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Titanium carbide
Titanium carbide
Titanium carbide
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Titanium carbide
Names
IUPAC name
titanium carbide
Other names
titanium(IV) carbide
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.031.916 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 235-120-4
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C.Ti
    Key: CYKMNKXPYXUVPR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • [C].[Ti]
Properties
TiC
Molar mass 59.878 g·mol−1
Appearance black crystalline powder
Density 4.93 g/cm3
Melting point 3,160 °C (5,720 °F; 3,430 K)
Boiling point 4,820 °C (8,710 °F; 5,090 K)
Insoluble
+8.0·10−6 cm3/mol
Structure
Cubic, cF8
Fm3m, No. 225
Octahedral
Related compounds
Related compounds
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Titanium carbide, TiC, is an extremely hard (Mohs 9–9.5) refractory ceramic material, similar to tungsten carbide. It has the appearance of black powder with the sodium chloride (face-centered cubic) crystal structure.

It occurs in nature as a form of the very rare mineral khamrabaevite [uz] (Russian: Хамрабаевит) - (Ti,V,Fe)C. It was discovered in 1984 on Mount Arashan in the Chatkal District,[1] USSR (modern Kyrgyzstan), near the Uzbek border. The mineral was named after Ibragim Khamrabaevich Khamrabaev, director of Geology and Geophysics of Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Its crystals as found in nature range in size from 0.1 to 0.3 mm.

Physical properties

[edit]

Titanium carbide has an elastic modulus of approximately 400 GPa and a shear modulus of 188 GPa.[2]

Titanium carbide is soluble in solid titanium oxide, with a range of compositions which are collectively named "titanium oxycarbide" and created by carbothermic reduction of the oxide.[3]

Manufacturing and machining

[edit]

Tool bits without tungsten content can be made of titanium carbide in nickel-cobalt matrix cermet, enhancing the cutting speed, precision, and smoothness of the workpiece.[citation needed]

The resistance to wear, corrosion, and oxidation of a tungsten carbide–cobalt material can be increased by adding 6–30% of titanium carbide to tungsten carbide. This forms a solid solution that is more brittle and susceptible to breakage.[clarification needed]

Titanium carbide can be etched with reactive-ion etching.

Applications

[edit]

Titanium carbide is used in preparation of cermets, which are frequently used to machine steel materials at high cutting speed. It is also used as an abrasion-resistant surface coating on metal parts, such as tool bits and watch mechanisms.[4] Titanium carbide is also used as a heat shield coating for atmospheric reentry of spacecraft.[5]

7075 aluminium alloy (AA7075) is almost as strong as steel, but weighs one third as much. Using thin AA7075 rods with TiC nanoparticles allows larger alloys pieces to be welded without phase-segregation induced cracks.[6]

See also

[edit]
  • Metallocarbohedryne, a family of metal-carbon clusters including Ti8C12

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Titanium carbide

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Titanium carbide () is a binary material composed of and carbon, characterized by its exceptional , high , and superior resistance, making it a key component in advanced applications. With the , it often exhibits non-stoichiometry as TiCx (where x ranges from 0.48 to 0.98 due to carbon vacancies), and adopts a face-centered cubic (FCC) akin to the NaCl type, with Fm-3m and lattice parameter a ≈ 0.4327 nm. appears as a crystalline or , with a of 4.9 g/cm³, of 3140 °C, and of 4820 °C; it is insoluble in but soluble in and . Its mechanical properties include a of 28–35 GPa, of 410–510 GPa, and tensile strength up to 258 MPa, while thermal and electrical conductivities reach 21 W/m·K and 10–20 × 103 S/cm, respectively, contributing to its classification as a with combined ionic, covalent, and . Chemically stable and resistant to oxidation in air up to 450 °C, also demonstrates at 1.1 K and good chemical inertness. TiC is synthesized via methods such as carbothermal reduction of TiO2 with carbon at 1700–2300 °C, (CVD), self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS), and mechanical alloying, allowing control over particle size and morphology for nanoscale applications. These processes enable the production of ultrafine powders or coatings, often integrated into cermets or composites. Notable applications leverage its for cutting tools and inserts in , wear-resistant coatings on drill bits and engine components, in metal matrix composites (e.g., with Cu, Ni, or Al) for enhanced strength in and automotive sectors, as well as in for barriers, heat sinks, and materials. Emerging uses include , , and microwave absorption due to its tunable nanostructures.

