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Mahmud Pasha Angelović
Mahmud Pasha Angelović
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Mahmud Pasha Angelović (Serbian: Махмуд-паша Анђеловић/Mahmud-paša Anđelović; Turkish: Veli Mahmud Paşa; 1420–1474) was a major military leader and the grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1456 to 1466 and from 1472 to 1474. He also wrote Persian and Turkish poems under the takhallus (pen name) Adni (the "Eden-like").[1]

Key Information

Born in the Serbian Despotate, he was a descendant of the Byzantine Angelos family that had left Thessaly in 1394. According to biographers, he was conscripted as a child by the Ottomans employing the devşirme system.[2] Raised as a Muslim in Edirne, he was a capable soldier and was married to a daughter of Zaganos Pasha. After distinguishing himself at the Siege of Belgrade in 1456, he was raised to the position of grand vizier as a reward, succeeding his father-in-law Zaganos Pasha. Throughout his tenure, he led armies or accompanied Mehmed II on his own campaigns.

Origin and early life

[edit]

After the Ottoman conquest of Thessaly in 1394, the ruling Angeloi[3][4] Philanthropenoi family took refuge. The grandchildren of either Alexios or Manuel were Mahmud Pasha and his brother Mihailo Anđelović.

It is estimated that Angelović was born in the early 1420s.[5] Most historians accept that Angelović was born in Novo Brdo in the Serbian Despotate, and that his father Mihailos was the son of either Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos or his son/nephew/brother Manuel, rulers of Thessaly.[6] T. Stavrides views it more probable that Manuel was his grandfather.[5] The only information on his father is that he lived in Serbia in the 1420s.[5] His mother's ancestry is the matter of debate. Chalkokondyles (1430–1470) called her Serbian, Kritoboulos (1410–1470), Greek, while there are various theories on her noble ancestry.[7] Angelović had a brother, Mihailo Anđelović, later a prominent Serbian statesman, after the Turkish conquest.[8]

According to Tahsin Yazıcı, Angelović was "born to a Greek or Serbian family".[9] Dejan Djokić stated that Angelović was born "to a Serb mother and a Greek refugee father – no less than son of the last Angeloi ruler of Thessaly who had emigrated to Serbia in the late fourteenth century".[10] Ottoman historians like Gelibolulu Mustafa Ali and later considered him as a Croat, and Angelović himself in a letter from April 1467 signed as "Abogović Hrvat" (but the Croatian ethnonym probably meant "someone from the wider south-Slavic area").[11][12]

Chalkokondyles mentions that Angelović was captured by Ottoman horsemen while travelling with his mother from Novo Brdo to Smederevo (the Serbian capital), and taken to the Ottoman court.[13] It is assumed that this took place in 1427, when the Ottomans attacked Serbia.[14] Furthermore, it is unconcluded whether he was captured according to the devşirme (practice, the regular practice of taking children certain noble families whose Ottomans have taken lands and making these children high rankings officials) or as a prisoner of war.[15] Taşköprüzade (d. 1560) and Aşık Çelebi (1520–1572) name two other boys led with Angelović on horseback to Edirne, Molla Iyas and Mevlana Abdülkerim, the latter which reached the rank of kadıasker (chief judge) and şeyhülislam (Islamic scholar).[16] Upon conversion to Islam, he received the name Mahmud.

Little is known about his activities before 1453. According to T. Stavrides, Angelović and his companions were educated in the palace, probably as içoğlan, and Mahmud then entered service in the Enderûn, later serving prince Mehmed, the future sultan.[17] Sources do not agree on which posts he held at the palace.[18]

Life

[edit]
Remains of Mahmud Pasha hamam at Lower Town of Golubac Fortress.

