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Ten thousand years
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese萬歲
Simplified Chinese万岁
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinwànsuì
Bopomofoㄨㄢˋ ㄙㄨㄟˋ
Gwoyeu Romatzyhwannsuey
Wade–Gileswan4-sui4
Wu
Romanizationvae去 soe去
Hakka
Romanizationvan4 soi4
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanizationmaahn seui
Jyutpingmaan6 seoi3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJbān soè
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetvạn tuế
muôn tuổi
muôn năm
Chữ Hán萬歲[1]
Chữ Nôm𨷈𣦮[1]
𨷈𢆥[1]
Korean name
Hangul만세
Hanja萬歲
Transcriptions
Revised Romanizationmanse
Japanese name
Hiraganaばんざい
Kyūjitai萬歲
Shinjitai万歳
Transcriptions
Revised Hepburnbanzai

In various East Asian languages such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, the phrase wànsuì, banzai, manse, and vạn tuế, respectively, meaning myriad years is used to wish long life, and is typically translated as "long live" in English. The phrase originated in ancient China as an expression used to wish long life to the emperor. Due to the historical political and cultural influence of Chinese culture on the East Asian cultural sphere, in the area, and in particular of the Classical Chinese language, cognates with similar meanings and usage patterns have appeared in many East Asian languages and Vietnamese. In some countries, this phrase is mundanely used when expressing feeling of triumph, typically shouted by crowds.

China

[edit]
Mount Song, the location where the phrase "Ten thousand years" was coined

In Chinese, ten thousand or "myriad" is the largest numerical order of magnitude in common usage, and is used ubiquitously as a synonym for "indefinitely large number". The term wansui (萬歲), literally meaning "ten thousand years", is thus used to describe a very long life, or even immortality for a person.

Although the First Emperor of Qin also wished "ten thousand generations" (万世) for his imperial rule, the use of wansui was probably coined during Han dynasty. In 110 BC, Emperor Wu of Han was addressed by the phrase "Wansui" during a heaven ritual on Mount Song. According to legend, Mount Song itself called out the phrase to address the emperor. During the Tang dynasty, it came to be used exclusively to address the emperor as a prayer for his long life and reign. Then, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, its use was temporarily extended to include certain higher-ranking members of the imperial court,[2] but this tradition was relatively short-lived: in later imperial history, using it to address someone other than the emperor was considered an act of sedition and was consequently highly dangerous. During certain reigns of weak emperors, powerful eunuchs such as Liu Jin and Wei Zhongxian circumvented this restriction by styling themselves with jiǔ qiān suì (九千歲, literally "9,000 years") so as to display their high positions, which were close to or even exceeded the emperor's, while still remaining reverent to the title of the emperor.

Traditionally, empresses consort and empresses dowager were addressed with "thousand years" (千歲) rather than "ten thousand years", which was reserved for the emperor exclusively. However, Empress Dowager Cixi, the de facto supreme ruler of China from 1861 to 1908, was addressed with "ten thousand years". Several photographs of her[3] show a banner on her litter reading "The Incumbent Holy Mother, the Empress Dowager of the Great Qing, [may she live and reign for] ten thousand years, ten thousand years, ten thousand of ten thousand years" (大清國當今聖母皇太后萬歲萬歲萬萬歲). The Emperor was addressed by the title "Lord of Ten Thousand Years" (simplified Chinese: 万岁爷; traditional Chinese: 萬歲爺; pinyin: Wànsuìyé).[4][5]

Usage

[edit]
A late-1960s era bridge on G209 Highway in Shennongjia, Hubei, with the inscription "伟大的领袖毛主席万岁" (Long live the great leader Chairman Mao!)

Classically, the phrase wansui is repeated multiple times following a person's name or title. For example, in ancient China, the Emperor would be addressed with (Chinese: 吾皇萬歲，萬歲，萬萬歲; pinyin: Wú huáng wànsuì, wànsuì, wànwànsuì; lit. '[May] my Emperor [live and reign for] ten thousand years', 'ten thousand years', 'ten thousand of ten thousand years'). The foregoing phrase is best known to modern Chinese through televised films, but is not historically accurate; in the Ming dynasty, the only occasion during which 萬歲 is used is the great court, which was held one to three times a year.[6] Approaching the end of the ceremony, the attending officials will be asked to shout 萬歲 three times.

The significance of "ten thousand" in this context is that "ten thousand" in Chinese and many other East Asian languages represents the largest discrete unit in the counting system, in a manner analogous to "thousand" in English.[citation needed] Thus 100,000 in Chinese is expressed as 10 ten-thousands; similarly, whereas a million is "a thousand thousands" in Western languages, the Chinese word for it is bǎiwàn (simplified Chinese: 百万; traditional Chinese: 百萬), which literally means "hundred ten-thousands". Because of this, Chinese people often use wàn in a manner analogous to "thousand" – whereas an English speaker might exclaim "there are thousands of ants on the ground", the Chinese speaker would substitute it with "ten thousand" in the description. So in the context of wànsuì, a literally incorrect but culturally appropriate translation might be, "may you live for thousands of years". The number simply denotes innumerability, in a manner etymologically similar to the Greek myriad (although the current usage of that word differs).