Chemical and Structural Characteristics

Composition and Nomenclature

Titanium carbide is represented by the TiC, indicating a stoichiometric 1:1 ratio of atoms to carbon atoms. This composition reflects the compound's basic structure as a binary carbide, where carbon atoms occupy octahedral voids in a lattice. The of TiC is 59.878 g/mol, derived from the standard atomic weights of (47.867 g/mol) and carbon (12.011 g/mol). This value is consistent across authoritative chemical databases and underscores the compound's lightweight nature relative to other carbides. In , the IUPAC name for TiC is titanium carbide, with the alternative designation titanium(IV) carbide emphasizing the +4 of . It is commonly abbreviated as and referred to as titanium monocarbide to distinguish it from other titanium-carbon phases, such as the sesquicarbide Ti₂C. These naming conventions align with systematic standards for metal carbides. Titanium carbide frequently exhibits non-stoichiometric compositions, expressed as \ceTiC1−x\ce{TiC_{1-x}}, where xx (typically 0.01 to 0.5) denotes vacancies in the carbon sublattice. These deviations from ideal arise during synthesis and significantly impact properties, including enhanced and altered electronic characteristics due to the increased vacancy concentration. Such variability allows tailoring of TiC for specific applications while maintaining its core nature.

Crystal Structure

Titanium carbide () adopts a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure, classified as the or rock salt type, with the Fm3ˉ\bar{3}m (No. 225). In this arrangement, titanium atoms form the FCC lattice, while carbon atoms occupy all octahedral interstitial sites, resulting in each titanium atom being octahedrally coordinated to six carbon atoms and vice versa. The lattice aa is approximately 4.327 at for near-stoichiometric TiC, though it varies slightly with composition due to non-stoichiometry. The bonding in TiC combines strong covalent interactions between Ti and C atoms with among neighboring Ti atoms, contributing to its unique combination of and metallic conductivity. This hybrid nature arises from the directional in Ti-C bonds and delocalized d-electrons facilitating Ti-Ti interactions, as revealed by cluster model analyses. TiC is typically non-stoichiometric, with a homogeneity range from TiC0.75_{0.75} to TiC0.95_{0.95}, primarily due to carbon vacancies that act as constitutional defects. These vacancies are predominantly located in the carbon sublattice and can be randomly distributed in most compositions, though ordered arrangements may emerge at lower carbon contents, influencing lattice stability and electronic properties. Structurally, TiC resembles the rock salt (NaCl) configuration, where the anion and cation sublattices are interpenetrating FCC arrays, but it exhibits metallic characteristics absent in ionic NaCl, such as high electrical conductivity stemming from partially filled d-bands.

Physical and Mechanical Properties

Thermal and Electrical Properties

Titanium carbide (TiC) possesses remarkable thermal stability, characterized by a high of 3140 °C and a of 4820 °C, making it suitable for extreme high-temperature applications. Its thermal conductivity ranges from approximately 20 to 30 W/(m·K) at , though this value decreases with rising temperature due to enhanced in its lattice. The coefficient of is about 7.5–8.5 × 10^{-6} /K, which reflects the material's ability to withstand thermal stresses without significant dimensional changes. Additionally, the lies in the range of 30–40 J/(mol·K), indicating moderate energy absorption per unit mass under heating conditions. Electrically, titanium carbide behaves as a metallic conductor, with an electrical resistivity of approximately 68–120 μΩ·cm at , a property influenced by its rock-salt that facilitates . This conductivity level supports its use in applications requiring both thermal resilience and electrical performance. In terms of oxidation resistance, TiC begins to oxidize in air above approximately 600–800 °C, forming a protective (TiO₂) layer that slows further degradation, though prolonged exposure above 900 °C leads to progressive scale formation.

Hardness and Elastic Properties

Titanium carbide exhibits a black-gray appearance in its crystalline powder or solid form. Its theoretical density is 4.93 g/cm³. The material demonstrates exceptional hardness, ranking 9–9.5 on the Mohs scale, with Vickers hardness values ranging from approximately 2,800 to 3,200 HV and Knoop hardness from 2,500 to 3,000 kg/mm². In terms of elastic properties, titanium carbide possesses a of approximately 400–450 GPa, a of about 188 GPa, and a between 0.19 and 0.25. Despite its high stiffness, titanium carbide is brittle, with a low of approximately 3–4 MPa·m^{1/2}, rendering it susceptible to cleavage fracture under tensile loading. This brittleness limits its tensile strength to around 250–350 MPa, while reaches 3,000–4,000 MPa.
PropertyValue/RangeMeasurement Type
Density4.93 g/cm³Theoretical
Mohs Hardness9–9.5Scratch resistance
2,800–3,200 HVIndentation (load-dependent)
Knoop Hardness2,500–3,000 kg/mm²Microindentation
400–450 GPaUniaxial tension
188 GPaTorsional deformation
0.19–0.25Lateral strain ratio
3–4 MPa·m^{1/2}Critical stress intensity
3,000–4,000 MPaUniaxial compression
Tensile Strength250–350 MPaUniaxial tension