Mahmud Pasha was a capable soldier. After distinguishing himself at the siege of Belgrade (1456), he was raised to the position of Grand Vizier as a reward, succeeding Zaganos Pasha.[19] Throughout his tenure he led armies or accompanied Mehmed II on his own campaigns.[20]

In 1458, the Serbian Despot Lazar Branković died. Mahmud's brother Mihailo became member of a collective regency, but he was soon deposed by the anti-Ottoman and pro-Hungarian faction in the Serbian court. In reaction, Mahmud attacked and seized Smederevo Fortress, although the citadel held out, and seized some additional strongholds in its vicinity. Threatened by a possible Hungarian intervention however he was forced to withdraw south and join the forces of Sultan Mehmed II at Skopje.[21] In 1461, he accompanied Mehmed in his campaign against the Empire of Trebizond, the last surviving fragment of the Byzantine Empire. Mahmud negotiated the surrender of the city of Trebizond with the protovestiarios, the scholar George Amiroutzes, who was also his cousin.[22]

In 1463, Mahmud led the invasion and conquest of the Kingdom of Bosnia, even though a peace treaty between Bosnia and the Ottomans had just been renewed. He captured the Bosnian king, Stephen Tomašević, at Ključ, and obtained from him the cession of the country to the Empire.[21]

Angelović accompanied Mehmed II when he attacked Albania Veneta in the summer of 1467, and ravaged the lands. For 15 days he pursued Skanderbeg, who was a Venetian ally at the time, but failed to find him, as Skanderbeg retreated into the mountains and then succeeded in fleeing to the coast.[23] According to Tursun Beg and Ibn Kemal, Angelović swam over Bojana, attacked Venetian-controlled Scutari, and plundered the surrounding area.[24]

Mahmud was dismissed in 1468 due to the machinations of his successor, Rum Mehmed Pasha, ostensibly due to irregularities regarding the resettlement of the Karamanids in Constantinople following the conquest of Karaman earlier in that year.[25] He was reinstated in 1472, but his relations with the Sultan were now strained. Mahmud was fired and executed in 1474. The cause was the suspicion that he was involved in the sudden death of Şehzade Mustafa, the favorite son of Sultan Mehmed II. It was said that Şehzade Mustafa had an affair with Mahmud's wife, Selçuk Hatun (sister of Hatice Hatun, the youngest consort of Mehmed II), and that Mahmud poisoned him for it. Mahmud denied it but, even without proof, Mehmed II still decided to execute him.[26]

Literary output

[edit]

Mahmud Pasha wrote works in Persian and Turkish with "Adni" as his pen name.[9] The divan he composed includes 45 ghazals and 21 mofrads in Persian, as well as "some rather successful naziras on the ghazals of Zahir Faryabi and Hafez".[9] Tahsin Yazıcı adds that Mahmud Pasha "also wrote a number of official letters in Persian".[9]

Family

[edit]

He married Selçuk Hatun, daughter of Zaganos Pasha by his first wife Sitti Nefise Hatun, and they had a son named Ali Bey and a daughter named Hatice Hatun. His wife became lover to Şehzade Mustafa, son of Sultan Mehmed II. For this reason, Mahmud was suspected of involvement in Mustafa's death and executed.

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mahmud Pasha Angelović

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Mahmud Pasha Angelović (c. 1420–1474) was an Ottoman and military commander of Serbian Christian origin who converted to and rose to prominence under Sultan , serving as from 1456 to 1466 and again from 1472 until his execution in 1474.
Born in in the (present-day ), he was captured as a during Ottoman raids, educated in the imperial palace, and appointed in 1454 before ascending to the ate in 1457, also holding positions as beylerbeyi of Rumeli and admiral. His tenure marked a pivotal phase in Ottoman expansion, as he led or coordinated key conquests including in 1458–1459, the in 1460, Trebizond in 1461, and Bosnia in 1463, contributing to the consolidation of Ottoman control over the and Black Sea regions. Beyond military endeavors, he patronized architecture by founding a major mosque complex and pious endowment in and composed in Persian and Turkish under the pen name Adni, reflecting his cultural influence.
Mahmud Pasha's career ended in controversy; dismissed twice amid court intrigues, he was ultimately executed by strangulation in 1474, with allegations linking him to the death of Mehmed's son, Prince Mustafa, or suspicions of his own overreaching ambitions fueling the fatal decision. His fall exemplified the precarious power dynamics in the Ottoman palace, where devşirme elites like him navigated alliances and rivalries under an absolute ruler.

