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A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is a word or phrase that intentionally deviates from straightforward language use or literal meaning to produce a rhetorical or intensified effect (emotionally, aesthetically, intellectually, etc.).[1][2] In the distinction between literal and figurative language, figures of speech constitute the latter. Figures of speech are traditionally classified into schemes, which vary the ordinary sequence of words, and tropes, where words carry a meaning other than what they ordinarily signify.

An example of a scheme is a polysyndeton: the repetition of a conjunction before every element in a list, whereas the conjunction typically would appear only before the last element, as in "Lions and tigers and bears, oh my!"—emphasizing the danger and number of animals more than the prosaic wording with only the second "and". An example of a trope is the metaphor, describing one thing as something it clearly is not, as a way to illustrate by comparison, as in "All the world's a stage."

Four rhetorical operations

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Main article: Rhetorical operations

Classical rhetoricians classified figures of speech into four categories or quadripita ratio:[3]

  • addition (adiectio), also called repetition/expansion/superabundance
  • omission (detractio), also called subtraction/abridgement/lack
  • transposition (transmutatio), also called transferring
  • permutation (immutatio), also called switching/interchange/substitution/transmutation

These categories are often still used. The earliest known text listing them, though not explicitly as a system, is the Rhetorica ad Herennium, of unknown authorship, where they are called πλεονασμός (pleonasmos—addition), ἔνδεια (endeia—omission), μετάθεσις (metathesis—transposition) and ἐναλλαγή (enallage—permutation).[4] Quintillian then mentioned them in Institutio Oratoria.[5] Philo of Alexandria also listed them as addition (πρόσθεσις—prosthesis), subtraction (ἀφαίρεσις—afairesis), transposition (μετάθεσις—metathesis), and transmutation (ἀλλοίωσις—alloiosis).[6]

Examples

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The cartoon is a pun on the word Jamaica, whose pronunciation [dʒəˈmeɪkə] is a homonym to the clipped form of "Did you make her?"

Figures of speech come in many varieties.[7] The aim is to use the language imaginatively to accentuate the effect of what is being said. A few examples follow:

  • "Round and round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran" is an example of alliteration, where the consonant r is used repeatedly. "Sister Suzy‘s sewing socks for soldiers" is a particular form of alliteration called sibilance, repeating an s sound. Both are commonly used in poetry.
  • "She would run up the stairs and then a new set of curtains" is a variety of zeugma called a syllepsis. Run up can refer either to a quick ascent or to manufacture. The effect is enhanced by the momentary suggestion, through a pun, that she might be climbing the curtains. The ellipsis or omission of the second use of the verb makes the reader think harder about what is being said.
  • "Painful pride" is an oxymoron, where two contradictory ideas are placed in the same sentence.
  • "I had butterflies in my stomach" is a metaphor, referring to a nervous feeling as if there were flying insects in one's stomach.
To say "it was like having some butterflies in my stomach" is a simile, because it uses the word like, which a metaphor does not.
To say "It was like having a butterfly farm in my stomach", "It felt like a butterfly farm in my stomach", or "I was so nervous that I had a butterfly farm in my stomach" could be a hyperbole, because it is exaggerated.
  • "That filthy place was really dirty" is an example of tautology, as there are the two words ('filthy' and 'dirty') having almost the same meaning and are repeated so as to make the text more emphatic.

Types

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Whitehall is a road in the City of Westminster, London, used synecdochically to refer to the entire UK civil service, as many government departments are nearby.

Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two main categories: schemes and tropes. Schemes (from the Greek schēma, 'form or shape') are figures of speech that change the ordinary or expected pattern of words. For example, the phrase, "John, my best friend" uses the scheme known as apposition. Tropes (from Greek trepein, 'to turn') change the general meaning of words. An example of a trope is irony, which is the use of words to convey the opposite of their usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So are they all, all honorable men").