Synthesis and Production

Laboratory Synthesis Methods

Titanium carbide (TiC) can be synthesized in settings through various experimental techniques that allow precise control over , morphology, and purity. These methods are particularly suited for applications, enabling the production of nanoscale materials or thin films under controlled conditions. One common laboratory approach is carbothermal reduction, which involves the reaction of (TiO₂) with carbon at elevated temperatures. The primary reaction is given by: \ceTiO2+3C−>TiC+2CO\ce{TiO2 + 3C -> TiC + 2CO} This process typically occurs at temperatures between 1,400 and 1,800 °C in an inert atmosphere to prevent oxidation. Thermodynamic analysis indicates that the change (ΔG°) for the reaction is approximately 524,130 - 333.55T J/mol, where T is in , rendering the reaction spontaneous above about 1,573 K. The for TiC formation during this reduction is reported in the range of 220–240 kJ/mol, influenced by factors such as carbon type and . This method produces fine TiC powders but requires careful management of intermediate oxide phases like TiO and Ti₂O₃ to achieve high purity. Mechanical ing represents a solid-state synthesis route for , utilizing high-energy ball milling of titanium and carbon powders. The process begins with mixing stoichiometric Ti and C powders, followed by milling in a planetary or attritor mill under to avoid contamination. Intense mechanical deformation induces atomic and reaction, forming amorphous intermediates that crystallize upon subsequent annealing at 800–1,200 °C. This technique enables the production of nanocrystalline with particle sizes controllable down to 10–50 nm by adjusting milling time (typically 10–50 hours) and ball-to-powder ratio. A seminal study demonstrated the formation of alloy powders directly from precursors via room-temperature milling, highlighting the method's efficiency for nanoscale synthesis. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is widely employed for depositing TiC thin films or coatings in laboratory reactors. The reaction proceeds as: \ceTiCl4+CH4−>TiC+4HCl\ce{TiCl4 + CH4 -> TiC + 4HCl} using (TiCl₄) and (CH₄) as precursors in a carrier gas at substrate temperatures of 900–1,200 °C. Growth rates typically range from 0.1 to 1 μm/min, depending on precursor s and temperature, with film thicknesses achievable from nanometers to several micrometers. The deposition rate increases with CH₄ concentration but is inversely proportional to HCl , allowing tailored . This method is favored for its ability to produce conformal coatings on complex substrates, such as cutting tools, with high purity and controlled microstructure. Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) offers a rapid, exothermic route to from compacted powders of and carbon. The reaction: \ceTi+C−>[TiC](/page/Tic)\ce{Ti + C -> [TiC](/page/Tic)} is ignited at temperatures typically ranging from 1260–1500 °C using a heated filament or , propagating as a wave at velocities of 5–20 cm/s and reaching adiabatic s up to 2,500 °C. The process completes in seconds, yielding porous with minimal external input after ignition. Ignition temperature can be lowered to around 923 °C with additives like , enhancing reaction control in lab-scale setups. For nanoparticle synthesis, sol-gel and methods utilize solution-based precursors to form at lower temperatures. Titanium alkoxides, such as , are hydrolyzed in the presence of carbon sources like phenolic resins or sugars to form gels, which are then dried and carbothermally reduced at 1,200–1,500 °C. This approach yields nanoparticles (5–20 nm) with uniform dispersion, as the sol-gel process ensures intimate mixing at the molecular level. variants involve co-precipitating titanium salts with carbon precursors, followed by , providing a versatile route for doped or composite nanoparticles.

