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Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goal 14
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Key Information

Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Goal 14 or SDG 14) is about "Life below water" and is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015. The official wording is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development".[1] The Goal has ten targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards each target is being measured with one indicator each time by time.

The first seven targets are outcome targets: Reduce marine pollution; protect and restore ecosystems; reduce ocean acidification; sustainable fishing; conserve coastal and marine areas; end subsidies contributing to overfishing; increase the economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources. The last three targets are means of implementation targets:[2] To increase scientific knowledge, research and technology for ocean health; support small scale fishers; implement and enforce international sea law.[1] One indicator (14.1.1b) under Goal 14 specifically relates to reducing impacts from marine plastic pollution.[3]

According to the 2020 report on progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals, "current efforts to protect key marine environments and small-scale fishers and invest in ocean science are not yet meeting the urgent need to protect this vast, fragile resource".[4]

Background

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Life below water is Goal 14 of the Sustainable Development Goals, set to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, sea and marine resources for sustainable development.[5] Currently the state of our oceans are declining due to climate change factors and human behaviour.[6]

The deterioration of coastal waters is increasing due to both pollution and coastal eutrophication. Similar factors contribute to climate change, negatively affecting the oceans and marine biodiversity which is slowly declining.[7] The threat of growing algal blooms and dead zones in the oceans are alarming; in 2018 it was stated that "without concerted efforts, coastal eutrophication is expected to increase in 20% of large marine ecosystems by 2050".[8]

A recent report states ocean acidification reporting stations have tripled worldwide since 2021, in addition to 1 in 5 fish caught from illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. Beach clean-ups across the coasts are shedding light on the increase in ocean plastic pollution which suffocates the seas.[9]

Marine conservation, local livelihoods and resource sustainability measures are compromised by poor decision-making in resource management.[10] Consistent efforts are being made to improve such management.[11] "The sustainable management of our oceans relies on the ability to influence and guide human use of the marine environment".[12] To counter regression in achieving Goal 14, "swift and coordinated global action is imperative".[13]

Targets, indicators and progress

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Further information: List of SDG targets and indicators

The UN has defined 10 targets and 10 indicators for SDG 14 that include preventing and reducing marine pollution and ocean acidification, protecting marine and coastal ecosystems, and regulating fishing. The targets also call for an increase in scientific knowledge of the oceans.[14][15] Some targets have a target year of 2020, some have a target year of 2025 and some have no end year.

The ten targets include reducing marine pollution (14.1), protecting and restoring ecosystems (14.2), reducing ocean acidification (14.3), sustainable fishing (14.4), conserving coastal and marine areas (14.5), ending subsidies contributing to overfishing (14.6), increase the economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources (14.7), increase scientific knowledge (14.a), supporting small scale fishers (14.b) and implementing and enforcing international sea law (14.c).

Most SDG 14 targets are not measurable in quantitative terms because the data is not available yet; only target 14.5 is quantifiable.[16]

Target 14.1: Reduce marine pollution

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The full title of Target 14.1 is: "By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution."[1]

It has one indicator: Indicator 14.1. is the "Index of coastal eutrophication and floating plastic debris density"[17]

The "Index of Coastal Eutrophication (ICEP), refers to the inputs of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and silica, in different forms) from rivers, and corresponding nutrient-ratio sub-indicator."[18] The methodology for ICEP will be developed and ready by 2020.

The "Floating Plastic Debris Density" refers to the modelled macro and micro plastics distribution in the ocean. If the quantities of floating micro is below 4.75mm, it is labeled as micro and if it is over 4.75 cm, it is labeled as macro. The amount of plastics in large marine ecosystems are measured based on "a model of surface water circulation and the use of proxy inputs". The final Floating Plastics Debris Density indicators will be ready by 2020.[18]

Despite pervasive global pollution from plastics, there is only one indicator (14.1.1b) under Goal 14, specifically related to reducing impacts from plastics.[3] For all other sustainable development goals, there is no specific target in decreasing microplastics due to limitations of data.[3] Furthermore, there are no targets in reference to reducing microplastics, thus presenting a large challenge for governments to report and monitor microplastics in the environment.[3]

World map for indicator 14.1.1 - Marine pollution found as beach litter globally in 2020[19]

Target 14.1 is supposed to be met in 2025, but in 2020 this is considered to be "uncertain" according to the Convention on Biological Diversity.[20] Recent progress has seen trends of coastal eutrophication elevated in 2022, exceeding conditions from 2000-2004.[21] Without sufficient change, it has been estimated that marine pollution due to plastic is on track to double by 2030 and will nearly triple by 2040.[22]

Marine pollution from plastics

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This section is an excerpt from Marine plastic pollution § Scope of the problem.[edit]
A woman and a boy collecting plastic waste at a beach during a cleanup exercise in Ghana.

Marine pollution caused by plastic substances is recognized as an issue of the highest magnitude, from a pollution perspective.[23] A majority of plastics used in people's day to day lives are never recycled. Single use plastics of this kind contribute significantly to the 8 million tons of plastic waste found in the ocean each year.[24] If this trend continues, by the year 2050 there will be more plastic than fish in the ocean by weight.[25] In just the first decade of the century, more plastic has been created than all the plastic in history up until the year of 2000 and a majority of that plastic is not recycled. One estimate of the historic production of plastic gives a figure of 8,300 million metric tonnes (Mt) for global plastic production up to 2015, of which 79% have been accumulated in landfills or the natural environment.[26] According to the IUCN, this number has grown to 14 million tons of plastic.[24] There is an estimated 15 to 51 trillion pieces of plastic amongst all of the world's oceans stretching from the top of ocean to the seafloor.[27] Oceans are Earth's deepest and most extensive basins with average depths of the abyssal plains being about 4 km beneath sea level. Gravity will naturally move and transfer materials from land to the ocean, with the ocean becoming the end-repository.[28] Oceanic plastic pollution is remarkable for the sheer ubiquity of its presence, from ocean trenches, within deep sea sediment, on the ocean floor and ocean ridges to the ocean surface and coastal margins of oceans. Even remote island atolls can have beaches loaded with plastic from a faraway source. At the ocean surface, plastic debris is concentrated within circular structures of large areal extent, called ocean gyres. Ocean gyres form within all oceans, due to alternating patterns of zonal winds that drive equatorward interior transport in the subtropics, and poleward interior transport in subpolar oceans. Ocean currents concentrate plastic waste within the gyres.