During the Qing, at the entrances of mosques in China, a tablet was placed upon which the characters for Huangdi, wansui, wansui, wanwansui (皇帝萬歲，萬歲，萬萬歲) were inscribed, which means, "The Emperor, may he live ten thousand years". Westerners traveling in China noted the presence of these tablets at mosques in Yunnan and Ningbo.[7][8]

Modern use

[edit]

During the Battle of Sihang Warehouse in 1937 during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Chinese civilians cheered "Zhōnghuá Mínguó wànsuì!" (Chinese: 中華民國萬歲！; lit. 'Long live the Republic of China!') after raising the Flag of the Republic of China on a flag-raising ceremony, to celebrate their victory over the Japanese.[9]

In August 1945, after Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the defeat of Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War, the people exclaimed "Jiǎng, Zhōngguó, wànsuì, wànwànsuì!" (蔣、中國、萬歲、萬萬歲！), which means, "Chiang, China, [may he/China] live ten thousand years, [may he/China] live for myriads upon myriads of years!".[10]

The two slogans that contain the term wànsuì ("Long live the People's Republic of China!", and "Long live the solidarity of the peoples of the world!") on the Tiananmen gatehouse in Beijing

One of the most conspicuous uses of the phrase is at the Tiananmen gate in Beijing, where large placards are affixed to the gatehouse reading "中华人民共和国万岁"; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó wànsuì; lit. '[may the] People's Republic of China [last for] ten thousand years') and "世界人民大团结万岁"; pinyin: Shìjiè rénmín dàtuánjié wànsuì; lit. '[may] the Great Unity of the world's people [last for] ten thousand years').

During the Cultural Revolution, the saying 毛主席万岁 (pinyin: Máo Zhǔxí Wànsuì; lit. '[may] Chairman Mao [live for] ten thousand years!') was also common. After Mao's death, the phrase has never been used for any individual. Apart from these special cases, the phrase is almost never used in political slogans today. In casual conversation, however, the phrase is used simply as an exclamation of joy. For example, CCTV commentator Huang Jianxiang shouted "Yìdàlì wànsuì" (simplified Chinese: 意大利万岁; traditional Chinese: 義大利萬歲; lit. 'Italy ten thousand years!'; translated as "Forza Italia!" by some media) after Francesco Totti’s goal during Italy’s match against Australia in the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Taiwan-based singer Leehom Wang's 2007 album Change Me contains a song called "華人萬歲" (Húarén Wànsùi; 'Long Live Chinese People').

Within the Republic of China, shouting the phrase 中華民國萬歲; pinyin: Zhōnghuá mínguó wànsuì!; lit. '[may] the Republic of China [live for] ten thousand years!', translated as Long Live the Republic of China!) has been the final act ending presidential speeches on the National Day of the Republic of China, a tradition which was broken in 2016. It has been combined in recent years with another saying, 台灣民主萬歲 (Táiwān mínzhǔ wànsuì; '[may] a democratic Taiwan [live for] ten thousand years!', translated as Long Live the Democratic Taiwan!) When this is said, everyone raises their right fists while standing.

In Cantonese, "ten thousand years" (萬歲) can also be a slang term for treating others to foods and drinks.[11]

Japan

[edit]
A group of Japanese soldiers during World War II shouting "banzai!" near Beijing
Banzai at dissolution of the House of Representatives (1953)

The Chinese term was introduced to Japan as banzai (Kana: ばんざい; Kanji: 万歳) as early as the 8th century, and was used to express respect for the Emperor in much the same manner as the Chinese term.

Even earlier, however, according to the Nihongi, during the reign of Empress Kōgyoku, A.D. 642, 8th Month, 1st Day:

The Emperor made a progress to the river source of Minabuchi. Here, (s)he knelt down and prayed, worshipping towards the four quarters and looking up to the Heaven. Straightway there was thunder and a great rain, which eventually fell for 5 days, and plentifully bedewed the Empire. Hereupon the peasantry throughout the Empire cried with one voice: "Banzai" and said "an Emperor of exceeding virtue".

Banzei was later revived as banzai (Kana: ばんざい) after the Meiji Restoration. Banzai as a formal ritual was established in the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889 when university students shouted banzai in front of the Emperor's carriage.[12]

Around the same time, banzai also came to be used in contexts unrelated to the Emperor. The supporters of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, for example, began to shout "Jiyū banzai" (Kanji: 自由万歳; Kana: じゆうばんざい, or, roughly, "Long Live Freedom") in 1883.

