Hubbry Logo
Southern HanSouthern HanMain
Open search
Southern Han
Community hub
Southern Han
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Southern Han
Southern Han
Southern Han
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Key Information

Southern Han
Traditional Chinese南漢
Simplified Chinese南汉
Literal meaningSouth Han
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinNán Hàn
Wade–GilesNan Han
Yue: Cantonese
JyutpingNaam4 Hon3

Southern Han (Chinese: 南漢; pinyin: Nán Hàn; Jyutping: Naam4 Hon3; Vietnamese: Nam Hán; 917–971), officially Han (Chinese: 漢), originally Yue (Chinese: 越; Jyutping: Jyut6), was a dynastic state of China and one of the Ten Kingdoms that existed during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It was located on China's southern coast, controlling modern Guangdong and Guangxi. The dynasty greatly expanded its capital Xingwang Fu (Chinese: 興王府; pinyin: Xìngwáng Fǔ; Jyutping: Hing1wong4 Fu2, present-day Guangzhou). It attempted but failed to annex the autonomous polity of Jinghai, which was controlled by the Vietnamese.

Founding of the Southern Han

[edit]

Liu Yin was named regional governor and military officer by the Tang court in 905. Though the Tang fell two years later, Liu did not declare himself the founder of a new kingdom as other southern leaders had done. He merely inherited the title of Prince of Nanping in 909.

It was not until Liu Yin's death in 917 that his brother, Liu Yan, declared the founding of a new kingdom, which he initially called "Yue" (越); he changed the name to Han (漢) in 918. This was because his surname Liu (劉) was the imperial surname of the Han dynasty and he claimed to be a descendant of that famous dynasty. The kingdom is often referred to as the Southern Han dynasty throughout China's history. It attempted but failed to annex the independent polity of Jinghai which was controlled by the Vietnamese.

Territorial extent

[edit]

With its capital at present-day Guangzhou, the domains of the kingdom spread along the coastal regions of present-day Guangdong, Guangxi and the island of Hainan. It had borders with the kingdoms of Min, Chu and the Southern Tang as well as the non-Han Chinese kingdoms of Dali. The Southern Tang occupied all of the northern boundary of the Southern Han after Min and Chu were conquered by the Southern Tang in 945 and 951 respectively.

War with the Vietnamese

[edit]
Đông Hồ woodblock depiction of Ngô Quyền leading his troops against Southern Han forces on the Bạch Đằng River, 938 AD

During the late 9th century as the Tang dynasty weakened, local Vietnamese lords began taking control of its domain in Jinghai (northern Vietnam). Southern Han campaigned twice against the Vietnamese in 931 and 938 in an attempt to add these Vietnamese territories to their realm, but failed both.[1][2]

Fall of the Southern Han

[edit]

The Five Dynasties ended in 960 when the Song dynasty was founded to replace the Later Zhou. From that point, the new Song rulers set themselves about to continue the reunification process set in motion by the Later Zhou. Through the 960s and 970s, the Song increased its influence in the south until finally it was able to force the Southern Han dynasty to submit to its rule in 971.

Rulers

[edit]
Sovereigns in the Southern Han Kingdom 917–971
Temple Names Posthumous Names Personal Names Period of Reigns Era Names
Gao Zu (高祖 gāo zǔ) Tian Huang Da Di (天皇大帝 tiān huáng dà dì) Liu Yan (劉巖 liú yán)

Liu Yan (劉龑 liú yǎn) after 926

917–941 Qianheng (乾亨 qián hēng) 917–925

Bailong (白龍 bái lóng) 925–928
Dayou (大有 dà yǒu) 928–941

Did not exist Shang Di (殤帝 shāng dì) Liu Bin (劉玢 liú bīn) 941–943 Guangtian (光天 guāng tiān) 941–943
Zhong Zong (中宗 zhōng zōng) Wénwǔ Guāngmíng Xiào (文武光明孝皇帝)

Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign

Liu Sheng (劉晟 liú shèng) 943–958 Yingqian (應乾 yìng qián) 943

Qianhe (乾和 qiàn hé) 943–958

Hou Zhu (後主 hòu zhǔ) Did not exist Liu Chang (劉鋹 liú chǎng) 958–971 Dabao (大寶 dà bǎo) 958–971

Rulers family tree

[edit]
Southern Han rulers family tree
Liu Zhiqian
劉知謙 (d. 894)
Liu Yin 劉隱
b. 874–d. 911		Liu Yan 劉龑 889–942
Gaozu 高祖
r. 917–942		Liu Tai 劉台
Emperor
Huizong of Min		Liu Hua 劉華
b. 896–d. 930		 Liu Hongchang
劉弘昌 d. 944
Prince of Yue 越王		Liu Bin 劉玢 920–943
Shāng 殤皇
r. 942–943		Liu Sheng 劉晟 920–958
Zhongzong
r. 943–958 		Liu Honggao
劉弘杲 d. 943
Prince of Xun 循王
Liu Chang 劉鋹
942–980
r. 958–971


References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Southern Han

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Southern Han (917–971) was a kingdom in southern during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, one of the Ten Kingdoms that arose after the Tang dynasty's collapse, controlling the region centered on present-day , , and provinces with its capital at Panyu (modern ). Founded by Liu Yan, who proclaimed himself emperor in 917 following his brother Liu Yin's death, the kingdom emphasized civilian governance over militarization, conducting annual state examinations to select officials. Successive rulers including Liu Yan (r. 917–941), Liu Fen (r. 942), Liu Cheng (r. 943–957), and Liu Chang (r. 958–971) oversaw periods of territorial expansion, such as the 948 invasion of that captured ten prefectures, alongside harsh suppression of internal rebellions. The regime constructed lavish palaces like Zhaoyang Hall, reflecting a focus on luxury amid heavy taxation, while influence grew in later years, weakening administrative effectiveness. Ultimately, these internal frailties, combined with external pressures, led to Southern Han's surrender to the in 971, marking the end of its independence.

History

Founding

The foundations of Southern Han were laid by Liu Yin (874–911), who built a power base in the region during the political fragmentation after the Tang dynasty's fall in 907. Originally from Shangcai in modern or Pengcheng in , Liu Yin and his brother relocated southward, with their father serving as regional inspector of Fengzhou near modern in . In 905, Liu Yin received appointment as military commissioner () of the Qinghai Circuit, centered on (ancient Panyu). The succeeding Later Liang regime confirmed his authority, granting him the title of king of Dapeng Commandery in 907 and later king of Nanping in 909, allowing him to govern effectively over and parts of through military and administrative control. Following Liu Yin's death in 911, his younger brother Liu Yan (889–942) assumed control of the territories. Liu Yan maintained and expanded this autonomy amid the Five Dynasties' instability, drawing on local resources, a standing army, and naval forces inherited from his brother. In 917, Liu Yan declared himself emperor, inaugurating the kingdom as Great Yue (大越) with Panyu as capital, thereby asserting full independence from nominal northern overlords. The following year, 918, he renamed the state Great Han (大漢), a move justified by his surname Liu, shared with the Han dynasty's imperial house, to legitimize his rule through historical continuity—a tactic employed by several contemporaneous regimes. This establishment reflected the broader pattern of regional warlords exploiting the Tang collapse to form enduring polities, with Southern Han's southern isolation and maritime orientation enabling relative stability in its early years.