Plastics have been increasingly manufactured because of their flexible, molding and durable qualities, which provides plastic with a myriad of useful applications. Plastics are remarkably resistant to natural weathering processes that break down many other materials at the Earth's surface. Ocean processes, including storms, wave action, ocean currents, hydration, and surface exposure to the atmospheric weathering processes (e.g. oxidation) and ultraviolet radiation, tend to break plastic particles into ever-decreasing sizes (resulting in microplastics), rather than organically digest or chemically alter plastic substances. Estimates of the total number and weight of plastic across five ocean gyre plastic concentration zones are of the order of 5.25 trillion particles weighing almost 300,000 tons.[29] The reduction in size of plastic particles to the millimeter and micro-scales allow plastic to settle within deep sea sediments, with perhaps four times as much plastic ending up within sediments compared to surface ocean waters.[30] Plastics are now a part of complex biogeochemical cycles with living organisms, such as cetaceans, seabirds, mammals, and bacteria, ingesting plastic.[31]

Target 14.2: Protect and restore ecosystems

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The full title of Target 14.2 is: "By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.2.1 is "Number of countries using ecosystem-based approaches to managing marine areas".[32] This indicator aims at protecting and managing sustainably the marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid adverse impacts. An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a sea zone prescribed by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea over which a sovereign state has special rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind.

No data is available for this indicator yet.[33]

Target 14.3: Reduce ocean acidification

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Ocean acidification: mean seawater pH. Mean seawater pH is shown based on in-situ measurements of pH from the Aloha station.[33]

The full title of Target 14.3 is: "Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.3.1 is the "Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations".[17]

Recent progress shows ocean acidification is increasing due to the rise of carbon dioxide emissions. The pH of the ocean now averages at 8.1, therefore the acidity of the ocean is around 30% more acidic than in pre-industrial times.[21] Acceleration is needed to reach target 14.3.

This section is an excerpt from Ocean acidification.[edit]

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.[34] Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024).[35] CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and a hydrogen ion (H+). The presence of free hydrogen ions (H+) lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity (this does not mean that seawater is acidic yet; it is still alkaline, with a pH higher than 8). Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.[36]

Target 14.4: Sustainable fishing

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World map for indicator 14.5.1 - Share of marine territorial waters that are protected in 2017.[33]

The full title of Target 14.4 is: "By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.4.1 is "the proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels".[37] This indicator aims to measure the proportion of global fish stocks which are overexploited, fully exploited and not fully exploited.

A report at the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2021 stated that: "Sustainable fisheries accounted for approximately 0.1 per cent of global GDP in 2017".[38] The United Nations progress report states that over 35.4% of global stocks were overfished in 2019, an increase of 1.2% since 2017. However, the rate of decline has decelerated in recent years, though the trend continues to decline from the 2020 goal aiming to restore fish stocks to sustainable levels.[21]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable fishery.[edit]
SeaWiFS map showing the levels of primary production in the world's oceans
Primary production required (PPR) to sustain global marine fisheries landings expressed as percentage of local primary production (PP). The maps represent total annual landings for 1950 (top) and 2005 (bottom). Note that PP estimates are static and derived from the synoptic observation for 1998.[39]
A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Sustainability in fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

Target 14.5: Conserve coastal and marine areas

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Further information: List of largest protected areas and Marine protected area

The full title of Target 14.5 is: "By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.5.1 is the "coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas".

The term "Marine Protected Areas" include marine reserves, fully protected marine areas, no-take zones, marine sanctuaries, ocean sanctuaries, marine parks, locally managed marine areas and other. Each area has a specific level of protection and a specific allowed range of activities.[40]

This indicator was met by the Swedish government in 2017.[41]

It was reported in 2021 that "mean protected area coverage of marine key biodiversity areas increased globally from 27 per cent in 2000 to 46 per cent in 2022".[42] There are a number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around Hawaii, occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers.[43] Other large marine conservation areas include those around the Cook Islands, Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension island, and Brazil. As areas of protected marine biodiversity expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving marine resources.[44] In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of the global ocean area falls under a conservation designation.[45]

Target 14.6: End subsidies contributing to overfishing

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The full title of Target 14.6 is: "By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.6.1 is the "Degree of implementation of international instruments aiming to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing".[33]

Illegal fishing causes many problems and "is linked to major human rights violations and even organized crime".[46] The WWF estimates that the global losses of illegal fishing cost up to $36.4 billion each year.[46]

Negotiations for Target 14.6 were in their final stages to ending harmful fisheries in 2020.[47] The deadline was set for June 2020, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic this was delayed, which has caused concerns in regards to the ability to support the fishing sector.[47] More recently, The Agreement on Port State Measures target on illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing reached 74 parties by the end of 2022. Some progress development was seen across 2018-2022 to implement combats against IUU fishing. The World Trade Organization Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, adopted on the 17 June 2022, sets hope for SDG target 14.6 to be met.[48] It is required that over two-thirds of states are needed to accept the Agreement; 17 have so far.

Target 14.7: Increase the economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources

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The full title of Target 14.7 is: "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing states and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.7.1 is the "sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP in small island developing States, least developed countries and all countries".[32]

Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP, 2011 to 2019.[19]

The contribution of aquaculture and fisheries to the gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the most commonly used indicators of its economic performance.[49] According to the FAO, "50 MILLION ALIENS capture fish, the vast majority in small-scale fisheries."[50]

Fisheries and aquaculture can contribute to alleviating poverty, hunger, malnutrition and economic growth. The contribution of sustainable fisheries to the global GDP was around 0.1% per year.[51]

Non-living resources of the ocean (seabed mining)

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Further information: Deep sea mining

One resource issue that should be taken account of to a higher degree than present within the SDGs are non-living resources.[52] Mining will always be a controversial though necessary activity. The balance between mining and marine environment will be one that can be assisted by a greater focus from SDG 14. Marine minerals include sea-dredged and seabed minerals. Sea-dredged minerals are normally extracted by dredging operations within coastal zones, to maximum sea depths of about 200 m. Minerals normally extracted from these depths include sand, silt and mud for construction purposes, mineral rich sands such as ilmenite and diamonds.[53] A potential mining industry of the future is seabed mining or the extraction of seabed minerals.[54] Seabed minerals are mostly located between 1 and 6 km beneath the ocean surface and comprise three main types: Polymetallic or seabed massive sulfide deposits, polymetallic or manganese nodules, cobalt-rich crusts.

At the present time (2021) there is no commercial mining of seabed minerals. Mining of the seabed is a controversial issue, as it will inevitably have some deleterious environmental and biospheric impacts.[52]: 356  Some argue that there should be a total ban on seabed mining.[55] Individual  countries with significant deposits of seabed minerals within their large EEZ's are making their own decisions with respect to seabed mining, exploring ways of undertaking seabed mining without causing too much damage to the deep ocean environment,[56] or deciding not to develop seabed mines.[57]

Target 14.a: Increase scientific knowledge, research and technology for ocean health

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The full title of Target 14.a is: "Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.a.1. is the "proportion of total research budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology". This indicators aims to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries.