During World War II, banzai or its full form Tennōheika Banzai! (天皇陛下万歳; (Tennouheika Banzai) "Long Live His Majesty the Emperor") served as a battle cry of sorts for Japanese soldiers.[13] Ideally, kamikaze pilots would shout "banzai!" as they rammed their planes into enemy ships; although Japanese popular culture has portrayed this romanticized scene, it is unknown if any pilot actually did so. Its confirmed use by ground troops, however, was heard in numerous battles during the Pacific Campaign, when Japanese infantry units attacked Allied positions. As a result, the term "banzai charge" (or alternatively "banzai attack") gained common currency among English-speaking soldiers and remains the most widely understood context of the term in the West to this day.

Modern use

[edit]

Traditionally, "banzai" (roughly translated as "hurrah", literally translated as "ten thousand years") was an expression of enthusiasm, and crowds shouting the word three times, arms stretched out above their heads, could be considered the traditional Japanese form of applause.[14] More formally, the word is shouted three times during the dissolution of the House of Representatives, and also as an acclamation at the enthronement of the Japanese Emperor.

Korea

[edit]
North Korean propaganda sign, "Long live the great victory of Songun politics!"

The same term is pronounced manse (Korean: 만세; Hanja: 萬歲) in Korean. In Silla, it was used as a casual exclamation. It was a part of the era name of Taebong, one of the Later Three Kingdoms declared by the king Gung Ye in 911. During Joseon, Koreans used cheonse (Korean: 천세; Hanja: 千歲, "one thousand years") in deference to the Chinese emperor's ten thousand years.

In the 20th century, various protests against Japanese occupation used the term in their names, including a pro-independence newspaper established in 1906, the March 1st Movement of 1919, and the June 10th Movement of 1926.

In North Korea, manse was used to wish long life for both Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un, and for the political principles of their predecessor, Kim Il Sung. Today, the word is usually chanted whenever Kim Jong Un appeared in front of the public, accompanied by clapping. Akin to the "banzai charge" used by Japanese servicemen during the Pacific War, the Korean People's Army used Widaehan Suryŏng Kim Ilsŏng Janggun Manse! (위대한 수령 김일성장군 만세; 偉大한 首領 金日成將軍 萬歲; "Long live the Great Leader, General Kim Il-sung") as a charge mantra during the Korean War.

It is also used as a casual proclamation, commonly used as the English equivalent of "Victory."

Vietnam

[edit]
A banner at the Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum proclaiming "Ten thousand years to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam!"
A passage from 12 ngày của Ðức Bảo-Ðại tại Bắc-Kỳ showing an instance where the people shouted: "Hoàng-thượng vạn tuế, Đại-Pháp vạn tuế, Việt-Nam vạn tuế"(Long live the Emperor, Long live Great France, Long live Vietnam) to Emperor Bảo Đại.

In Vietnamese, "vạn tuế" is the phrase cognate to the Chinese wàn suì and is the Sino-Vietnamese reading of chữ Hán: 萬歲. However, this word is rarely used in the modern language, appearing instead only in Hán văn and pre-1945 related contexts (such as in "vạn tuế, vạn tuế, vạn vạn tuế"—compare to the Chinese usage, above). In other situations, "muôn năm" is used instead, and is frequently heard in communist slogans, such as "Hồ Chủ tịch Muôn năm!" (Long live President Hồ) and "Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam Quang vinh Muôn năm!" (Long live the Glorious Communist Party of Vietnam).

Muôn is the Old Sino-Vietnamese reading of the chữ Hán 萬 (Sino-Vietnamese reading: vạn).[15]

Tuổi is the Old Sino-Vietnamese reading of the chữ Hán 歲 (Sino-Vietnamese reading: tuế; largely means age in modern Vietnamese context).[16] It is derived from the pronunciation of this character in Middle Chinese.[17]

Năm is a native Vietnamese word that inherited from the Proto-Mon-Khmer language (cognates with Khmer ឆ្នាំ and Mon သၞာံ).[18]

There are many ways to write the words muôn tuổi, muôn năm in chữ Nôm, for example:

  • muôn tuổi: 萬歲, 𨷈𢆫, 𨷈歲, 𲈦歲, 門𢆫, etc.[19]
  • muôn năm: 萬年, 𨷈𢆥 (), 㥃[⿰南林], 門南, etc.[20]

See also

[edit]
Look up banzai, 萬歲, 万歳, 만세, or vạn tuế in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ten thousand years