Territorial expansion and extent

The Southern Han kingdom was founded in 917 by Liu Yan, who inherited control over the region from his brother Liu Yin, encompassing primarily the areas of modern and provinces, with as the capital. This core territory corresponded to the former Qingwang military circuit under the , which included commanderies along the and extending westward into . Expansion efforts focused southward and occasionally northward, with Liu Yan launching campaigns to subdue local non-Han tribes and assert dominance over Hainan Island, incorporating it into the kingdom's domain by the early . In 930, Southern Han armies under generals Liang Kezhen and Li Shoufu captured Jiao Prefecture (modern ), briefly extending the kingdom's influence into Annam before suffering a decisive naval defeat at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 938, led by Ngô Quyền, which curtailed further southern advances. Northward, conflicts with the kingdom in and the Min kingdom in yielded limited territorial gains, as Southern Han prioritized consolidation amid frequent border skirmishes; its borders ultimately abutted to the northwest, Min and later to the northeast, and non-Han polities like Dali to the west. At its peak under Emperor Liu Sheng (r. 943–958), the kingdom maintained control over approximately 200,000 square kilometers, leveraging coastal access and naval capabilities to defend this extent against larger northern rivals.

Wars and foreign relations

Southern Han pursued expansion southward into Annam, corresponding to modern , as part of its efforts to consolidate control over and adjacent territories. In 930, Emperor Liu Yan dispatched an army that occupied Dai-la, the capital of Dai Co Viet, imposing direct rule over the region. This ambition culminated in a major naval invasion in late 938, when a Southern Han fleet under Liu Hongcao advanced up the Bạch Đằng River. Vietnamese forces led by ambushed the invaders by driving iron-tipped wooden stakes into the riverbed, which emerged at low tide and impaled the grounded warships during the Southern Han retreat, resulting in heavy losses and the fleet's destruction. The defeat at Bạch Đằng marked the failure of Southern Han's southern campaigns and contributed to Annam's emergence as an independent polity under . To the north, Southern Han maintained rivalrous relations with the , including repelling a Chu naval assault on Feng Prefecture in 928. Following Chu's annexation by in 951, Southern Han's northern frontier shifted to face the expanding , though no large-scale wars ensued before unification efforts. The kingdom's independence ended with the Dynasty's conquest in 970–971. general Pan Mei led an expeditionary force that advanced through the region, capturing the capital in 971 and compelling the surrender of the last ruler, Liu Jixing. This campaign integrated Southern Han's territories into the unified empire, concluding the era of the Ten Kingdoms in the south.

Decline and fall

The later years of Southern Han were marked by deepening internal decay, particularly under Emperor Liu Chang (r. 958–971), whose reign saw eunuchs exert dominant control over provincial administration, eroding the central government's authority and military effectiveness. Heavy taxation to fund extravagant constructions, such as the opulent Zhaoyang Hall, fueled widespread discontent and sporadic rebellions, including the 942 uprising led by Zhang Yuxian among fisherfolk, who proclaimed himself "King of the Eight Countries" before being suppressed. These factors compounded the dynasty's longstanding issues of court luxury and administrative corruption inherited from founder Liu Yan, leaving Southern Han vulnerable as the unified northern following its establishment in 960. The , under Emperor Taizu, launched its southern campaigns to consolidate control over the remnants of the Ten Kingdoms. In late 970, Song forces under general Pan Mei advanced into Southern Han territory, capturing key prefectures like Shaozhou by early 971 despite initial resistance from Southern Han's naval and elephant-based armies. A decisive engagement on January 23, 971, near saw Song crossbowmen employ massed arrow fire to rout Southern Han's war elephant corps, a tactic that exploited the animals' vulnerability to projectiles and disrupted their charge. Facing imminent collapse, Liu Chang surrendered to Song forces in May 971, formally ending Southern Han after 54 years of rule; he was granted the title of marquis and relocated to the Song capital at , where he died in 980. The conquest integrated Southern Han's territories—encompassing modern , , and parts of —into the Song empire, marking the dynasty's absorption without prolonged siege due to its internal frailties.