Oceans cover over 70% of the Earths surface, yet from 2013 to 2021, only 1.1% of national research budgets were allocated for ocean science. More funding is needed to promote achieving this target.

Target 14.b: Support small scale fishers

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a group of men puling in a fishing net on a beach in the Philippines

The full title of Target 14.b is: "Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.b.1. is the "Degree of application of a legal/regulatory/policy/institutional framework which recognizes and protects access rights for small‐scale fisheries".[32]

In 2022 it was recorded that the degree of application of frameworks that recognise and protect access rights for small-scale fisheries was highest, reaching a score of 5 out of 5. Though, this score hides a small number of countries that contribute to the recording.[21]

Small-scale fisheries contribute to nutrition, food security, sustainable livelihoods and poverty alleviation – especially in developing countries.[58]

Target 14.c: Implement and enforce international sea law

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The full title of Target 14.c is: "Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of "The future we want".[1]

This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.c.1. is the "number of countries making progress in ratifying, accepting and implementing through legal, policy and institutional frameworks, ocean-related instruments that implement international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea".

A report in 2021 stated that: "Many States have ratified or acceded to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (168 parties) and its implementing agreements (150 parties for the Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and 91 parties for the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement)."[22]

Custodian agencies

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Custodian agencies are in charge of measuring the progress of the indicators:[59]

Monitoring and progress

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UNEP has published a step-by-step guide on measuring several indicators of SDG 14.[60] The guide stresses that marine ecosystems are less understood compared to terrestrial systems. This is because most marine ecosystems are remote, vast in size and difficult to access. Therefore, marine research is expensive.[60]: 1 

An annual report is prepared by the Secretary-General of the United Nations evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.[4]

The Preparatory Meeting to the UN Ocean Conference convened in New York, US, in February 2017, to discuss the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. International law, as reflected in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), stressed the need to include governance instruments to consider "anthropogenic activities taking place outside of the ocean".[61] Concerns regarding ocean health in destructive fishing practices and marine pollution were discussed, in looking at the role of local communities of small island developing States (SIDS) and least developed countries (LDCs) to not forget that oceans are a large part of their economies.[61]

It was estimated in 2020 that only 2 percent of countries will meet Target 14 by 2030.[20]

Challenges

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Main article: Sustainable Development Goals § Challenges

Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas (LSMPAs)

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Assigning Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas (LSMPAs) (at least 100,000 square km in area) aims to reduce the consequences of resource exploitation (e.g. overfishing) and to protect ocean ecosystems by reducing human disturbance in designated areas. However, there are related concerns surrounding LSMPAs that need attention in order to help ensure that the targets for SDG 14 can be met. These concerns cover three dimensions: resource management, conflicts between rival countries, and tradeoffs between people's needs and the environment.[62] The resource management challenge relates to inadequate monitoring and enforcement of the conservation and protection measures. Rivalries between neighboring countries relates to border disputes surrounding assignment of the LSMPAs. Usually LSMPAs involve multiple countries making up disparate adjoined geographic areas. Some countries might use LSMPAs as diplomatic leverage to pursue other advantages.[63] Tradeoffs between people's needs and the environment relates to addressing people's livelihoods in an equitable fashion. The setting of protective areas can have negative effects on local fisheries and people's incomes.

Capacity-enhancing fishery subsidies

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Capacity-enhancing subsidies have been provided to developing countries in order to make them more competitive with large fishing nations. But if these subsidies result in overfishing, undermining the ecological resilience of the resource, there will be no long-term benefits to the communities. Capacity-enhancing subsidies can only solve immediate poverty conditions for the moment. Monitoring of the impact of the subsidies is necessary to ensure that overfishing is not occurring. Also, strict agreements between countries are required since marine ecosystems cross national boundaries. The World Trade Organization is dedicated to implementing Target 6 of SDG 14 ("End subsidies contributing to overfishing") and discontinue fishery subsidies. The basis for this is that over 93 percent of the global fisheries stocks are already fully exploited.[64] In 2022, it adopted an agreement which requires all countries to repeal such policies.[65]

Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic

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The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the usage of single use plastics such as masks, sanitizer containers, gloves, and much more, in many places world-wide, specifically within Africa.[66] It is estimated that 12 billion single-used face masks are being thrown out monthly which poses a large threat to human health and the surrounding environment, due to informal waste management in many African countries.[66] Harnessing the potential of the ocean, by developing sustainable blue economies can build prosperity and improve the lives of all, including the most disenfranchised and marginalised communities. SDG 14 receives the least amount of long-term funding of any of the SDGs. Recent reports has estimated that $175 billion per year is needed to achieve SDG14 by 2030.[67] The UN Ocean Conference, held from 27 June to 1 July 2022 hopes to united governments and other stakeholders to bridge the gap.[68]

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Climate change's effect on marine ecosystems services directly affects a range of the SDG's. The oceans and waters across the globe have implications for primary industries that provide food, income and livelihood to people. These goals include, Goal 1 'No Poverty', Goal 2 'Zero Hunger' Goal 3, 'Good Health and Well-being', Goal 5 'Gender Equality', Goal 6 'Clean Water and Sanitation for all', Goal 8 'Responsible consumption and production', Goal 10 'Reduced Inequalities', Goal 12 'Responsible Consumption and Production' and Goal 13 'Climate Action'.[69][52]

Achieving SDG 14 would help alleviate achieving the targets of these. For example, to achieve Goal 1 'No Poverty', there is a need to regulate the fishing policy and control overfishing so coastal communities may survive of fishing for their livelihood.[70] Goal 2 'Zero Hunger' links to SDG 14 as it is critical to secure future food security by managing biodiversity, including that of marine ecosystems.[71][72] Additionally, Goals 1 and 2 link to the SDG target 1.2, aiming to reduce poverty in half by 2030. Women are often the primary providers and rely on both fish for income and food, therefore making fisheries important for their economic stability.[70]

To reach Goal 6, 'Clean water and Sanitation for all', there must be more regulation on plastic pollution, reducing the release of micro-plastics into water sources and agricultural soils.[73]

Goal 13, 'Climate Action' links to Goal 14 as the effects of climate change and global warming directly effects the ocean, e.g. through sea level rise and ocean acidification.[74]

Sustainable Development Goal 14 has been incorporated into the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),[75] the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),[76] and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).[77]

Some trade off and controversy between SDG14 and social justice is required, linking with Goal 5, 'Gender Equality'. There is a need for balance between the economic benefits and ecological sustainability,[78] addressed in Target 14.5 through Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs have been proven to have a positive impact on food security, they are often managed and designed in such a way that excludes women.[20]