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
"Ten thousand years" (Chinese: 萬歲; pinyin: wànsuì) is a traditional acclamation in East Asian cultures, originating in ancient China as an expression wishing extreme longevity or perpetual sovereignty to emperors and rulers, literally denoting "ten thousand years" to symbolize immortality or unending reign. Prior to the (221–206 BCE), the phrase was employed by commoners to voice exuberance or celebration, but it evolved into a formalized imperial , with subjects ritually proclaiming wànsuì—often thrice—upon encountering the in or opera depictions, underscoring hierarchical and divine-like endurance. The expression disseminated across the region, manifesting as banzai (万歳) in for cheering the or national causes, manse (만세) in Korea for toasts or independence cries, and analogous forms in , reflecting shared Sinospheric reverence for as a proxy for stability and . In contemporary usage, it persists in patriotic contexts, such as rallies invoking for the state or leaders, though stripped of feudal connotations, while retaining its hyperbolic essence unbound by literal chronology.

Origins and Etymology

Linguistic Roots in Chinese

The phrase wàn suì (万岁), rendered in English as "ten thousand years," derives from classical Chinese where wàn (万) quantifies 10,000—the largest standard unit in ancient numerical systems—and suì (岁) denotes a year or epoch of life. This combination idiomatically conveys boundless longevity rather than a precise temporal span, reflecting a linguistic convention in pre-imperial texts where high numerals hyperbolicized vastness or perpetuity. The character wàn traces to inscriptions circa 1250–1000 BCE, initially picturing a (with a curved tail and multiple legs), later adapted via phonetic loan to represent the numeral, underscoring early Chinese script's from ideographic to logographic forms. In usage, wàn frequently dispensed with qualifiers like "one" (yī), as the bare term evoked innumerability, akin to English "myriad" for countlessness. Linguistically, wàn suì originated pre-Qin Dynasty (before 221 BCE) as a general exclamation among commoners for joy, health, or prosperity, predating its ritualized imperial connotation. By the Western Han era, around 110 BCE, officials chanted it during Emperor Wu's Mount Songshan ceremony, interpreting the acclamation as divine endorsement and formalizing its auspicious role in state rites. This shift illustrates how colloquial hyperbole integrated into official lexicon, paralleling broader patterns in classical Chinese where numerical idioms symbolized cosmic endurance over literal reckoning.

Symbolic Representation of Eternity

In ancient Chinese numerology and cosmology, the numeral wan (萬), denoting 10,000, symbolized an immense, practically boundless quantity, serving as the upper limit of everyday counting before escalating to higher orders like yi (億, 100 million). This numerical scale reflected a worldview where 10,000 evoked the incalculable expanse of the universe or time, akin to the Greek myrias for myriad, and was idiomatically extended to represent infinity or eternity rather than a literal count. The phrase wansui (萬歲), literally "ten thousand years," harnessed this symbolism to express perpetual or , transforming a hyperbolic temporal measure into a metaphysical ideal of endless duration. Employed in philosophical texts, , and acclamations, it conveyed not finite years but an unending continuum, aligning with Daoist and Confucian notions of cosmic and enduring order. For instance, wanwu (萬物), " things," denoted the totality of , implying completeness without end. This motif permeated visual and , where wan paired with symbols amplified eternal themes. The character wan often appeared alongside shou (壽, ) in motifs like wanshou wujiang (萬壽無疆, "ten thousand longevities without boundary"), inscribed on imperial porcelains and textiles to invoke boundless imperial rule or personal . Evergreens such as wannianqing (萬年青, "ten-thousand-years green") embodied perpetual vitality, their names punning on wan to signify unfading life across seasons. Similarly, artistic like a crane (he, for ) with marigold evoked heshou wannian (鶴壽萬年, "crane-longevity ten thousand years"), wishing eternal prosperity. These representations grounded abstract in tangible, auspicious forms, prioritizing empirical associations with endurance over abstract infinity symbols like the .

Historical Usage in China

Ancient Imperial Acclamations

The phrase wànsuì (萬歲), literally "ten thousand years," served as a formal acclamation in ancient Chinese imperial ceremonies, expressing wishes for the emperor's longevity and eternal rule. Originating as a general expression of joy among commoners before the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), it evolved into an exclusive imperial hail by the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), symbolizing the ruler's quasi-divine status and alignment with cosmic longevity. Subjects and officials prostrated themselves and shouted wànsuì repeatedly—typically three times—upon the emperor's appearance during court audiences, processions, and rituals, reinforcing hierarchical loyalty and the Mandate of Heaven. The earliest documented imperial use occurred in 110 BCE during Emperor Wu of Han's (r. 141–87 BCE) sacred tour of , a key site for heavenly worship, where participants addressed him with wànsuì amid rituals blending Taoist immortality pursuits and state cults. This event marked a pivotal formalization, as the emperor's quests for elixirs and eternal life intertwined with such acclamations, projecting his reign as boundless. In Han court protocol, the shout echoed in unison from assembled ministers, often amplified in grand halls or during fengshan sacrifices on sacred peaks, to invoke prosperity and avert dynastic decline. These acclamations extended beyond mere verbal formula to ritual theater, where failure to intone them correctly could signal disloyalty, as seen in Han records of enforced participation during imperial progresses. By emphasizing numerical —ten thousand years representing rather than literal lifespan—they underscored causal links between the emperor's vitality and the realm's stability, drawing from pre-imperial shamanistic traditions adapted to centralized . The practice persisted as a cornerstone of imperial symbolism, influencing later dynastic evolutions while rooting in Han-era precedents.