Government and administration

Central institutions

The of Southern Han operated from the capital at Panyu, redesignated as Xingwang under founder Liu Yan, who proclaimed himself in 918 CE. This structure emphasized a civilian bureaucracy to counterbalance influences prevalent in the fragmented post-Tang era, with the holding supreme authority over policy, appointments, and edicts. Annual examinations were instituted to recruit officials, fostering a merit-based system that prioritized scholarly administrators over hereditary or martial elites, thereby sustaining administrative continuity across reigns from Liu Yan (917–942) to Liu Chang (958–971). Oversight mechanisms, including the for auditing officials and the Remonstrance Bureau for policy critique, functioned within this framework to enforce accountability and advise the throne. However, institutional efficacy eroded in the later period, particularly under Liu Chang, as factions gained sway over appointments and decisions, undermining the civilian ethos despite formal examination protocols. Regional inspectors (cishi) and commissioners reported to central authorities, but power often shifted toward palace insiders, reflecting broader dynastic vulnerabilities.

Provincial control and influence

The Southern Han administration divided its territory into approximately 15 prefectures (zhou), with governors (cishi) appointed centrally from the capital at Panyu (modern ) to oversee local taxation, judicial affairs, and military garrisons. These officials were primarily recruited through annual examinations, a policy initiated by founder Liu Yan (r. 917–942) to foster a bureaucracy and curb militaristic tendencies inherited from the Tang dynasty's fragmentation. This system aimed to centralize authority by rotating appointees and emphasizing loyalty to the Liu imperial house, though heavy taxation to fund palace luxuries often provoked local unrest, as seen in the 942 rebellion led by Zhang Yuxian in Xunzhou prefecture, which required direct imperial intervention to suppress. Eunuch influence emerged as a corrosive factor particularly under the last ruler, Liu Chang (r. 958–971), who relied on palace eunuchs for personal counsel and administrative oversight, granting them de facto control over court decisions and resource allocation. These eunuchs, unencumbered by familial ties and positioned close to the emperor, manipulated appointments to provincial posts, favoring loyalists who prioritized tribute flows over effective governance, thereby eroding the merit-based recruitment Liu Yan had established. This shift weakened central oversight, as provincial governors increasingly acted with autonomy amid ongoing rebellions and external pressures, such as invasions from the Kingdom of Chu in 948, exacerbating fiscal strains and military disarray. By the 960s, dominance had fragmented administrative cohesion, with reports of in prefectural management contributing to the dynasty's vulnerability; this internal decay facilitated the Song dynasty's conquest in 971, when Liu Chang surrendered after minimal resistance from disorganized provincial forces. The system's amplification of court intrigue over provincial stability echoed patterns in earlier Chinese dynasties but proved fatal in the competitive Ten Kingdoms landscape, where robust central-provincial integration was essential for survival.

Military

Organization and forces

The Southern Han military relied on a standing professional army inherited from the clan's control of the military circuit under the late Tang system, where regional commanders () maintained personal forces funded through local taxes and salt monopolies. These troops, numbering in the tens of thousands, were primarily supplemented by and local levies from Han settlers and indigenous groups in , such as the Yao and Zhuang peoples, reflecting the kingdom's ethnic diversity and reliance on regional recruitment for defense against northern incursions. Command was centralized under the and his relatives, with key generals like Cheng leading expeditions, as seen in the 948 invasion of that captured ten prefectures through coordinated assaults. A distinctive feature of Southern Han forces was the incorporation of war elephants, sourced from the tropical south, which served as in battles but proved vulnerable to massed archery; during the conquest in 971, crossbow volleys routed these units near , contributing to the kingdom's rapid collapse. Internal vulnerabilities were evident in events like the 942 led by Zhang Yuxian, where fisherfolk militias initially overwhelmed regular troops before being suppressed, highlighting uneven discipline and loyalty issues amid influence over appointments. The Southern Han maintained a substantial naval force, essential for controlling riverine territories along the system and coastal regions facing the , as evidenced by early rulers like Liu Qian who commanded both armies and fleets in regional inspections. This navy supported defensive operations, suppression of internal rebellions involving aquatic elements such as fisherfolk uprisings in 942, and offensive projections beyond core territories. The kingdom's most notable naval campaign occurred in 938, when Emperor Liu Yan dispatched a fleet to reconquer the Annam (Giao Châu) region, previously under loose Chinese suzerainty, aiming to reassert dominance over . Commanded by Liu Hongcao, a Southern Han prince, the expedition advanced up the Bạch Đằng River but encountered Vietnamese forces led by Ngô Quyền, who had planted iron-tipped wooden stakes in the riverbed exposed at low tide. As the tide receded during the retreat, the Southern Han ships impaled on the stakes, leading to heavy losses including the death of Liu Hongcao and the destruction of much of the fleet, marking a decisive Vietnamese victory and the end of Southern Han's direct military ambitions in Annam. Naval elements also played roles in border conflicts, such as clashes with the kingdom on eastern frontiers and the 948 invasion led by Liu Cheng that captured ten prefectures, likely involving riverine assaults given the terrain. By the kingdom's fall in 971, Southern Han naval capabilities proved insufficient against the dynasty's combined forces, which overcame river defenses to compel Emperor Liu Sheng's surrender at . The navy's emphasis on coastal and fluvial warfare reflected Southern Han's geographic constraints but highlighted its reliance on maritime power for survival amid fragmented southern polities.