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sustainable Development Goal 14

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14), titled "Life Below Water," is a objective adopted in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for , aiming to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources amid threats from human activities. The goal encompasses ten targets focused on reducing , protecting ecosystems, minimizing , implementing sustainable practices, and increasing marine protected areas, with several interim deadlines set for and 2025. Oceans, covering over 70% of Earth's surface, support , provide roughly 17% of animal protein for human consumption, and play a critical role in climate regulation through , yet they face degradation from and that undermines these functions. Progress toward SDG 14 has been uneven and generally insufficient, with key 2020 targets—such as effectively regulating to restore and conserving 10% of coastal and marine areas—largely unmet, as marine protected areas reached only 7.74% coverage globally by that year. Empirical assessments indicate persistent , with 35.4% of assessed fished at biologically unsustainable levels in 2019, reflecting a decline from prior years and highlighting failures in enforcement and management. , particularly plastics and nutrients from land-based sources, continues to expand dead zones and harm ecosystems, while from anthropogenic CO2 emissions exacerbates vulnerabilities for calcifying organisms like corals and . Criticisms of SDG 14 center on its ambiguous indicators, inadequate funding—estimated at a shortfall from the required $175 billion annually—and implementation gaps that prioritize aspirational targets over enforceable mechanisms, resulting in limited causal impact on reversing trends like stock depletion despite some regional advances in protected areas. These shortcomings underscore challenges in global coordination, where data deficiencies and varying national capacities hinder accurate tracking and accountability, though peer-reviewed analyses affirm the empirical reality of ongoing marine resource strain independent of institutional reporting biases.

Origins and Framework

Historical Context and Adoption

The (SDGs) emerged as successors to the (MDGs), which ran from 2000 to 2015 and lacked a dedicated target for conservation despite marine ecosystems covering approximately 71 percent of Earth's surface and supporting , fisheries, and climate regulation. Advocacy from coastal nations, environmental organizations, and scientific bodies highlighted the MDGs' environmental pillar (MDG 7) as insufficient for addressing marine degradation, including , , and habitat loss, prompting calls for explicit ocean-focused commitments in the post-2015 framework. The process gained momentum at the Conference on (Rio+20), convened in Rio de Janeiro, , from June 20 to 22, 2012, where 191 governments endorsed "The Future We Want" outcome document, launching an intergovernmental process to formulate SDGs integrated with economic, social, and environmental dimensions. This led to the establishment of the Open Working Group (OWG) on SDGs by UN General Assembly resolution 67/213 in December 2012, comprising 30 representatives from member states who conducted 13 sessions between March 2013 and July 2014 to propose goals balancing universality and specificity. The OWG's final report in July 2014 recommended 17 goals, including proposed Goal 14 to "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development," emphasizing targets like reducing , ending , and protecting coastal ecosystems to rectify prior neglect of ocean-dependent livelihoods affecting over 3 billion people. On September 25, 2015, the UN General Assembly unanimously adopted resolution A/RES/70/1, "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for ," formalizing the 17 SDGs—including SDG 14, titled "Life Below Water"—as a voluntary framework for 193 UN member states to achieve by 2030 through national plans, partnerships, and progress tracking. This marked the first standalone global goal for oceans, building on prior instruments like the 1982 UN Convention on the but integrating marine into broader development imperatives, with targets extending to 2020 (e.g., of fisheries) and 2030 (e.g., minimizing ). The adoption reflected compromises among developed and developing nations, prioritizing small island states vulnerable to sea-level rise, though implementation relies on non-binding mechanisms amid varying national capacities.

Core Objectives and Targets

Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14), titled "Life Below Water," seeks to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for . Adopted by the on September 25, 2015, as part of the 2030 Agenda for , the goal addresses critical threats to marine environments, including , , degradation, and , through a framework of specific, time-bound . These emphasize regulatory, scientific, and economic measures to mitigate human impacts while promoting resilience and equitable benefits, particularly for developing nations and small-scale fisheries. The are divided into outcome-oriented goals (14.1–14.7) focused on reducing pressures and enhancing benefits, and means of (14.a–14.c) aimed at building capacity and . Key interim deadlines include 2020 for several related to protection, , and conservation, with broader 2030 horizons for reduction and economic gains. Each target is supported by global indicators tracked by the UN Division, such as fish stock levels and coverage, to enable measurable progress assessment.

Scientific Basis

Empirical Evidence on Marine Threats

Overfishing remains a primary to marine biodiversity, with the Food and Agriculture Organization's 2024 assessment indicating that 35.5 percent of global marine fish stocks are , meaning they are exploited beyond levels capable of producing , while 64.5 percent are fished within biologically sustainable limits. This proportion of overfished stocks has stabilized since the early , contrasting with a tripling from the to the , though regional disparities persist, such as higher in the Northwest Atlantic and Southeast Pacific. Plastic pollution contributes to habitat degradation and wildlife mortality, with estimates indicating that 14 million metric tons of plastic enter the oceans annually, accumulating as macro- and microplastics that entangle or are ingested by marine species. Surveys reveal varying densities of beach litter, with hotspots exceeding thousands of items per square kilometer in regions like and the Mediterranean, correlating with proximity to population centers and poor rather than inherent oceanic processes. Ocean , driven by atmospheric CO2 absorption, has lowered average surface seawater by approximately 0.11 units since pre-industrial times (from 8.2 to 8.1), increasing acidity by about 30 percent and reducing ion availability critical for calcifying organisms like and corals. Empirical measurements from stations such as HOT-Aloha confirm ongoing declines of 0.001 to 0.002 units per year in open waters. Hypoxic dead zones, primarily caused by nutrient runoff from leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion, have proliferated globally, with over 500 identified areas covering more than 245,000 square kilometers as of recent inventories. In the , the 2024 hypoxic zone measured above average at roughly the size of (about 6,000 square miles), exceeding the five-year average of 4,298 square miles and far surpassing the 2035 restoration target of 1,900 square miles. Marine heatwaves associated with warming exacerbate bleaching and shifts, as global sea surface temperatures have risen by about 0.9°C since pre-industrial levels, with acceleration to 0.27°C per in recent years (2019–2023). The ongoing fourth global event (2023–2025) has affected 84 percent of the world's reefs across 82 countries, with mass bleaching confirmed in regions including the for the sixth time since 2016. Oceans have absorbed approximately 90 percent of excess anthropogenic heat, amplifying these thermal stresses. These threats interact synergistically; for instance, warming and acidification compound pressures on already depleted stocks, while hinders recovery, underscoring the need for data-driven management over alarmist narratives. Empirical trends show some stabilization in but continued expansion in hypoxia and bleaching, tied to controllable factors like nutrient inputs and emissions alongside fisheries .

