporary accounts due to anti-Roman sentiments. Antioch, meanwhile, emerged as a rhetorical hub with baths and thermae facilitating performances, later exemplified by Libanius's school, though its sophistic activity bridged into the fourth century. Regional variations extended the movement beyond the core eastern Greek world, incorporating western Greek influences in through figures like of Arles, who embodied itinerant sophistic networks connecting peripheral areas to major centers. These networks relied on mobile sophists traveling via , performing in council chambers, , and gymnasia across provinces, with infrastructure like Ephesus's and Smyrna's colonnaded streets enabling cross-regional exchanges of rhetorical styles and . Such connectivity highlighted the Second Sophistic's adaptability, from Asia Minor's festival-driven agones to 's integration of local elites into paideia, without diminishing the dominance of eastern hubs.

Notable Sophists and Their Contributions

Philostratus (c. 170–250 AD), a prominent Greek from , authored the Lives of the Sophists (Vitae Sophistarum), which serves as the primary catalog of figures in the Second Sophistic, systematically defining the movement through biographical sketches that emphasize rhetorical prowess and cultural influence. In this work, Philostratus selectively profiles over 30 sophists from the first to third centuries AD, using criteria such as oratorical innovation, public fame, and alignment with classical Greek ideals to construct a narrative of the movement's evolution, thereby establishing it as a revival of under Roman rule. His catalog not only preserves declamatory practices but also positions the sophists as intellectual elites bridging Greek heritage and imperial patronage. Aelius Aristides (c. 117–181 AD), a leading orator from Asia Minor, exemplified through his polished, classical prose style that emulated fifth-century Athenian models, avoiding ornate flourishes in favor of purity and restraint. His Sacred Tales (Hieroi Logoi), a series of six detailing his illnesses and divine healings by , blend personal with rhetorical artistry, showcasing simplicity while elevating religious experience to philosophical . Aristides' contributions reinforced as the dominant sophistic mode, influencing later orators by prioritizing linguistic precision and moral depth over spectacle. Herodes Atticus (c. 101–177 AD), a wealthy Athenian rhetorician, advanced the Second Sophistic through extensive of education and public works, funding schools and festivals that supported emerging sophists across the empire. Herodes' benefactions, such as endowments for rhetorical training in and , fostered a network of disciples and elevated the movement's visibility in key centers. Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–115 AD), originally from Prusa in , innovatively blended sophistic with Cynic philosophy in his 80 surviving Orations, transitioning from imperial court performances to itinerant moral exhortations that critiqued luxury and advocated simplicity. In works like the Kingship Orations (Or. 1–4), he fuses declamatory eloquence with Cynic ideals of self-sufficiency and anti-materialism, drawing from to address Roman emperors while maintaining sophistic display. This synthesis expanded sophistry's scope, portraying the orator as a philosophical wanderer who used to promote ethical amid imperial . Lucian of Samosata (c. 125–180 AD), a Syrian-Greek satirist, critiqued the excesses of sophistry in his dialogue Professor of Public Speaking (Rhetorum Praeceptor), mocking pretentious teachers who prioritized showy techniques over substance. Through exaggerated portrayals of a bombastic rhetorician, Lucian exposes the commercialization of education and the vanity of Asianist styles, using irony to advocate for genuine Attic restraint. His satirical lens highlighted internal contradictions within the movement, influencing later views of sophists as both cultural guardians and charlatans. Among lesser-known figures, of Arles (c. 85–155 AD), a Gallo-Roman polymath and eunuch sophist, engaged in intellectual debates with , his mentor, on topics like and natural philosophy, as evidenced in Plutarch's treatises addressing Favorinus' positions. These exchanges, preserved in works such as On the Principle of Cold, demonstrate Favorinus' role in bridging sophistry with dialectical philosophy, challenging orthodox views through eloquent argumentation. Overall, sophists like these contributed to by reinterpreting classical narratives through declamations on the , such as forensic speeches debating Achilles' or Hector's virtues, which revived Homeric episodes as vehicles for ethical and political commentary. These exercises not only honed rhetorical skills but also shaped historical memory by embedding moral lessons into mythic retellings, influencing later imperial literature.