Economy

Agriculture and resources

The agriculture of Southern Han relied primarily on wet-rice cultivation in the irrigated lowlands and river deltas of and , where the subtropical climate enabled double-cropping and supported population growth through high yields from the system. Farmers employed traditional techniques including plowing and embankment systems to manage flooding and salinity in coastal areas. Supplementary crops such as millet, beans, and tropical fruits like lychees contributed to dietary diversity, though remained the staple grain dominating caloric intake. Key natural resources included pearls harvested from coastal waters, with organized pearl farming operations established during the reign of Liu Yan (917–942) in regions such as the coasts near modern Sai Kung, , , and Lei Yue Mun, supplying luxury goods for domestic elite consumption and export. Salt production from evaporated seawater ponds along the and shores provided another vital resource, often regulated by the state to generate revenue, akin to practices in contemporaneous southern kingdoms. Fisheries yielded and aquatic products, while inland areas offered timber and limited mineral deposits like tin, though extraction remained modest compared to agricultural output.

Trade and maritime activities

The Southern Han kingdom's economy heavily relied on maritime trade centered in , a pivotal on the that connected to and the . Rulers actively sponsored overseas commerce, exchanging Chinese exports such as , , and metals for imports including spices, , aromatics, and pearls from regions like Annam, , and Arab territories. This trade generated substantial revenue through tariffs, state monopolies on salt and foreign goods, and direct court involvement, underpinning the kingdom's prosperity amid regional fragmentation. Emperor Liu Yan (r. 917–942) established specialized administrative offices, such as the City Shipping Supervisorate (shibo si), to regulate sea traffic, oversee foreign merchants, and facilitate tributary and private exchanges. Iranian and Arab Muslim traders formed established communities in , contributing to a cosmopolitan maritime hub that persisted from Tang precedents into the Southern Han era. The court's strategic emphasis on marine affairs included alliances and military actions to secure trade routes, such as Liu Yan's marriage ties with neighboring rulers and naval expeditions to counter threats. Southern Han's naval capabilities directly supported commercial activities, with fleets protecting coastal waters and projecting power southward; in 928, Liu Yan dispatched 100 warships to repel invaders from Chu state territories in northwest Guangdong. Archaeological finds, including shipwrecks off Guangdong with Southern Han ceramics and trade goods, confirm active state participation in long-distance voyages beyond mere facilitation. Despite eunuch influence over monopolies potentially stifling broader merchant participation, the kingdom's maritime orientation distinguished it from inland-focused contemporaries, fostering economic resilience until Song conquest in 971.