Debates Over Environmental Claims

Critics of certain environmental claims underpinning SDG 14 argue that threats such as have been exaggerated relative to of ecosystem-wide impacts. While estimates suggest 75 to 199 million tons of waste currently reside in , with annual inputs of up to 33 billion pounds, population-level declines in marine species attributable solely to plastics remain undocumented, as ingestion often does not lead to lethality or reproductive failure at scales affecting . Laboratory studies showing harm from frequently employ concentrations exceeding those observed in natural environments, prompting about extrapolating to real-world effects. Moreover, total floating debris is lower than popularized figures like "5.25 trillion pieces," with much sinking or degrading, and recent modeling indicates persistence times shorter than previously assumed, challenging narratives of irreversible accumulation. Ocean , driven by atmospheric CO2 absorption lowering seawater by approximately 0.1 units since pre-industrial times, is cited in SDG 14 as a to calcifying organisms like corals and . However, meta-analyses reveal diminishing reported effects over time in experimental studies on behavior, suggesting negligible direct impacts and potential inflating early alarmist findings. Critics apply "organized " to much of the literature, noting that high-CO2 lab conditions rarely mimic open-ocean variability, where natural fluctuations exceed anthropogenic changes, and many exhibit adaptive resilience without mass die-offs observed in controlled settings. Historical geological records show oceans have endured greater acidification episodes without , questioning projections of widespread marine tied primarily to current trends. Debates over rates, a core SDG 14 target, center on definitional inconsistencies and data interpretation. The UN reports about 35% of assessed as overfished in 2020, based on below levels yielding , yet this metric conflates biological sustainability with economic optima, potentially overstating collapse risks for resilient . Empirical analyses indicate global fishery production has stabilized despite rising exploitation since the , with no evidence of systemic crashes; instead, technological advances and quota systems have enabled recoveries in many regions, such as North post-1990s moratorium. Ecosystem-level overfishing indices, incorporating productivity metrics, suggest thresholds are rarely breached globally, as fisheries often operate within natural carrying capacities rather than exceeding them catastrophically. These discrepancies highlight how selective assessments, often from institutionally biased datasets favoring alarmism, may prioritize narrative over comprehensive catch-per-unit-effort trends showing sustainable harvests.

Progress and Assessment

Global Monitoring Mechanisms

The global monitoring of Goal 14 (SDG 14) relies on a framework of 10 tracked through 10 primary indicators, plus three proxy indicators where measurement is infeasible, as established by the United Nations Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGs). These indicators cover aspects such as (e.g., coastal and plastic debris density), (average seawater pH), sustainable fisheries (proportion of within biologically sustainable levels), and marine protected areas (coverage relative to marine area). Custodian agencies, including the (FAO) for fisheries-related metrics, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC-UNESCO) for ocean health indicators, and the (UNEP) for pollution tracking, compile data from national statistical offices, satellite observations, and field surveys. Annual data aggregation occurs through the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), with methodologies refined via tier classification: Tier I indicators (e.g., fish stock sustainability) have fully established methodologies and datasets, while many SDG 14 metrics remain Tier II or III, indicating methodological gaps or insufficient country data. Key mechanisms include the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), coordinated by IOC-UNESCO, which provides essential ocean variables like temperature, salinity, and metrics through a network of buoys, satellites, and research vessels; as of 2025, GOOS observation stations expanded from 178 in 2021 to 765, enhancing real-time data on variables tied to SDG 14.3 () and 14.1 (). For fisheries, FAO's State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) biennial reports assess indicator 14.4.1 using stock assessments from regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs), revealing that approximately 35% of global were overfished in 2022, with data coverage improving but still limited to about 60% of stocks due to underreporting in developing regions. Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) submitted by member states to the UN High-level Political Forum supplement global data, though coverage for SDG 14 indicators averages below 50% across countries, highlighting persistent gaps in low-income coastal nations.
IndicatorDescriptionCustodian AgencyData Challenges (as of 2025)
14.1.1Index of coastal and floating debris densityUNEPLimited monitoring stations; proxy data from models used in 70% of countries
14.3.1Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stationsIOC-UNESCOSparse global coverage; only 20% of required stations operational pre-2025 expansion
14.4.1Proportion of within biologically sustainable levelsFAOIncomplete assessments for small-scale fisheries; data lags of 2-3 years
14.5.1Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areasUNEP-WCMCReporting inconsistencies; excludes many informal protections
The 2025 Sustainable Development Goals Report notes that while data availability for SDG 14 improved marginally, with 40% of indicators now having sufficient global coverage compared to 25% in 2015, empirical progress remains stalled: marine pollution has not significantly declined, fish stock sustainability hovers at pre-2015 levels, and only 8% of oceans are effectively protected despite target aspirations. These mechanisms emphasize empirical metrics over narrative assessments, but critics, including reports from the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data, argue that overreliance on self-reported national data introduces inconsistencies, with verification limited by resource constraints in international bodies. Independent audits, such as those by the Ocean Panel, corroborate UN findings but underscore underestimation of illegal fishing impacts due to satellite and vessel tracking gaps covering less than 50% of high-seas activity.

Advances and Shortfalls by 2025

By 2025, progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 14 remained limited, with most targets off track according to assessments, as , , and habitat degradation persisted amid inadequate global action. The 2025 deadline for significantly reducing under target 14.1 saw no substantial decline in land-based contaminants, including plastics and nutrients, which continued to threaten ecosystems and . Target 14.5, aiming for conservation of at least 10 percent of coastal and marine areas by 2020, achieved only 8.4 percent coverage by 2024, falling short despite incremental expansions in protected zones. Efforts to regulate under target 14.4 faced ongoing challenges, with global fish stock declining due to illegal, unreported, and unregulated practices, exacerbating pressure on . On fisheries subsidies (target 14.6), the World Trade Organization's agreement, intended to curb harmful incentives by 2020, neared full implementation in 2025 after ratification by over 100 members, entering into force in September following sufficient acceptances, marking a key advance in addressing overcapacity. However, (target 14.3) intensified, with average marine pH dropping approximately 0.1 units since pre-industrial levels—equivalent to a 30 percent acidity increase—driven primarily by anthropogenic CO2 absorption, with minimal mitigation achieved. Additional shortfalls included limited ratification of complementary measures, such as marine spatial planning adopted by fewer than one-quarter of countries, hindering ecosystem resilience under target 14.2. While 65 percent of coastal states had joined the Agreement on Port State Measures by early 2025 to combat illegal fishing, enforcement gaps and insufficient funding perpetuated shortfalls across and , which scored averagely low on SDG 14 indicators.