During the Renaissance, scholars meticulously enumerated and classified figures of speech. Henry Peacham, for example, in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577), enumerated 184 different figures of speech. Professor Robert DiYanni, in his book Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the Essay[8] wrote: "Rhetoricians have catalogued more than 250 different figures of speech, expressions or ways of using words in a nonliteral sense."

For simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not further sub-classify them (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Most entries link to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical devices, which are similar in many ways.

Schemes

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See also: Glossary of rhetorical terms

Schemes are words or phrases whose syntax, sequence, or pattern occurs in a manner that varies from an ordinary usage.

  • Accumulatio: restating, through accumulation, already said arguments in a concise and forceful manner.
  • Alliteration: the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words.
    Example: "She sells sea shells by the sea shore".
  • Anadiplosis: repetition of a word at the end of a clause and then at the beginning of its succeeding clause.
  • Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
  • Anastrophe: changing the object, subject and verb order in a clause.
  • Anti-climax: an abrupt descent (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or writer from the strong conclusion that appeared imminent.
    Example: "People, pets, batteries, ... all are dead."
  • Antimetabole: a sentence consisting of the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in reverse order.
  • Antithesis: juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas in separate clauses.
  • Aphorismus: statement that calls into question if a word or phrase is properly used to characterize a subject.
  • Aposiopesis: breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect, often through the use of dashes or ellipses.
  • Assonance: repetition of vowel sounds: "Smooth move!" or "Please leave!" or "That's the fact Jack!"
  • Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions between related clauses.
  • Chiasmus: two or more clauses related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point. subordinate class to antimetabole.
  • Climax: arrangement of words in an ascending order.
  • Consonance: repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse.
  • Correlative verse: matching items in two sequences.
  • Diacope: repetition of a word or phrase with one or two intervening words.
  • Elision: omission of one or more letters in speech, making it colloquial.
  • Enallage: wording ignoring grammatical rules or conventions.
  • Epanalepsis: ending sentences with their beginning.
  • Epiphrase: one or more sentences (typically of the author's understanding/expression of the issue) added to the end of a completed sentence
  • Epistrophe (also known as antistrophe): repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive clauses. The counterpart of anaphora.
  • Epizeuxis: repetition of a single word, with no other intervening words.
  • Hendiadys: use of two nouns to express an idea when it normally would consist of an adjective and a noun.
  • Hendiatris: use of three nouns to express one idea.
  • Homeoteleuton: words with the same ending.
  • Hypallage: a transferred epithet from a conventional choice of wording.[9]
  • Hyperbaton: two ordinary associated words are detached.[10][11] The term is also used more generally for any figure of speech that transposes natural word order.[11]
  • Hypozeuxis: every clause having its own independent subject and predicate.
  • Hysteron proteron: the inversion of the usual temporal or causal order between two elements.
  • Isocolon: use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses.
  • Internal rhyme: using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence.
  • Litotes: an understatement achieved by negating the opposite statement, such as "not too bad" for "very good", or "she is not a beauty queen" for "she is ugly", yielding an ironical effect.
  • Paradiastole: A rhetorical device using euphemistic or mild language to avoid offence or harsh reality.
  • Parallelism: the use of similar structures in two or more clauses.
  • Paraprosdokian: A sentence or phrase with an unexpected twist or surprise at the end.
  • Paroemion: alliteration in which nearly every word in a sentence or phrase begins with the same letter.
  • Polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root.
  • Polysyndeton: close repetition of conjunctions.
  • Sibilance: repetition of letter 's', it is a form of consonance.
  • Spoonerism: switching places of syllables within two words in a sentence yielding amusement.
  • Syncope: omission of parts of a word or phrase.
  • Symploce: simultaneous use of anaphora and epistrophe: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning and the end of successive clauses.
  • Synchysis: words that are intentionally scattered to create perplexment.
  • Synonymia: use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence.
  • Tautology: redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice.
  • Tmesis: insertions of content within a compound word.
  • Tricolon diminuens: combination of three elements, each decreasing in size.
  • Tricolon crescens: combination of three elements, each increasing in size.
  • Zeugma: the using of one verb for two or more actions.