Evolution Through Dynasties

The phrase wansui (萬歲), denoting "ten thousand years," transitioned from a general expression of longevity in pre-imperial texts to a formalized imperial acclamation during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Initially appearing in oracle bones and early literature to invoke enduring life for elites or deities, its application to the sovereign crystallized in 110 BCE when Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE) received the call during a fengshan ritual atop Mount Tai, symbolizing heavenly mandate and dynastic perpetuity. This marked a causal shift: as centralized imperial authority consolidated post-Qin unification, wansui encoded the emperor's quasi-divine status, equating his rule to cosmic endurance, distinct from mere mortal well-wishes. In subsequent dynasties, wansui embedded deeper into court protocols, evolving into ritual choruses like "wu huang wansui, wansui, wan wansui" ("may the five emperors [or emperor] live ten thousand years, ten thousand years, ten thousand ten thousand years"), chanted upon the sovereign's entrance to affirm and dispel rivals. During the Tang (618–907 CE), it featured in diplomatic and sacrificial rites, as when ministers acclaimed Emperor Taizong (r. 626–649 CE) in foreign envoys' presence to project universal sovereignty; (r. 690–705 CE) even adopted Tiance Wansui (Heaven-Ordained Ten Thousand Years) as a reign era, blending the phrase with calendrical legitimacy. The (960–1279 CE) refined its liturgical role amid Neo-Confucian emphasis on hierarchical order, while the Ming (1368–1644 CE) integrated it into ceremonies, constructing Wansui Hill to ritually counter Yuan legacies and anchor fengshui for eternal rule—evident in officials' triple shouts at imperial accessions. This persistence reflected causal continuity: bureaucratic standardization across dynasties reinforced wansui as a tool for ideological cohesion, though its exclusivity waned slightly in fragmented interregna. By the Qing (1644–1912 CE), wansui permeated Manchu-inflected rituals, with eunuchs and servants hailing the emperor as Wansui Ye (Lord of Ten Thousand Years) in daily audiences, underscoring ethnic assimilation into Han imperial symbolism. Empirical records, such as Qing edicts and memorials, show its invocation in longevity rites for emperors like Kangxi (r. 1661–1722 CE), tying personal vitality to dynastic survival amid expansionist pressures. Across eras, the phrase's evolution prioritized evidentiary rituals over innovation, adapting minimally to sustain the Mandate of Heaven's illusion of timelessness despite cyclical collapses—evidenced by its absence in republican transitions post-1911.

Spread to East Asian Cultures

Adoption in Japan

The Japanese term banzai (万歳), a Sino-Japanese pronunciation of the for "ten thousand years," entered Japanese usage through the adoption of imperial rituals and vocabulary during the Asuka (538–710 CE) and Nara (710–794 CE) periods, when extensively imported Confucian governance, court ceremonies, and written language systems from Tang via Korea. This borrowing reflected broader efforts under emperors like Tenmu (r. 673–686 CE), who modeled the Japanese legal codes on prototypes, incorporating acclamations of to legitimize divine imperial rule. In imperial contexts, banzai evolved into a formalized cheer, typically shouted three times as "Tennō Heika Banzai!" ("May His Majesty the Emperor live ten thousand years!"), paralleling Chinese salutes to the sovereign and symbolizing aspirations for eternal dynastic continuity. Historical records, such as those in the (compiled 720 CE), document early ritualistic praises of the emperor's longevity, though explicit banzai phrasing solidified in court etiquette by the Heian period (794–1185 CE), often during New Year audiences or diplomatic receptions. Unlike in , where wansui emphasized the emperor's personal immortality, Japanese adaptations tied it more closely to notions of sumera mikoto (divine sovereign), blending imported symbolism with indigenous reverence for the Yamato lineage's unbroken descent from . By the Edo period (1603–1868 CE), banzai had permeated popular culture beyond the palace, appearing in kabuki theater and festivals as a general expression of joy or loyalty, while retaining ceremonial weight in shogunal audiences proxying imperial wishes. In the Meiji Restoration (1868 CE onward), it gained nationalist fervor, shouted at military reviews and state events to affirm the emperor's restored centrality, with documented usage peaking during Emperor Meiji's 1912 funeral procession, where crowds intoned it en masse. Post-World War II, under the 1947 Constitution's symbolic monarchy, banzai persists in non-political settings like weddings, sports victories, and the emperor's birthday (February 23), but official imperial events avoid overt acclamations to align with democratic norms, reflecting a dilution of its hierarchical origins.