Industrial Manufacturing Processes

One primary industrial method for producing titanium carbide (TiC) involves direct carburation, where titanium metal powder is mixed with carbon (typically ) and heated to temperatures between 1,500°C and 1,700°C in a or inert atmosphere to facilitate the reaction Ti + C → TiC. This process yields high-purity TiC exceeding 99% with minimal impurities, making it suitable for applications requiring structural integrity, though it is energy-intensive due to the high temperatures and the cost of pure feedstock. A more economical and widely adopted industrial route is the carbothermal reduction of (TiO₂), often sourced from or synthetic materials, where TiO₂ is mixed with excess carbon and reduced in furnaces at 1,800–2,200°C under to produce TiC via the overall reaction TiO₂ + 3C → TiC + 2CO. This method dominates commercial production due to the abundance and lower cost of TiO₂ compared to metallic , with the process optimized for scalability in batch or continuous furnaces to minimize emissions through gas capture systems. The reaction generates significant CO and CO₂ as byproducts, prompting industrial efforts to integrate carbon capture technologies to address environmental impacts. For specialized powder and bulk forms, plasma spraying and arc melting techniques are employed, involving the injection of TiC precursors or pre-formed powders into a high-temperature plasma arc (up to 15,000°C) to melt and atomize the material, resulting in fine distributions typically ranging from 1 to 10 μm. These methods enhance uniformity and are used in downstream processing for production, with arc melting particularly effective for consolidating irregular scraps into dense ingots under controlled atmospheres to prevent oxidation. Recycling integrates titanium scraps from or waste, as well as (FeTiO₃) ore, through carbothermal reduction processes that adapt the TiO₂ route by first leaching or magnetically separating iron, followed by high-temperature carbon reduction to yield TiC while recovering iron as a . This approach reduces raw material costs and environmental footprint by minimizing virgin ore extraction, though it requires careful management of CO and CO₂ emissions from the reduction step, often mitigated via off-gas or conversion to . Quality control in industrial TiC production emphasizes achieving purity levels above 99% and verifying phase purity through (XRD) analysis, which confirms the cubic NaCl-type of TiC without secondary phases like TiO or free carbon. Cost factors, influenced by energy use, feedstock prices, and scale, place commercial TiC at approximately $100–300 per kg as of 2025, with economic viability enhanced by to offset the high thermal processing demands.

Applications and Uses

Tool Materials and Cermets

Titanium carbide () is a key component in cermets used for cutting tools, where it serves as the primary hard phase combined with metallic binders such as (Ni) or (Co) to form composite materials with enhanced wear resistance and thermal stability. Typical compositions feature 70-90 wt% or Ti(C,N) as the ceramic phase and 10-30 wt% Ni or Co binder, providing a balance of and toughness suitable for high-speed . Additionally, is incorporated at 6-20 wt% into traditional tungsten carbide- (WC-Co) systems to improve abrasion resistance without significantly compromising the matrix's integrity. These TiC-based cermets are widely employed in indexable inserts for turning and milling operations on steels, enabling efficient material removal at elevated cutting speeds of up to 300 m/min due to their high hot , which exceeds that of pure WC-Co in demanding conditions. Modern grades, such as those classified under ISO P10-P30, are optimized for finishing and semi-finishing of carbon and steels, offering superior edge stability and reduced built-up edge formation compared to conventional carbides. The high of TiC (around 2800-3200 HV) underpins this performance, contributing to resistance against abrasive wear during prolonged contact with workpiece materials. The primary wear mechanisms in TiC cermets involve and , mitigated by the material's inherent and low chemical reactivity with iron-based alloys, resulting in tool life extensions of 20-50% over pure WC-Co inserts in . This enhancement stems from the formation of protective core-rim structures during , which distribute stress and limit crack propagation at the tool-chip interface. Historically, cermets were adopted in the , with early implementations in Soviet tool bits like the T15K6 grade, which demonstrated viability for hard turning at speeds exceeding those of contemporary cemented carbides. This paved the way for broader , evolving into today's advanced formulations that maintain relevance in precision manufacturing. Regarding mechanical reliability, cermets exhibit improved of approximately 10-15 MPa·m^{1/2}, attributed to the ductile binder phase that arrests cracks and enhances resistance under cyclic loading typical of interrupted cuts. This toughness level, combined with strength surpassing monolithic ceramics, allows for robust performance in demanding tool applications without frequent replacement.