Tropes

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Tropes are words or phrases whose contextual meaning differs from the manner or sense in which they are ordinarily used.

  • Accismus: expressing the want of something by denying it.[12]
  • Adynaton: an extreme form of hyperbole (exaggeration). It the opposite of understatement.
  • Allegory: a metaphoric narrative in which the literal elements indirectly reveal a parallel story of symbolic or abstract significance.[13][14][15]
  • Allusion: covert reference to another work of literature or art.
  • Anacoenosis: posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker.
  • Analogy: a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
  • Anapodoton: leaving a common known saying unfinished.
  • Antanaclasis: a form of pun in which a word is repeated in two different senses.[16]
  • Anthimeria: transformation of a word of a certain word class to another word class: such as a noun for a verb and vice versa.[17]
  • Anthropomorphism: ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism).
  • Antiphrasis: a name or a phrase used ironically such that it is obvious of what the true intention is: see verbal irony.
  • Antonomasia: substitution of a proper name for a phrase or vice versa.
  • Aphorism: briefly phrased, easily memorable statement of a truth or opinion, an adage.
  • Aporia: faked or sincere puzzled questioning.
  • Apophasis: (Invoking) an idea by denying its (invocation), also known as occupatio or paralipsis.
  • Apostrophe: when an actor or speaker addresses an absent third party, often a personified abstraction or inanimate object.
  • Bathos: pompous speech with a ludicrously mundane worded anti-climax.
  • Catachresis: blatant misuse of words or phrases.
  • Cliché: overused phrase or theme.
  • Dysphemism: substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism.
  • Ekphrasis: lively describing something you see, often a painting.
  • Epanorthosis: immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue.
  • Euphemism: substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another.
  • Hyperbole: use of exaggerated terms for emphasis.
  • Hypocatastasis: an implication or declaration of resemblance that does not directly name both terms.
  • Hypophora: answering one's own rhetorical question at length.
  • Illeism: the act of referring to oneself in the third person instead of first person.
  • Innuendo: having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not.
  • Irony: use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning.[18]
  • Kenning: using a compound word neologism to form a metonym.
  • Litotes: emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite.
  • Malapropism: using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar.
  • Meiosis: use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something.
  • Merism: type of synecdoche referring to two or more contrasting parts to describe it's whole
  • Metalepsis: figurative speech is used in a new context.
  • Metaphor: an implied comparison between two things, attributing the properties of one thing to another that it does not literally possess.[19]
  • Metonymy: a thing or concept is called not by its own name but rather by the name of something associated in meaning with that thing or concept.
  • Nosism: the practice of using the pronoun we to refer to oneself when expressing a personal opinion.
  • Non sequitur: statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding.
  • Onomatopoeia: word that sounds like its meaning, imitating a real sound (e.g. tick-tock or boom).
  • Oxymoron: using two terms together, that normally contradict each other.
  • Parable: extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson.
  • Paradiastole: extenuating a vice in order to flatter or soothe.
  • Paradox: use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth.
  • Paraprosdokian: phrase in which the latter part causes a rethinking or reframing of the beginning.
  • Parody: humouristic imitation.
  • Paronomasia: pun in which similar-sounding words but words having a different meaning are used.
  • Pathetic fallacy: ascribing human conduct and feelings to nature.
  • Personification: attributing or applying human qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena.
  • Pleonasm: the use of more words than is necessary for clear expression.
  • Procatalepsis: refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument.
  • Proslepsis: extreme form of paralipsis in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic.
  • Proverb: succinct or pithy, often metaphorical, expression of wisdom commonly believed true.
  • Pun: play on words that has two meanings.
  • Rhetorical question: asking a question as a way of asserting something. Asking a question that already has the answer hidden in it, or asking a question not to get an answer, but to assert something (or to create a poetic effect).
  • Satire: humoristic criticism of society.
  • Sesquipedalianism: use of long and obscure words.
  • Simile: comparison between two things using like or as.
  • Snowclone: alteration of cliché or phrasal template.
  • Syllepsis: the use of a word in its figurative and literal sense at the same time or a single word used in relation to two other parts of a sentence although the word grammatically or logically applies to only one.
  • Synecdoche: form of metonymy, referring to a part by its whole or vice versa.
  • Synesthesia: description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.
  • Tautology: superfluous repetition of the same sense in different words Example: The children gathered in a round circle
  • Zeugma: use of a single verb to describe two or more actions.
  • Zoomorphism: applying animal characteristics to humans or gods.