Usage in Korea

In Korea, the phrase manse (萬歲), directly borrowed from the Chinese wansui, entered usage through cultural and linguistic influences from during the period and solidified in the courts of subsequent dynasties, serving as an for the sovereign's and divine mandate. It symbolized wishes for the to for ten thousand years, reflecting Confucian hierarchies and imperial rituals adapted to Korean monarchies. Historical records indicate its employment in (918–1392) and especially (1392–1910) dynasties, where courtiers, officials, and subjects shouted manse during royal processions, audiences, and ceremonies to affirm loyalty and invoke perpetual stability under the king, often in conjunction with bows or ritual genuflections. This monarchical tradition persisted until the Korean Empire's abdication in 1907 and formal end in 1910, after which manse underwent a semantic shift amid Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945). Repurposed as a cry of national resistance, it featured prominently in the March 1st Movement of 1919, where an estimated two million participants across the peninsula exclaimed Daehan manse ("Long live the Great Korean Republic") in over 1,500 demonstrations, demanding independence from and drawing on the phrase's established connotation of enduring vitality to rally against subjugation. Japanese authorities responded with brutal suppression, killing over 7,500 and arresting 46,000, yet the movement globalized Korean aspirations through petitions to the Paris Peace Conference. In the post-liberation era, manse retained ceremonial and exclamatory roles but diverged politically. In North Korea, it became integral to state ideology, with phrases like Kim Il-sung manse or Chosŏn minjujuŭi inmin konghwaguk manse ("Long live the Democratic People's Republic of Korea") chanted at mass rallies and official events since the 1948 founding, emphasizing the Kim dynasty's perpetual leadership and Juche self-reliance doctrine. In South Korea, it evolved into a general expression of triumph or solidarity, used in sports victories, protests, and celebrations—such as during the 1988 Seoul Olympics or democratic uprisings—without the imperial overtones, though occasionally invoked nostalgically in cultural contexts like historical reenactments.

Influence in Vietnam

The phrase "vạn tuế," directly derived from the Chinese "wàn suì" via the Sino-Vietnamese reading of 萬歲, was incorporated into Vietnamese court rituals during over a millennium of Chinese rule from 111 BCE to 939 CE, when imperial acclamations became part of the administrative lexicon imposed on northern Vietnam. Vietnamese dynasties post-independence, such as the Lý (1009–1225), Trần (1225–1400), and Lê (1428–1789), emulated Chinese imperial protocols, including salutes wishing the sovereign ten thousand years of reign to symbolize eternal rule. In the (1802–1945), modeled closely on Qing Chinese precedents, "vạn tuế" remained standard for hailing the emperor, as seen in public proclamations and ceremonies. For example, during Emperor 's era, crowds chanted "Hoàng-Thượng vạn tuế" alongside colonial and nationalistic phrases in 1934, reflecting blended imperial loyalty. Banners proclaiming "Hoàng đế Bảo Đại vạn tuế" appeared in celebrations as late as 1953 in liberated areas._01.png) Post-monarchy, the expression adapted to "muôn năm," a variant emphasizing myriad years, in republican and socialist contexts to invoke perpetual endurance for the nation and leaders. Following Hồ Chí Minh's on September 2, 1945, mass rallies echoed "Việt Nam muôn năm" and "Hồ Chí Minh muôn năm," repurposing the imperial salute for revolutionary fervor. This usage persists in official communist rhetoric, linking longevity to ideological continuity rather than divine .