Cultural Impact and Legacy

Influences on Literature and Philosophy

The Second Sophistic exerted a profound influence on the development of the ancient Greek novel, particularly through the rhetorical technique of , which vividly described scenes, objects, and sensory experiences to immerse readers in the narrative. In ' Daphnis and Chloe (2nd century AD), is employed extensively to blend visual and auditory elements, such as the seasonal depictions of and the temple of , creating an effect of enargeia (vividness) that aligns with progymnasmata exercises central to sophistic education. This technique not only heightened the pastoral and erotic themes but also showcased the novel's roots in Second Sophistic rhetorical display, transforming descriptive passages into performative art. Similarly, the movement shaped by infusing it with rhetorical flourish and Attic imitation, as seen in Cassius Dio's Roman History (early AD), where Dio's senatorial perspective and use of speeches reflect the era's emphasis on eloquent narration and political commentary. Dio's style, blending historical analysis with sophistic oratory, positioned as a vehicle for cultural revival under Roman rule. In philosophy, the Second Sophistic bridged and ethical inquiry, most notably in 's (c. 100 AD), where sophistic methods like , narrative proems, and character portrayal were adapted to promote moral education and Platonic ideals. subordinated to , using it as a tool for psychagōgia (guiding the soul) in essays such as De virtute morali and Praecepta gerendae reipublicae, critiquing sophistic excess while incorporating vivid persuasion and antilogia debates to engage readers on virtue and governance. This integration influenced later , as the movement's deep engagement with —through imitation, commentary, and rhetorical reinterpretation—laid groundwork for (3rd century AD), whose echoed sophistic-era in emphasizing the soul's ascent and unity of intellect. Lucian's dialogues further exemplified this bridge, parodying Platonic forms in works like The Fisherman and , where he satirized philosophers and sophists alike to critique intellectual pretensions while employing declamatory wit to explore philosophical themes. The commentary traditions of the Second Sophistic played a crucial role in preserving classical Greek texts, as sophists meticulously annotated and recited Attic authors like and in educational settings, ensuring their transmission amid Roman dominance. This rhetorical focus extended to Christian , where early adopted declamatory styles and Atticized prose to defend doctrine and engage audiences, as evident in St. John Chrysostom's homilies (late 4th century AD), which incorporated , optative moods, and rhythmic clausulae from his training under . Figures like and also drew on sophistic self-presentation and argumentation in their apologies, adapting rhetorical strategies to propagate Christian ideas within a Greco-Roman framework.

Enduring Significance and Modern Scholarship

The legacy of the Second Sophistic extended into through a gradual evolution into what some scholars term the "Third Sophistic," a rhetorical movement emerging around the fifth century in the Byzantine era, where Greek oratory continued to flourish amid Christian influences and imperial administration. This transition is evident in the adaptation of sophistic techniques for and legal discourse, maintaining continuity in performative despite the empire's . Medieval transmission of sophistic rhetorical principles occurred primarily through translations of Greek texts, including works on logic and that drew from imperial-era models, preserving elements of Second Sophistic education for later Islamic and European scholars. During the , humanist educators revived sophistic-style as a core component of liberal arts curricula, emphasizing improvisational oratory and classical imitation to foster civic eloquence, much like the original movement's focus on . Modern scholarship has reevaluated Philostratus' Lives of the Sophists as a narrative of cultural resistance, portraying the Second Sophistic not merely as elite but as a subtle assertion of Greek identity against Roman , as argued by Graham Anderson in his 1993 book The Second Sophistic: A Cultural Phenomenon in the . Post-2020 studies have highlighted gender dynamics through epigraphic evidence, revealing female involvement in sophistic circles—such as benefactresses and possibly performers—challenging Philostratus' male-centric accounts and underscoring women's roles in rhetorical patronage. On imperialism, Simon Goldhill's 2001 edited volume Being Greek Under frames the movement as a of cultural hybridity within the , a perspective reinforced in subsequent editions and related works up to 2022 that emphasize power imbalances in Greek-Roman interactions. Recent research addresses longstanding gaps, including underdeveloped evidence of Second Sophistic influences in western provinces like , where Latin adaptations of Greek appear in provincial inscriptions and , suggesting a broader Latin "Second Sophistic" beyond eastern centers. Interdisciplinary approaches, particularly , have integrated epigraphic finds from sites like Smyrna, illuminating sophistic networks and urban patronage in Asia Minor. These discoveries bridge literary sources with , revealing the movement's socioeconomic dimensions. As of 2025, ongoing studies continue to explore and cultural hybridity, such as analyses of women's roles in and portraiture in the imperial Graeco-Roman East. In contemporary contexts, the Second Sophistic offers parallels to postmodern , particularly in its exploration of within multicultural empires, where sophists' performative mirrors modern debates on cultural and resistance in globalized settings.

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