See also

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References

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Figure of speech

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A figure of speech is a deliberate departure from the ordinary form of expression, using words or phrases in a non-literal way to achieve effects such as clarity, emphasis, beauty, or vividness in communication. These devices are essential tools in , , , and , allowing writers and speakers to evoke emotions, illustrate ideas, and persuade audiences more effectively than alone. The systematic study and classification of figures of speech originated in classical Greek and Roman rhetorical traditions, where they were analyzed by ancient rhetoricians like in his work , with extensive cataloging developed by later figures such as . The Greeks and Romans named and classified hundreds of these figures to enhance oratory and writing, influencing Western literary and rhetorical practices through the and beyond. Similar concepts and classifications exist in non-Western traditions, such as the Indian Alamkara and rhetoric. In modern usage, they extend beyond formal rhetoric to everyday , , and media, demonstrating their enduring versatility. Figures of speech are broadly categorized into two main types: tropes, which involve artful deviations from the expected meaning of words (such as , where one thing is directly identified with another for comparison, or irony, where the intended meaning opposes the literal sense), and schemes, which deviate from the ordinary arrangement or pattern of words (such as , the repetition of initial sounds, or parallelism, the balanced structure of phrases). Common examples include (comparing two unlike things using "like" or "as"), (attributing human qualities to non-human entities), and (deliberate exaggeration for emphasis). By altering literal expression, these devices enrich meaning, foster creativity, and engage readers or listeners on deeper levels.

Fundamentals

Definition

A figure of speech is a that employs words or phrases in a non-literal manner to achieve a , such as emphasis, clarity, or , by deviating from ordinary or expected language use. This intentional departure, often described as an "artful deviation from normal usage," distinguishes figures of speech as deliberate choices rooted in the principles of . Key characteristics of figures of speech include their capacity to enhance vividness and through patterns that break from literal expression, making them essential tools in while extending to applications in , , and everyday communication. The term originates from the Latin figura, meaning "shape" or "form," derived from the verb fingere ("to form" or "to shape"), reflecting the idea of molding into distinctive configurations. Figures of speech were first systematically studied and categorized in , where they were analyzed as means to persuade and influence audiences effectively. Unlike fixed idiomatic expressions, which often originate as figurative but lose their original metaphorical link over time, becoming conventionalized and opaque in meaning, figures of speech remain deliberate rhetorical selections intended to evoke specific interpretive effects.

Purposes and Effects

Figures of speech serve primary purposes in communication by enhancing through appeals to , , and , as outlined in classical rhetorical theory, where stylistic devices like metaphors contribute to the speaker's credibility, emotional resonance, and logical clarity. They also evoke emotions by creating vivid that connects abstract concepts to relatable experiences, fostering deeper audience involvement beyond literal expression. Additionally, figures simplify complex ideas by drawing comparisons that make unfamiliar notions more accessible, while providing aesthetic pleasure through rhythmic and ornamental language that enriches discourse. The effects of figures of speech on audiences include increased memorability, as their departure from standard and semantics forms striking that aid retention and recall. They promote engagement by breaking linguistic monotony, encouraging active imagination and interpretation, which heightens overall receptivity to the message. Furthermore, these devices can manipulate by framing ideas in novel ways or highlighting contrasts, thereby influencing how audiences interpret and prioritize information in persuasive contexts. From a psychological perspective, figures of speech draw on principles, such as theory, which posits that metaphors structure thought by mapping one domain onto another, thereby shaping reasoning and emotional responses in everyday communication. Cultural variations influence these purposes; for instance, in poetic traditions, figures often prioritize ornamental and aesthetic effects to evoke and , whereas in political , they emphasize persuasive functions to rally support and frame arguments effectively across diverse linguistic contexts.