Cultural and Symbolic Dimensions

Association with Longevity and Immortality

The phrase wansui (萬歲), translating literally to " years," embodies the aspiration for boundless in Chinese cultural and philosophical traditions, where "ten thousand" functions as a hyperbolic numeral denoting an immense, practically eternal duration rather than a precise count. This association underscores a in which human life could theoretically extend indefinitely through moral cultivation, alchemical practices, or divine favor, reflecting the empirical observation that extreme age symbolized harmony with cosmic order. In imperial contexts, courtiers invoked wansui to acclaim the emperor's perpetual , implying not mere but an immortal-like mirroring the stability of heaven and earth. Within Taoism, the pursuit of immortality (xian, 仙) explicitly linked wansui to physical transcendence, where adepts sought elixirs, meditative techniques, and herbal regimens to achieve ch'ang sheng pu ssu (long life without death), often envisioning a lifespan of ten thousand years as the threshold of godhood. Historical texts describe immortals (xianren) residing in paradises like , sustaining themselves on dew and pine needles to defy decay, with archaeological evidence from tombs (circa 206 BCE–220 CE) revealing mercury-based elixirs ingested by emperors like in 219 BCE to attain such longevity, though these pursuits frequently resulted in poisoning rather than eternal life. This causal realism—rooted in observable biological limits yet driven by first-principles reasoning about vital energies (qi)—contrasts with mere symbolic wishes, as Taoist canon like the (circa 320 CE) details graduated stages of immortality, from earthly longevers to celestial beings outlasting dynasties. Symbolic motifs reinforcing this connection include the wan character, an ancient swastika-derived form signifying "ten thousand years," frequently paired with shou (longevity) in art and inscriptions to invoke perpetual vitality, as seen in bronze vessels and porcelain from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE). Fauna such as cranes and turtles, mythologized as living ten thousand years, further embodied this ideal; for instance, the crane's reputed lifespan inspired depictions in funerary art symbolizing the soul's ascent to immortality, while turtles denoted unyielding endurance in geomantic practices. These elements, drawn from natural observations of resilient species, informed a broader cultural narrative where wansui transcended political rhetoric to represent the ultimate conquest of mortality.

Role in Mythology, Art, and Literature

In , the phrase "ten thousand years" (wàn suì) symbolizes extreme verging on , often linked to auspicious creatures like the . Ancient legends describe as living up to ten thousand years, earning the title of "spiritual turtle" (líng guī), as recounted in texts such as the by , where such beings embody enduring vitality and cosmic harmony. For instance, holds that a aiding an emperor in was rewarded with ten thousand years of life, establishing it as an emblem of strength and perpetual existence in symbolic narratives. This motif extends to other mythical elements, such as spells or curses imposing ten-thousand-year durations, as in tales where figures like shape-shifting tigers are imprisoned for that span to enforce moral retribution. Such references underscore a causal view of time in Daoist-influenced lore, where exaggerated spans represent not literal eternity but the boundless potential of natural forces, distinct from finite human lifespans documented in imperial records averaging under fifty years for rulers despite acclamations. In art, "ten thousand years" appears in traditional and ink paintings as inscriptions wishing , often paired with trees or cranes—symbols of —to evoke imperial or personal . Examples include Heian-period Japanese adaptations of Chinese styles featuring "banzai" (from wàn suì), rendered in hanging scrolls to commemorate rulers, though these prioritize aesthetic balance over narrative depth. Later works, such as 20th-century posters from the , repurposed the phrase for ideological , depicting communal prosperity enduring "ten thousand years" amid motifs, reflecting state-driven symbolism rather than mythological roots. Literature integrates "ten thousand years" as a rhetorical flourish in and historical prose, denoting aspirational permanence. poet Wang Changling's "Tower of Ten Thousand Years" (Wàn Suì Lóu) uses the term to meditate on transient glory against eternal aspirations, capturing the tension between human ambition and inexorable time. In classical anthologies like those of Han yuefu ballads, it evokes hyperbolic lifespans in oral-derived verses, emphasizing themes of resilience amid dynastic cycles. Prose histories, such as ' accounts, note its ceremonial chant—"wàn suì, wàn suì, wàn wàn suì"—in court rituals, evolving from pre-imperial cheers for to formalized emperor worship by the Qin era. Across East Asian adaptations, Korean manse and Japanese banzai echo this in literary cheers, but retain Chinese origins without unique mythological expansions.

Modern and Political Applications

Contemporary Usage in China

In contemporary China, the phrase wansui (万岁), denoting "ten thousand years," is primarily employed in official state ceremonies, political rallies, and propaganda to affirm allegiance to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the People's Republic of China (PRC), rather than individual figures, as a deliberate departure from Mao-era personal cults. This usage underscores the party's emphasis on collective endurance and ideological perpetuity, often appearing in banners, speeches, and chants during major anniversaries and congresses. For instance, at the CCP's 100th anniversary ceremony on July 1, 2021, General Secretary Xi Jinping invoked "伟大、光荣、正确的中国共产党万岁!" ("Long live the great, glorious, and correct Communist Party of China!") to conclude his address, framing the party as an eternal force in national rejuvenation. Similar invocations for the Chinese people and the PRC, such as "伟大的中国人民万岁!" ("Long live the great Chinese people!"), reinforce state narratives of unity and resilience. Such expressions feature prominently in national events, including parades and party congresses, where they are displayed on massive banners and echoed in synchronized chants by participants. During the 20th National Congress of the CCP in October 2022, delegates and attendees incorporated wansui-style acclamations alongside the , symbolizing unbroken continuity from revolutionary origins to modern governance. amplifies these through songs and broadcasts, such as revolutionary hymns proclaiming "Long live the great Communist Party of China," which remain staples in patriotic programs. In settings, like assemblies and local party oath-taking events, the phrase is recited to instill , as outlined in the CCP's propaganda directives emphasizing mass participation in ideological campaigns. This adaptation of wansui serves to legitimize the CCP's rule by evoking historical longevity while aligning with Marxist-Leninist rhetoric of perpetual struggle and victory, though critics argue it perpetuates authoritarian symbolism amid suppressed dissent. Academic analyses of populist discourse in Xi-era speeches highlight its role in blurring boundaries between leader, party, and masses, positioning the CCP as an immortal entity guiding China's rise. Usage peaked around milestone events, such as the 2021 centenary, but persists in routine state functions, with no official endorsement for personal veneration since post-Mao reforms curbed excesses like widespread "Mao wansui" chants.