Implementation Strategies

International Agreements and Policies

The Convention on the (UNCLOS), adopted on December 10, 1982, and entered into force on November 16, 1994, serves as the foundational international legal framework for ocean governance, encompassing provisions for conservation and sustainable use of that underpin SDG 14. UNCLOS integrates social, economic, and environmental dimensions of , including requirements for states to protect and preserve the marine environment, prevent , and manage living resources responsibly, directly supporting SDG 14.c's mandate to implement and enforce international sea law. As of 2025, 169 states and the are parties to UNCLOS, though enforcement varies due to jurisdictional disputes and capacity limitations in developing nations. The Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, adopted by (WTO) members on June 17, 2022, and entering into force on September 15, 2025, prohibits subsidies contributing to overcapacity, , and illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) , addressing SDG 14.6's target to eliminate such harmful practices by 2020 (extended via negotiations). This binding accord, ratified by over two-thirds of WTO members by mid-2025, aims to reduce global fisheries subsidies estimated at $22 billion annually in harmful forms, though critics note its incompleteness in curbing all overcapacity subsidies without complementary domestic reforms. The Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate IUU Fishing (PSMA), adopted in 2009 and entered into force on June 5, 2016, represents the first globally binding instrument targeting IUU fishing, with 102 states parties as of 2023, enhancing port inspections and denials to disrupt illicit operations linked to SDG 14.4's aim to end destructive fishing practices. Complementing this, the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement, or High Seas Treaty, adopted on June 19, 2023, and entering into force on January 15, 2026, following its 60th ratification on September 19, 2025, establishes mechanisms for marine protected areas, environmental impact assessments, and benefit-sharing from marine genetic resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction, covering 64% of the ocean and advancing SDG 14.5's conservation targets. International policies supporting these agreements include the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, adopted in 1995 as a non-binding voluntary framework guiding sustainable practices, and UN Ocean Conferences, such as the 2025 Nice summit, which accelerate SDG 14 implementation through voluntary commitments on pollution reduction and ecosystem protection, though progress remains hampered by inconsistent national adherence. These instruments collectively emphasize multilateral cooperation, yet empirical assessments indicate gaps in and , with only partial coverage of high-seas threats despite formal adoption.

National and Regional Efforts

The European Union has implemented the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC), which requires member states to achieve or maintain good environmental status in marine waters by 2020, aligning with SDG 14 targets on ecosystem protection and pollution reduction. This framework mandates assessments, monitoring, and programs of measures for regional seas, with progress reported every six years; by 2021, eutrophication monitoring under the directive showed varying improvements in Baltic and North Seas, though full status achievement lagged in some areas. The EU's Common Fisheries Policy complements these efforts by regulating sustainable harvesting, aiming to end overfishing consistent with maximum sustainable yield by 2020, though enforcement challenges persist. Norway exemplifies national commitments through stringent , where total allowable catches are set scientifically to prevent , contributing to SDG 14.4 on regulating harvesting. In 2024, 's aid emphasized sustainable and conservation, with over 40% of its under management plans that integrate SDG 14 principles. The country leads the High-Level Panel for a Sustainable Economy, promoting policy reforms in partner nations to align with health targets. Australia has expanded marine protected areas to cover approximately 44% of its 7.4 million square kilometers of marine and coastal zones, surpassing global averages and supporting SDG 14.5 conservation targets. Efforts include the Authority's zoning and restoration initiatives, which address and ; however, a 2023 review indicated ongoing threats from climate impacts despite investments exceeding AUD 1 billion since 2018. In the Pacific Islands region, the promotes integrated ocean management via the 2004 Regional Ocean Policy, fostering marine protected areas and sustainable resource use among member states. Countries like and have designated vast no-take zones, such as Palau's 80% national marine sanctuary established in 2009, aiding fish stock recovery and aligning with SDG 14 targets; by 2025, regional commitments secured USD 37.5 million for expanded protections. These initiatives emphasize community-based enforcement to counter illegal , though capacity constraints limit scalability.

Economic Dimensions

Fisheries Subsidies and Overfishing

Fisheries subsidies consist of financial transfers to the sector, including rebates, vessel grants, and income support, totaling approximately $35 billion annually worldwide as of recent estimates. Of this, around $22 billion qualifies as harmful, primarily by enhancing fishing capacity through reduced operational costs or expanded fleet capabilities, which incentivize excessive harvesting beyond sustainable levels. These capacity-enhancing subsidies distort market signals, allowing fleets to pursue diminishing stocks longer than economically rational without them, thereby contributing to overcapacity where global fishing effort exceeds biological renewal rates. Empirical analyses link such subsidies directly to stock depletion, particularly in jurisdictions lacking stringent regimes; for instance, econometric models show that subsidies correlate with reduced in unmanaged fisheries by artificially inflating profitability and effort. Over one-third of assessed global are overfished, with the proportion of sustainably fished stocks falling from 90% in 1974 to 62.3% by 2021, a trend exacerbated by subsidies that sustain uneconomic operations on depleted resources. In high-seas and foreign waters, 20-37% of harmful subsidies fuel distant-water fleets from wealthier nations, imposing externalities on developing coastal states through transboundary stock reductions without compensatory benefits. Under Sustainable Development Goal 14, Target 14.6 explicitly calls for prohibiting subsidies contributing to overcapacity and by 2020, a deadline unmet due to delays but advanced by the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, which entered into force on , 2025. This "Fish 1" accord bans subsidies for , as well as those targeting overfished stocks absent rebuilding plans, applying to WTO members and covering about 90% of global subsidies. However, it defers disciplines on broader overcapacity subsidies—estimated at the core of the $22 billion harmful total—leaving Phase 2 negotiations stalled amid disputes over special treatment for developing countries and enforcement mechanisms. Critics from economic analyses argue that partial reforms risk minimal impact without addressing fuel and capital subsidies, which comprise over 60% of harmful flows and perpetuate a "race to fish" dynamic, while proponents note early notifications of prohibited subsidies indicate compliance pressures. Reforming subsidies could yield net economic gains by redirecting funds to or recovery, with models projecting up to 12% increases in global catch values through reduced incentives; yet, entrenched interests in major subsidizing nations like , the , and —accounting for over 70% of harmful transfers—pose implementation barriers. Small-scale fisheries, often unsubsidized and reliant on local stocks, suffer disproportionately from large-fleet enabled by these policies, underscoring causal inequities in resource access.