Historical Development

Classical Rhetoric

The origins of figures of speech in classical rhetoric trace back to ancient Greece, where they were systematically explored as tools for enhancing persuasive oratory. Aristotle's Rhetoric, composed in the 4th century BCE, provides the first comprehensive treatment, emphasizing style (lexis) in Book III as a means to achieve clarity, appropriateness, and vividness in speech. He highlights metaphors as a primary figure, arguing that they transfer meaning in a way that stimulates the audience's imagination and strengthens arguments, thereby making discourse more effective for deliberation, forensic, and epideictic purposes. Aristotle classifies stylistic elements to avoid excess ornamentation while using figures to ornament thought without obscuring meaning, laying the groundwork for their role in public persuasion. Roman rhetoricians built upon these Greek foundations, integrating figures into a more elaborate framework for oratory. , in works such as (55 BCE), stressed stylistic variety to engage audiences and adapt to contexts, advocating the use of figures like and to create rhythm, emphasis, and emotional impact in speeches. He distinguished between , middle, and grand styles, positioning figures as essential for the grand style to elevate arguments and avoid monotony. 's (c. 95 CE) further expanded this tradition, devoting Book IX to a detailed analysis of figures, drawing from Greek sources like and the sophists while refining classifications for practical application. viewed figures not merely as decorations but as aids to proof and emotional appeal, influencing later rhetorical theory through his comprehensive manual. Early categorizations in classical rhetoric distinguished between ornatus—the ornamental use of figures to embellish language—and their functional role in clarifying or intensifying arguments. This separation, evident in Roman treatises, treated figures as deviations from plain speech that could serve both aesthetic and persuasive ends, with ornatus encompassing tropes and schemes under the canon of elocutio. The term schema emerged to denote form-based figures, such as those involving word order or repetition, contrasting with thought-based tropes like metaphor; Quintilian, for instance, divided figures into those of diction (language form) and thought (conceptual arrangement), providing a schema for their systematic study. This framework, including the four rhetorical operations of addition, omission, transposition, and permutation, began to crystallize as a classical method for manipulating language. Figures of speech held a central place in ancient rhetorical education, where they were taught in Greek and Roman schools as vital skills for public speaking and . In institutions like the Athenian and Roman rhetorical academies, students practiced figures through exercises such as and progymnasmata, learning to deploy them for ethical and civic discourse. This training, as outlined by , aimed to form the ideal orator—virtuous and eloquent—ensuring figures enhanced rather than deceived, thereby shaping generations of leaders in assemblies, courts, and forums.