Coatings and Composites

Titanium carbide () coatings are widely applied to substrates such as cutting tools and structural components using (PVD) techniques, including magnetron , which enable the formation of dense, adherent films typically 1–10 μm thick with excellent uniformity and minimal substrate heating. Plasma spraying, particularly suspension plasma spraying, is another key method for depositing TiC coatings, allowing for the incorporation of particles into molten droplets to create thicker, wear-resistant layers suitable for industrial applications. In composite materials, TiC nanoparticles serve as reinforcements in metal matrix systems like aluminum-titanium carbide (Al-), where volume fractions of 5–20% significantly enhance and strength without substantially increasing ; for instance, Al-20 vol.% composites achieve values up to 97 HRB and compressive strengths of 275 MPa. nanoparticles are also integrated into polymer matrix composites, such as epoxy- systems, to improve tribological performance and thermal stability, with optimal properties observed at specific particle sizes and loadings that reduce rates under sliding conditions. These coatings and composites find critical applications in demanding environments, including abrasion-resistant components for equipment, where TiC layers protect against erosive wear from particulate matter. In , TiC-reinforced composites contribute to heat shields capable of withstanding temperatures up to 2,000 °C during atmospheric reentry, leveraging the material's high and thermal stability. Additionally, TiC is incorporated into electrodes, such as nano-TiC-coated tips, to extend service life by resisting deformation and sticking during resistance processes. TiC coatings and composites exhibit superior corrosion resistance in acidic environments, such as sulfuric acid solutions, with decomposition kinetics showing minimal reactivity even at elevated concentrations. A notable example is the use of TiC nanoparticles in arc welding of AA7075 aluminum alloy, where infusion into filler wires enabled crack-free joints with tensile strengths up to 392 MPa, a significant improvement over conventional methods prone to hot cracking. In aerospace and automotive sectors, TiC reinforcements play a key role in developing lightweight, durable components that maintain structural integrity under cyclic loading and thermal stress, thereby enhancing fuel efficiency and longevity.

Natural Occurrence and Recent Developments

Geological Occurrence

Khamrabaevite is the mineral form of titanium carbide, with a composition represented as (Ti,V,Fe)C, and it was first identified in in the Ir-Tash stream basin, Arashan Mountains, Chatkal Range, near the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan border. It occurs in veins associated with Ti-, where crystals measure 0.1–0.3 mm and are commonly found alongside and . Due to its extreme rarity, khamrabaevite is not commercially mined, with total known deposits confined to and . The mineral forms under high-pressure, high-temperature metamorphic processes. Analytical confirmation of khamrabaevite has been achieved through electron microprobe analysis and diffraction, revealing a composition close to stoichiometric . Khamrabaevite has also been identified in extraterrestrial materials, including clusters of grains in the . This scarcity underscores the dominance of synthetic production methods for in practical applications.

Advances Since 2020

Since 2020, significant innovations in the synthesis of (TiC) have focused on environmentally benign methods to produce and cost-effective precursors. Researchers developed fluoride-free routes for synthesizing Ti3C2Tx from TiC-based , using solvothermal reactions with and to etch Mo2TiC2 without hazardous HF, achieving high-yield delamination in 2024 studies. Similarly, electrochemical etching with tetrafluoroboric acid enabled the production of Ti3C2 and Ti3CN from precursors such as Ti3AlC2, offering a safer alternative to traditional acid-based methods and improving scalability for 2D material applications. In parallel, carbothermal reduction processes advanced by utilizing low-grade ores, where composite reducing agents like carbon and lowered reaction temperatures and enhanced TiC purity, as reported in 2025 industrial process studies. New applications of have emerged in advanced engineering, particularly in and management contexts. A 2025 study on integrated and analysis demonstrated that coatings outperformed (SiC) equivalents in wear resistance under automotive cyclic loading, exhibiting 30% lower coefficients and extended life due to superior and retention. In nanocomposites, reinforcements have boosted thermal conductivity; for instance, TiC-TiB2-carbon hybrids achieved values up to 120 /(m·), enabling efficient heat dissipation in high-performance and components. The global TiC market has shown steady growth, driven by demand in additive manufacturing and sputtering targets for semiconductors. Valued at USD 0.23 billion in 2023, it is projected to reach USD 0.38 billion by 2032, reflecting a (CAGR) of 6.1%, with expanding uses in wear-resistant tools and energy devices. Environmental and safety assessments of TiC highlight its relatively low systemic toxicity compared to heavy metal carbides, though fine poses respiratory and hazards during handling and . Post-2022 regulations, such as Regulation (EU) 2024/1157 on waste shipments, have spurred advances in waste containing TiC while complying with stricter export controls on hazardous residues. Emerging uses of TiC extend to and . TiC-MXene hybrids, such as TiC@Ti3C2Tx composites, have enhanced performance, delivering specific capacitances exceeding 300 F/g at high rates due to improved accessibility and conductivity. In biomedical applications, TiC-reinforced coatings on implants via improved and wear resistance, reducing infection risks and extending implant in 2025 evaluations.

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