Resource Extraction and Benefits

Offshore and gas extraction constitutes a primary form of marine resource utilization, accounting for approximately 37% of global production and 28% of production as of assessments in the early . This activity generates significant economic benefits, including contributions to global energy supply, with offshore fields providing roughly 30% of total extraction worldwide. Revenues from these operations support national budgets in resource-rich coastal states, funding and services; for instance, U.S. federal offshore production in the alone yielded about 15% of the nation's crude output in 2022, bolstering and export capabilities. Deep-sea mining for polymetallic nodules, sulfides, and cobalt-rich crusts represents an emerging extraction frontier, targeting minerals essential for batteries, electronics, and infrastructure. Potential economic advantages include access to high-grade deposits that could reduce reliance on terrestrial mining, with global seabed mineral resources estimated to hold values exceeding $20 trillion in critical materials like , , and rare earths. Proponents highlight benefits such as lower environmental footprints per unit extracted compared to land-based operations—no land disruption or resettlement—and prospective royalties for developing nations via the framework, potentially generating billions in shared revenues if commercialized. However, as of 2025, no large-scale commercial deep-sea mining has occurred, limiting realized benefits to investments and technological advancements in subsea . These extraction activities contribute to the broader ocean economy, valued at $2.6 trillion in globally in 2020, with hydrocarbons and prospective minerals enhancing trade, employment (millions of jobs in offshore sectors), and for energy transitions. In the context of SDG 14, benefits accrue through regulated sustainable use, though non-renewable nature imposes limits on long-term viability without reinvestment in conservation.

Challenges and Barriers

Enforcement and Capacity Issues

Enforcement of Sustainable Development Goal 14 targets remains severely constrained by the immense scale of ocean areas under , jurisdictional ambiguities on the high seas, and insufficient capabilities. Marine protected areas, intended as key instruments for conservation, cover about 8.2 percent of global ocean waters as of recent assessments, yet effective enforcement applies to only 2.9 percent, allowing continued exploitation through illegal activities. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing exemplifies these failures, undermining by evading international agreements and depleting stocks, with operations often shielded by flags of convenience and distant water fleets. Capacity deficits compound enforcement shortcomings, particularly in developing nations reliant on marine resources but lacking technical expertise, monitoring technologies, and institutional frameworks. Global progress on SDG 14 exhibits marked unevenness attributable to disparities in resources, governance structures, and technical capacities, impeding implementation of targets like scientific knowledge enhancement and marine technology transfer under indicator 14.c.1. For example, assessments reveal persistent shortfalls in capacity development for marine protected area management, where inadequate staffing, funding, and data systems result in poor compliance and biodiversity outcomes. Even in advanced contexts, enforcement lags; the U.S. , tasked with patrolling exclusive economic zones, met only half its targets for foreign illegal fishing vessels in 2023-2024, highlighting systemic gaps in patrol resources and intelligence sharing. These issues persist despite international commitments, as SDG 14 receives minimal dedicated financing compared to other goals, limiting investments in vessel tracking systems, satellite monitoring, and regional essential for scalable . Without addressing these root capacities—such as personnel and harmonizing legal frameworks—ocean conservation efforts risk remaining aspirational rather than operational.

Socioeconomic Trade-offs

Implementing measures to achieve SDG 14, such as establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) and curbing , frequently entails short-term economic disruptions for coastal communities reliant on for income and nutrition, particularly in developing nations where these sectors underpin local livelihoods. In 87% of assessed countries, fishers' incomes fall below the line of USD 1.90 per person per day, rendering restrictions on access to fishing grounds a direct threat to household stability without compensatory mechanisms like alternative employment or subsidies reform. These trade-offs pit ecological restoration against immediate human welfare, as depleted stocks from already erode earnings, yet enforcement of quotas or no-take zones can displace artisanal fishers who lack capital for diversification into or . Fisheries subsidies exemplify a core tension: while USD 35 billion annually in harmful subsidies globally fuel overcapacity and —disproportionately burdening poorer nations through depleted shared stocks—phasing them out risks exacerbating in small-scale sectors that receive up to 22% of such support for fuel and vessel maintenance. The 2022 WTO agreement prohibited subsidies for but exempted many provisions, highlighting how uniform reforms overlook capacity gaps; for instance, in , subsidies often serve as de facto poverty alleviation amid limited alternative economic options. Empirical analyses indicate that ending (SDG 14.4) and harmful subsidies (SDG 14.6) generates few synergies but notable trade-offs with (SDG 1) and zero (SDG 2), as short-term revenue losses from reduced catches can exceed long-term gains unless paired with targeted aid. MPAs, aimed at fulfilling SDG 14.5's 10% target by 2025, impose upfront costs including forgone —estimated at 10-20% of adjacent value in initial years—while promising spillover benefits like enhanced and catches over decades. In tropical ecosystems, such as the northern , optimizing MPA placement involves balancing gains against socioeconomic objectives, where poorly sited reserves amplify inequities by sidelining indigenous or low-income users without equitable benefit-sharing. Studies across 34 countries reveal net economic upsides from MPAs via and fisheries recovery, yet these accrue unevenly, often favoring larger operators over subsistence fishers in regions like and , where fisheries contribute 1-5% of GDP. Developing economies, increasingly dominant in the ocean-based GDP at over 50% globally, face amplified risks from such policies without technical assistance, as overfished stocks already yield 37.7% rates, constraining escape routes. These dynamics underscore causal linkages where conservation prioritizes future services over present extraction, potentially widening inequalities unless integrated with SDG 14.7's focus on boosting benefits for and through sustainable resource use. For example, distant-water fleets from wealthy nations, subsidized to access foreign waters, undermine local economies in and the Pacific, where illegal losses equate to 20-30% of potential revenue, compounding trade-offs from domestic regulations. Comprehensive assessments reveal that while aggregate global fishery values could rise 40% with reduced effort, localized socioeconomic modeling is essential to mitigate displacement effects on vulnerable groups.