Applications in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam

In , the phrase banzai (万歳), translating to "ten thousand years," evolved into a political and ceremonial shout during the onward, symbolizing imperial loyalty and national vigor. It gained prominence in 1889 with the promulgation of the , where assembled crowds thrice shouted banzai to acclaim the emperor's role in modernizing the state. During the early 20th century and , Tennōheika banzai ("Long live the Emperor") became a staple in assaults, known as banzai charges, where soldiers advanced en masse under , often as a final expression of devotion amid hopeless defenses, such as the 1944 Saipan offensive involving thousands. Post-1945, under the U.S.-imposed renouncing , overt political uses declined due to associations with wartime fanaticism; however, subdued banzai cheers persist in imperial events, like the 2019 enthronement of Emperor Naruhito, where select groups voiced support for continuity of the . In Korea, manse (만세) transitioned from imperial acclamations to modern nationalist and regime-affirming chants. The term featured prominently in the 1919 March First Movement, where over two million participants across 400 demonstrations cried "Daehan manse" ("Long live Korea") to demand from Japanese colonial rule, sparking global awareness and influencing post-liberation politics. In , manse serves as an official eulogy for the Kim dynasty; state media mandates chants like "Kim Il-sung manse" at rallies and anniversaries, reinforcing the "Ten Thousand Years" ideology of eternal leadership, with Kim Il-sung's 1994 death notwithstanding continued usage for his deified status. repurposed manse for democratic struggles, including the 1980 against military dictatorship, where protesters thrice shouted it before advancing, and contemporary events like Independence Movement Day commemorations, evoking anti-authoritarian resilience without monarchical overtones. Vietnam adopted vạn tuế (萬歲) via Sinic influence, applying it politically in the 20th-century independence era. During the of 1945, Viet Minh-led crowds in and beyond proclaimed "Việt Nam độc lập vạn tuế" ("Long live independent ") on , coinciding with Ho Chi Minh's declaration, mobilizing mass support against French and Japanese holdovers. In the Democratic Republic of and unified state, the phrase underscores national longevity in official discourse, chanted at party congresses and Ho Chi Minh's mausoleum ceremonies to affirm socialist continuity, though less personalized to leaders post-1975 reunification compared to North Korean precedents.

Global and Historical Misinterpretations

The invocation of wansui (ten thousand years) for Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), as in the widespread chant "Long live Chairman Mao for ten thousand years" (Mao zhuxi wansui), represented a historical repurposing of an imperial-era acclamation traditionally reserved for the emperor's longevity into a tool for mass mobilization and leader veneration. This adaptation, peaking in 1968–1969 with printed collections like Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live Mao Zedong Thought), contradicted communist tenets against feudal remnants and personality cults, prompting internal critiques that it revived emperor-like deification under a proletarian guise. Following Mao's death on September 9, 1976, the practice of personalized wansui cheers for individual leaders was swiftly banned, reflecting recognition of its role in exacerbating ideological inconsistencies and political excesses. In Japan, the cognate term banzai (ten thousand years), originally an auspicious cheer for the emperor's enduring reign akin to imperial Chinese usage, underwent global misinterpretation through its association with World War II "banzai charges." Western military accounts and postwar narratives often depicted these as orchestrated suicidal assaults emblematic of irrational fanaticism and blind obedience, yet primary analyses reveal them primarily as desperate, improvised counterattacks by depleted units facing ammunition shortages and encirclement, such as on Guadalcanal in February 1943 or Saipan in July 1944, rather than ideologically driven self-immolation. This framing overlooked the phrase's deeper cultural roots in expressing resolve and communal solidarity, reducing a hyperbolic longevity wish to a symbol of militaristic pathology. Broader historical misconceptions extend to equating East Asian wansui-derived cheers with divine absolutism, as seen in 17th–18th-century European Jesuit debates over Chinese rites, where critics misinterpreted acclamations as idolatrous despite Emperor Kangxi's clarification that wansui signified mere well-wishes for extended human lifespan, not . Such views, amplified in Orientalist , portrayed the phrase as evidence of timeless , disregarding its figurative rooted in ancient cosmological optimism rather than literal .

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