Evolution in Literature and Language

Following the foundations laid in classical , figures of speech underwent significant transformations during the medieval period, where largely declined amid the fall of the , yet persisted in ornamental uses within religious and courtly to convey and allegorical depth. By the , a renewed emphasis on linguistic ornamentation emerged, setting the stage for the revival driven by . In the , Desiderius Erasmus's De Copia (1512) championed the abundant employment of rhetorical figures—such as synonyms, metaphors, and amplifications—to foster , variety, and persuasive richness in speech and writing, profoundly influencing humanist across Europe. This approach integrated figures seamlessly into and , exemplified by William Shakespeare's masterful deployment of them to heighten emotional and thematic complexity, marking a shift toward more expressive and inventive literary styles. The 18th and 19th centuries brought further evolution through , which prioritized emotional and imaginative figures of speech to capture subjective experience and the sublime power of nature, diverging from neoclassical restraint. Poets like and emphasized devices such as and , using them to infuse with passion and vivid sensory appeal, thereby elevating figures from mere ornament to vehicles of profound psychological insight. This period's focus on individual emotion and intuition transformed figures of speech into essential tools for Romantic expressivity, influencing broader literary movements toward authenticity over formality. In the 20th and 21st centuries, disrupted traditional uses by favoring fragmented and allusive figures of speech to mirror the alienation and multiplicity of modern life, as seen in T.S. Eliot's innovative deployment of disjointed metaphors and mythic allusions in works like (1922). Concurrently, figures proliferated in non-literary domains, particularly , where rhetorical devices like and became staples from the mid-20th century, enhancing and memorability in print and broadcast media before extending to digital platforms. However, this widespread adoption prompted critiques of overuse, with scholars noting how repetitive figures often devolve into clichés, eroding their rhetorical potency and leading to calls for renewed originality in contemporary discourse. Global perspectives reveal parallel evolutions independent of Western traditions, underscoring the universal appeal of figurative . In Arabic rhetoric, the concept of badī'—emerging in the 9th century with Ibn al-Muʿtazz's systematization—encompassed embellishments like (istiʿāra), paronomasia, and , enriching poetic and oratorical expression during the . Similarly, developed parallelism as a foundational figure from the classical era onward, structuring verses and prose through balanced antithetical pairs to achieve rhythmic harmony and philosophical depth, as evident in regulated forms like lüshi. These traditions highlight culturally adaptive yet convergent roles for figures of speech in enhancing aesthetic and communicative efficacy.

Classification

Four Rhetorical Operations

The four rhetorical operations, known as the quadripartita ratio in classical , provide a foundational framework for categorizing figures of speech based on how they alter ordinary language through structural modifications. These operations—, omission, , and transposition—serve as meta-categories that explain deviations from literal expression, encompassing both schemes (formal arrangements) and tropes (semantic shifts) as subcategories within them. Addition, or adiectio, involves inserting elements into language to enhance emphasis, clarity, or vividness. For instance, adds exaggeration to intensify an idea, as in the phrase "I'm so hungry I could eat a ," which amplifies hunger beyond literal bounds for dramatic effect. This operation enriches discourse by expanding on the expected form, often building emotional or rhetorical force. Omission, termed detractio or subtraction, entails removing words or elements to achieve conciseness, speed, or subtlety. exemplifies this by omitting implied terms, such as "You ready?" instead of "Are you ready?" which assumes the verb for brevity while maintaining meaning. This technique streamlines communication, preventing and heightening impact through implication. Permutation, also called immutatio or substitution, refers to altering the typical order or interchange of elements for stylistic purposes like rhythm or surprise. illustrates this by inverting word order, as in "Fell the " rather than "The fell," creating emphasis on the action. Such rearrangements disrupt expectations to draw to key ideas or enhance poetic flow. Transposition involves shifting sounds, positions, or meanings to mimic or evoke sensory experiences. demonstrates this by transposing natural sounds into words, like "buzz" for the hum of an , transferring auditory qualities to linguistic form. This operation bridges and reality, often used to imitate phenomena for immersive effect. This framework originates from classical grammarians and rhetoricians, with early articulations appearing in works like Priscian's Institutiones Grammaticae (5th century AD), where it systematizes linguistic changes as a basis for stylistic variation, though () influenced related discussions on composition and word . It functions as an overarching for understanding how figures of speech manipulate structure to deviate from prosaic norms. While influential in rhetorical theory, the four operations are not exhaustive for contemporary , which incorporates semantic, pragmatic, and cognitive dimensions beyond these structural categories; nonetheless, they remain foundational for analyzing deviations in literary and oratorical .