Criticisms and Alternatives

Evidence of Ineffectiveness

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14), adopted in 2015, aims to conserve and sustainably use oceans and marine resources, yet empirical assessments indicate widespread failure to meet its targets a decade later. As of 2022, two-thirds of the world's 152 coastal states (107 countries) had achieved none of the four SDG 14 targets due by 2020, including reductions in marine pollution, sustainable fishing, marine ecosystem protection, and elimination of harmful fisheries subsidies. Global progress remains stalled or reversing, with SDG 14 identified as the least funded among all SDGs, contributing to insufficient investment and enforcement in developing nations. The UN's 2025 Sustainable Development Goals Report notes that only 35% of all SDG targets are on track, with ocean-related indicators particularly lagging due to persistent overfishing, pollution, and climate impacts. Target 14.4, seeking to end overfishing and restore by 2020, exemplifies this ineffectiveness, as 35.5% of assessed global were overfished in 2022, with production-weighted figures showing even higher unsustainability at 22.8% overexploited. The (FAO) assesses that current trends make SDG 14's fisheries goals unattainable by 2030 without radical management reforms, as overfished stocks have not declined since 2015 and remain driven by . No country has fully achieved sustainable fishing under SDG 14 criteria, with even high-compliance regions like showing partial failures. Marine pollution under Target 14.1 has intensified rather than abated, with over 17 million metric tons of waste entering in 2021 alone, projected to double or triple by 2040 amid rising global production. Cumulative accumulation reached an estimated 75 to 199 million tons by 2025, underscoring ineffective controls despite international pledges. Target 14.5's goal of protecting 10% of coastal and marine areas by 2020 was missed globally, with only 8.4% covered as of May 2024 across 18,200 sites, and most countries falling short due to inadequate enforcement. (Target 14.3) persists unabated, with surface pH declining to an average of 8.1 by 2025—a 0.11-unit drop since pre-industrial levels equivalent to a 30-40% increase in acidity—exacerbated by ongoing CO2 absorption without reversing the trend. These outcomes reflect systemic barriers, including weak and gaps, rendering SDG 14's framework insufficient against underlying economic incentives for exploitation.

Market-Oriented and Innovative Solutions

Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) allocate fishermen tradable shares of a scientifically determined total allowable catch, creating property-like rights that align private incentives with long-term stock sustainability by penalizing overharvesting through quota costs. Implemented in since 1986 for 26 key , ITQs reduced fleet overcapacity, boosted , and supported stock recovery by enabling quota markets that reward efficient operators. In Iceland's , the system's adoption from the 1990s onward increased industry productivity by over 20% and enhanced economic viability through quota trading that consolidated operations among viable vessels. Empirical analyses across ITQ-adopting fisheries, including in the U.S. and , demonstrate average profitability gains of 10-30% post-implementation, alongside reduced discards and , though benefits accrue disproportionately to larger quota holders, potentially concentrating ownership. Despite these gains, ITQ efficacy hinges on robust enforcement and initial quota allocations; failures in contexts like China's fisheries underscore risks from weak monitoring and , where local undermined quota integrity. Aquaculture innovations driven by private investment offer scalable alternatives to wild capture, emphasizing closed systems that minimize environmental externalities like escaped or discharge. Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), which recycle water and control inputs, have enabled market expansion in like , with global production reaching 94.4 million tonnes in 2022 and projected to grow at 5.1% annually to USD 417.8 billion by 2030, supplementing declining wild stocks without equivalent habitat pressure. Alternative feeds from plant-based or insect proteins, developed by firms like , reduce reliance on overfished forage , cutting feed conversion ratios by up to 15% in trials while maintaining nutritional profiles. These technologies thrive in competitive markets, where certification schemes like the Aquaculture Stewardship Council incentivize premium pricing for verified sustainable practices, though scalability challenges persist in developing regions due to high upfront costs exceeding USD 10 million per facility. The blue economy framework harnesses private capital for tech innovations, including AI-driven monitoring for illegal and biotech for degradation, with venture in startups surpassing USD 3 billion annually by 2024. and carbon credits for monetize ecosystem services, as in ' 2018 that protected 30% of its EEZ while generating returns via and fisheries yields. Such instruments channel market signals toward conservation, evidenced by a 25% rise in financing from private sources between 2020 and 2025, though returns remain volatile without standardized verification to prevent greenwashing. Overall, these approaches prioritize economic incentives over top-down regulation, yielding measurable recoveries in quota-managed stocks—such as New Zealand's hoki fishery rebounding from 20% to over 50% of unfished by 2010—but require complementary enforcement to counter free-rider problems in transboundary waters.

Interconnections and Impacts

Sustainable Development Goal 14 interconnects with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) through sustainable , which ensures the availability of marine protein sources critical for in coastal and communities, where supplies up to 20% of global animal protein consumption. Healthy marine ecosystems under SDG 14 also support SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by reducing exposure to pollutants in and maintaining for pharmaceutical resources derived from marine organisms. Progress toward SDG 14 synergizes with SDG 13 (), as intact ocean ecosystems enhance and resilience to sea-level rise, with oceans absorbing over 90% of excess heat from global warming; degradation from or diminishes this capacity, exacerbating climate impacts. SDG 14 links to SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) via reductions in nutrient runoff and plastic waste from land, which cause marine dead zones and affecting an estimated 245,000 square kilometers of area as of 2020. Marine protected areas and sustainable practices in SDG 14 contribute to SDG 15 (Life on Land) by preserving coastal habitats like mangroves and seagrasses that buffer terrestrial ecosystems against erosion and storms, covering about 18% of continental shelves globally. Economic benefits from a "blue economy," including tourism and aquaculture, align SDG 14 with SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), potentially generating $2.5 trillion in annual value by 2030 if sustainably managed, though overexploitation risks trade-offs in employment stability. These linkages extend to SDG 1 (No ) and SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) through fisheries livelihoods supporting 3 billion people and offshore like reducing reliance on fossil fuels, respectively; however, inequities in access to can create trade-offs without integrated planning such as marine spatial planning to equitably distribute benefits.

Long-Term Human and Ecological Outcomes

Long-term ecological outcomes of SDG 14 initiatives hinge on the efficacy of measures like expanding marine protected areas (MPAs) and curbing , yet empirical evidence indicates limited success in reversing . As of 2024, only about one-third of MPAs worldwide demonstrate effective conservation, primarily due to inadequate and , which undermines their potential to safeguard habitats and species over decades. While well-managed MPAs have shown capacity to enhance local and abate fishing pressures, global scaling remains insufficient, with projections suggesting persistent declines in and resilience absent stronger interventions. and warming, partially addressed under SDG 14 but exacerbated by broader emissions, pose existential threats that could override conservation gains, potentially leading to widespread habitat degradation by mid-century if unmitigated. For human outcomes, achieving SDG 14 targets could stabilize as a protein source for over 3 billion people reliant on , fostering long-term and economic stability in coastal communities through sustainable fisheries yielding up to 20% higher catches via reformed management. However, current trajectories reveal risks of fishery collapses, with projected to intensify without reforms, threatening livelihoods for 60 million people in the sector and amplifying in developing nations. Trade-offs arise from restrictive policies, potentially displacing artisanal fishers and heightening socioeconomic vulnerabilities, as evidenced by reduced household provisioning in areas with stringent access controls. Overall, SDG 14's framework offers pathways for resilient blue economies, but with only 2% of countries on track for ocean health targets, long-term prospects favor continued ecological strain and human dependency on dwindling resources unless enforcement and innovation supplant aspirational goals. Integrated modeling underscores that partial successes in reduction and may yield marginal rebounds, yet systemic failures in fisheries could precipitate cascading effects on global nutrition and coastal GDP contributions exceeding $2.5 trillion annually.

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