Society and culture

Social hierarchy and ethnic composition

The social hierarchy of Southern Han adhered to Confucian ideals prevalent in contemporary Chinese states, featuring the as the supreme authority, supported by a and scholar-officials who managed administration and landholdings. Eunuchs exerted considerable influence within the court, often mediating between the ruler and , reflecting a structure where familial and bureaucratic loyalty superseded meritocratic ideals. Peasants formed the economic foundation through cultivation in the fertile , while artisans crafted luxury items like ceramics and silks for elite consumption, and merchants prospered from overseas trade, occasionally elevating their status beyond traditional disdain in Confucian rankings. Ethnic composition varied regionally, with migrants and their descendants dominating the ruling class and urban centers such as , where they imposed centralized control and orthodox . In rural and peripheral areas of , indigenous populations descended from ancient groups persisted, including ancestors of the who inhabited and northern Vietnam borderlands. These non-Han groups, often organized in tribal structures, supplied tribute and labor but experienced partial assimilation via intermarriage and administrative integration, though cultural distinctions remained pronounced.

Cultural patronage and developments

The emperors of Southern Han, particularly founder Liu Yan (r. 917–942), were noted for their patronage of grandiose architecture, constructing extravagant palaces that symbolized imperial authority and luxury. Zhaoyang Hall (昭陽殿), for instance, featured a roof covered in , reflecting the regime's emphasis on opulent displays amid regional prosperity from maritime trade. This architectural indulgence extended to religious sites, with Liu Yan commissioning the Dafo Temple (大佛寺, Grand Buddha Temple) in during his reign, establishing it as a major Buddhist sanctuary that integrated regional styles with central Chinese influences. Buddhism received significant court support, fostering developments in temple construction and devotional practices tailored to southern China's diverse ethnic milieu. The Dafo Temple's founding under Liu Yan's direct underscores this, as the allocated resources for its establishment amid a broader Five Dynasties trend of lay and imperial sponsorship of Buddhist infrastructure to legitimize rule and accrue spiritual merit. Surviving artifacts from Southern Han mausoleums, including those of Liu Yan excavated between 2003 and later, reveal ceramic figurines and tomb decorations depicting musicians and dancers, indicating active court of such as music and ensemble performances. Literary and scholarly culture benefited from institutionalized mechanisms like annual state examinations, which Liu Yan and successors maintained to recruit officials and cultivate Confucian erudition, preventing over-reliance on military elites. This system supported a modest flourishing of textual production in the capital at Xingwangfu (modern ), though overshadowed by the dynasty's reputational focus on and eunuch-dominated intrigues rather than prolific literary output comparable to northern contemporaries.

Rulers

List of emperors

The emperors of Southern Han, ruling from 917 to 971, were members of the Liu family, with succession marked by familial murders and brief reigns amid internal instability.
Temple NamePersonal NameEra NamesReign Years
Liu Yan (劉巖)Qianheng (乾亨, 917–924); Bailong (白龍, 925–927); Dayou (大有, 928–941)917–942
Liu Fen (劉玢)Guangtian (光天, 942)942
Liu Cheng (劉晟)Yingqian (應乾, 943); Qianhe (乾和, 943–957)943–958
Liu Chang (劉鋹)Dabao (大寶, 958–971)958–971
Liu Yan founded the dynasty as emperor in 917 after his brother Liu Yin's death in 912, establishing control over the region formerly under Jingnan. He was succeeded by his son Liu Fen, whose short rule ended in murder by his brother Liu Cheng, who then seized power. Liu Cheng's death led to the ascension of his nephew Liu Chang, under whom the dynasty fell to the in 971 following a of the capital.