Schemes

Schemes are figures of speech that involve an artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words, focusing on structural patterns rather than changes in meaning. Unlike tropes, which alter semantic interpretation, schemes emphasize deviations in , sound, or form to create rhythm, balance, or emphasis, often drawing from the rhetorical operation of by rearranging elements for effect. These arrangement-based figures highlight structure, repetition, or auditory qualities to produce visual or sonic appeal in . Key subtypes of schemes include , which repeats initial consonant sounds in nearby words to create a musical effect; anaphora, involving the repetition of a word or at the beginning of successive clauses or lines; and , the repetition of vowel sounds within words to enhance sonic . features a reversal of parallel grammatical structures, such as arranging corresponding pairs in inverted order (a-b-b-a), while parallelism employs balanced clauses or s with similar structure and length for symmetry. In , schemes serve to enhance the of , improve memorability, and provide aesthetic pleasure, making them prevalent in , oratory, and where auditory or rhythmic impact is desired. They draw attention to key ideas through repetition or balance, aiding and retention without shifting literal sense. Examples of schemes appear in biblical , where parallelism structures verses through synonymous or antithetical balancing of lines to reinforce themes and aid oral . Similarly, anaphora features in political chants and speeches to build rhythmic momentum and emphasize calls to action.

Tropes

Tropes constitute a category of figures of speech characterized by semantic deviations, where words or expressions are employed to imply meanings beyond their literal sense, typically through substitution, association, or extension. This transfer of meaning, often rooted in resemblance or relational links, allows to evoke nuanced interpretations and enrich communication. In rhetorical , tropes are distinguished from schemes by their focus on altering word meanings rather than syntactic or phonetic arrangements. Key subtypes of tropes include several well-established forms. A directly equates one entity with another to suggest likeness, without using comparative terms like "like" or "as," as in "Juliet is the sun," implying her radiance and centrality. A , a variant of metaphor, explicitly compares two unlike things using "like" or "as," such as "waves... like rocks," to highlight shared qualities and add vividness. attributes human emotions, actions, or traits to non-human entities, animating the inanimate, for instance, describing a building as "playing " to evoke playfulness or isolation. substitutes a word with one closely associated but not identical to it, such as "the " for the U.S. presidential administration, relying on contiguity rather than similarity. Finally, , a specific form of metonymy, uses a part to represent the whole or vice versa, like "boots on the ground" for soldiers or "wheels" for a , emphasizing a representative element. In rhetoric, tropes function to render abstract concepts tangible, fostering vivid imagery and deepening emotional engagement by drawing on familiar associations to illuminate complex ideas. They enable speakers and writers to persuade, evoke empathy, or convey subtlety without exhaustive explanation, thereby enhancing the aesthetic and persuasive power of discourse. Many tropes align with the rhetorical operation of transposition within the classical four operations, involving the substitution of terms based on similarity or relation. From a perspective, tropes leverage conceptual mappings, where one domain of experience structures understanding of another, as outlined in conceptual metaphor theory. This theory posits that human thought is inherently metaphorical, with tropes reflecting and reinforcing these mappings to shape and . For example, metaphors do not merely ornament but systematically organize abstract reasoning through embodied experiences.