Family relations and succession

The imperial family of Southern Han traced its origins to Liu Qian, a official whose sons established control over the region. Liu Qian's elder son, Liu Yin (874–911), governed as military commissioner from 905 until his death, laying the groundwork for the kingdom's autonomy; he was succeeded by his younger brother Liu Yan (889–942). Liu Yan, who proclaimed himself emperor in 917, fathered numerous sons, enfeoffing 19 of them as princes in 932 to consolidate familial loyalty amid regional threats. Upon Liu Yan's death in 942, the throne passed to his son Liu Min (posthumously Emperor Shang, r. 942–943), reflecting a preference for agnatic among surviving heirs. Succession fractured shortly thereafter due to fraternal rivalry. Liu Min, who reigned only briefly, was murdered in 943 by his younger brother Liu Sheng (posthumously Emperor Zhongzong, 920–958), who seized the throne and ruled until his natural death in 958. This act of underscored the precariousness of familial bonds in the Liu clan, where ambition and palace intrigue often superseded hereditary norms. Liu Sheng's administration saw further enfeoffments of relatives, but internal stability relied on suppressing dissent among collateral branches. Liu Sheng was succeeded smoothly by his eldest son, Liu Chang (posthumously , 942–980), who ascended in 958 at age 16 and governed until Southern Han's capitulation to the in 971. Liu Chang's rule marginalized princely kin in favor of advisors, diminishing the role of in ; surviving relatives were either demoted or integrated into Song bureaucracy post-conquest. The Liu family's succession thus combined patrilineal inheritance with episodes of violent usurpation, contributing to the dynasty's eventual vulnerability to external conquest. No collateral lines challenged the main stem after 958, as the clan's power base eroded amid military defeats.

References

  1. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/rulers-nanhan.html
  2. https://www.nouahsark.com/en/infocenter/culture/history/dynasty/southern_han.php
  3. http://www.paulnoll.com/China/Dynasty/ten-Southern-Han-Kingdom.html
  4. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/china-history/five-dynasties-and-ten-kingdoms.htm
  5. https://www.newsgd.com/node_81ac351eba/14b71d7d96.shtml
  6. https://himmarklai.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/The-Guangdong-Historical-background.pdf?9388f2
  7. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/reign-ngo-quyen
  8. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/making-of-the-modern-chinese-navy/battle-of-bach-dang-river-938/CBD819494FA0D219D2F3597DA336F0F4
  9. https://www.chinaeducenter.com/en/whychina/song.php
  10. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-worldcivilization/chapter/origins-of-the-song-dynasty/
  11. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/middle-imperial-china-9001350/turbulent-tenth-century/3898290ACBA44956AF6422C1E69C7D4D
  12. https://historyguild.org/the-song-dynasty/
  13. https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangxi/Economy
  14. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10160161/
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S235248551830269X
  16. https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/bitstreams/c319d4d8-9fbf-46d5-8a93-db2195482978/download
  17. https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms
  18. http://english.cssn.cn/skw_culture/202007/t20200701_5653776.shtml
  19. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-economic-history-of-china/foreign-trade/1C4A59E89C0D549720296A7322E7D2C3
  20. https://www.ostasien-verlag.de/zeitschriften/crossroads/cr/pdf/CR_11_2015_001-030_Schottenhammer.pdf
  21. https://www.nywmuseum.org.cn/En/News/Exhibition
  22. https://www.academia.edu/24802146/Chinas_Gate_to_the_South_Iranian_and_Arab_Merchant_Networks_in_Guangzhou_During_the_Tang_Song_Transition_c_750_1050_PART_II_900_c_1050
  23. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682112000261
  24. https://www.britannica.com/place/Nan-Han
  25. https://www.yunnanexploration.com/zhuang-ethnic-minority.html
  26. https://www.facebook.com/guangzhouinchina/posts/the-dafo-temple-also-known-as-the-grand-buddha-temple-is-a-buddhist-sanctuary-ri/961898655983547/
  27. https://smarthistory.org/reframing-art-history/five-dynasties-ten-kingdoms-and-song-china/
  28. https://us.trip.com/travel-guide/attraction/guangzhou/southern-han-mausoleums-museum-69137440/
  29. https://govt.chinadaily.com.cn/s/202510/21/WS68f754a4498e23165e06944d/enjoying-elegance-of-10th-century-music-and-dance-at-guangzhou-exhibition.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.