Examples and Applications

Common Everyday Examples

Figures of speech permeate daily conversations, making language more vivid and relatable without relying on literal meanings. For instance, the "it's " is commonly used to describe heavy fall, exaggerating the intensity for emphasis in casual weather discussions. Similarly, "" serves as a for , softening the topic in informal talks about loss or mortality to avoid direct confrontation with harsh realities. These expressions, rooted in tropes, allow speakers to convey complex ideas succinctly and with emotional nuance in everyday interactions. Schemes, such as repetition, also appear in non-literary settings like motivational speeches or slogans that echo into casual motivation. Anaphora, the deliberate repetition of words at the beginning of successive phrases, builds rhythm and emphasis; Martin Luther King Jr.'s repeated "" in his 1963 address exemplifies this, influencing contemporary pep talks or phrases like "I will succeed, I will persevere, I will overcome" used in personal encouragement. In , metaphors enhance persuasion by drawing implicit comparisons; the slogan " gives you wings" equates the energy drink's boost to the freedom of flight, making the product memorable in commercial media. Cultural idioms often embed figures of speech in proverbs and well-wishes, blending irony for social effect. "Break a leg," an ironic expression wishing good luck—contrasting the literal injury with hoped-for success—originates from theater but extends to everyday scenarios like job interviews or exams, where speakers use it to invoke positive outcomes humorously. These idioms foster communal understanding, as seen in proverbs like "the early bird catches the worm," a metaphor for timeliness that appears in advice across generations. In modern digital communication, figures of speech evolve visually and contextually. Emojis function as visual tropes, substituting for verbal metaphors or similes; for example, a thumbs-up emoji conveys approval akin to "well done," enriching text-based exchanges with nonverbal layers in chats. Memes, meanwhile, frequently employ irony to comment on , juxtaposing images with sarcastic captions—like a success image paired with "adulting is hard"—to highlight everyday ironies in online sharing and viral trends. Such uses demonstrate how figures of speech adapt to digital platforms, maintaining their role in accessible, informal expression.

Literary and Rhetorical Examples

In William Shakespeare's (Act 2, Scene 7), the character Jaques delivers the famous ", / And all the men and women merely players," likening human life to theatrical performances where individuals enact seven ages from infancy to old age. This , drawn from the play's exploration of and identity, emphasizes the transient and scripted quality of existence, portraying life's stages—such as the "schoolboy" with his satchel or the "justice" in his "second childishness"—as roles imposed by fate. By compressing into dramatic progression, the figure heightens the audience's awareness of mortality and social performance, influencing countless adaptations in and theater. Edgar Allan Poe employs the scheme of in "The Raven" (1845) to evoke a haunting rhythm, as seen in the opening line: "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary." The repeated 'w' sounds in "weak and weary" mimic the narrator's fatigue and foreshadow the poem's descent into grief over lost love, Lenore, amplifying the gothic atmosphere through sonic repetition. This device, a form of consonance, binds the stanzas' , drawing readers into the psychological torment and making the raven's —""—echo more ominously. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "" speech (1963) masterfully integrates the trope of anaphora with metaphors to advance civil rights advocacy, repeating "I have a dream" eight times to build rhythmic urgency and envision racial harmony. Metaphors such as the "sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent" transform historical oppression into seasonal imagery, urging transformation into an "invigorating autumn," while the "" of the symbolizes unfulfilled American ideals. These figures, rooted in biblical and rhetorical traditions, persuade by blending emotional appeal with logical critique, galvanizing the March on Washington audience toward nonviolent change. The utilizes to animate nature in praise of divine power, as in :8, where "Let the rivers clap their hands, let the mountains sing together for joy." This attribution of human actions to rivers and mountains underscores creation's responsive worship, enhancing the psalm's hymnic call to universal rejoicing. Similarly, biblical parables function as extended metaphors, such as the in :1-23, where seeds represent the word of scattered amid varying soils to illustrate reception and growth. This narrative device, prevalent in ' teachings, invites interpretive depth, portraying spiritual truths through agrarian imagery to engage listeners in moral reflection. Jane Austen's novels deploy verbal irony to dissect Regency-era social norms, as in Pride and Prejudice (1813), where the narrator's free indirect discourse mocks characters like Mrs. Bennet's marriage obsessions, revealing class pretensions and gender constraints. For instance, the ironic description of Elizabeth Bennet's refusal of Mr. Collins highlights matrimonial absurdities, critiquing how economic pressures distort personal agency. Through such sustained irony, Austen exposes hypocrisy in inheritance laws and courtship rituals, fostering reader empathy for women's limited choices while satirizing aristocratic vanity.

References

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