Origins and Early Career

Family Background and Birth

Mahmud Pasha Angelović was born in the early 1420s in the , a Christian Orthodox realm under the rule of at the time. Traditional historical accounts, drawing from Ottoman chronicles and European records, place his birthplace in , a fortified town noted for its silver production and strategic importance near Ottoman borders. However, a 2025 analysis of 15th- and 16th-century Ottoman defters and endowment documents challenges this, proposing instead the village of Angeli (possibly in the region) as his likely origin, based on familial land holdings and naming patterns inconsistent with residency. He hailed from the Angelović , a Serbian noble lineage claiming descent from the Byzantine Angeloi dynasty, which had fled amid Ottoman expansions around 1394 and settled in the . The status is evidenced by their involvement in local governance and under Serbian despots, with relatives like his brother Mihailo (Michael) Angelović later serving as Metropolitan of , indicating ties to ecclesiastical and aristocratic circles rather than mere peasantry. This Byzantine-Serbian heritage positioned the Angelovići amid the cultural and political turbulence of the late medieval , where Orthodox elites navigated threats from both Hungarian and Ottoman powers.

Conversion to Islam and Ottoman Entry

Mahmud Pasha Angelović was born into a noble family of mixed Byzantine Greek and Serbian heritage in the early , likely around 1420, in the . His father, Mihailo Angelović, descended from the Byzantine Angeloi Philanthropenoi family that had ruled in the late 14th century, while his mother's origins are traced to Serbian nobility, possibly linked to the . The exact birthplace remains debated among historians: traditional accounts place it in , a mining center in the region, whereas recent analysis of 15th- and 16th-century Ottoman cadastral registers (tapu tahrir defters) suggests the village of Angeli in the Topolnica nahiye of Vučitrn . As a child, circa 1427, Mahmud was captured by Ottoman forces during incursions into Serbian territory, while traveling with his mother and entourage from toward . This event occurred amid II's campaigns in the , which frequently involved the seizure of noble hostages for leverage or integration into the Ottoman system. Following his capture, he was taken to II's palace in , where he underwent , adopting the name Mahmud, a common practice for Christian captives of elite status to facilitate assimilation and career advancement in the devşirme-influenced Ottoman hierarchy. Educated in the Ottoman palace school (Enderun), Mahmud Pasha received training in administration, affairs, and Islamic theology, enabling his rapid ascent through the ranks. Unlike many devşirme recruits from humbler backgrounds, his noble origins likely expedited his integration into high-level service, as evidenced by his brother Michael's parallel trajectory in Serbian politics before also entering Ottoman employ. By the 1450s, he had risen to prominent positions, including in 1454, setting the stage for his appointment as under in 1456.

Military Achievements and Campaigns

Role in Key Sieges and Battles

Mahmud Pasha participated in the Ottoman siege of in 1453, contributing to the city's fall on May 29. In June 1456, as a , he played a prominent role in the Ottoman campaign against , where II's forces, numbering around 100,000, attempted to capture the fortress defended by and forces totaling about 7,000; despite the Ottoman defeat on July 21 due to a Christian relief army, Mahmud Pasha's leadership in the operations earned him recognition and elevation to later that year, succeeding Zaganos Pasha. As , Mahmud Pasha directed the conquest of in 1458–1459, leveraging his familial ties—his brother Michael Angelović served as a Serbian —to facilitate the campaign; Ottoman forces under his command captured key fortresses, including in early 1458 after a , where he subsequently constructed a hamam, and , the Serbian capital, which surrendered on June 20, 1459, following a brief and negotiations. This completed the subjugation of the , incorporating it into Ottoman with minimal prolonged fighting due to internal Serbian divisions. In 1460, Mahmud Pasha oversaw operations in the , securing Ottoman control over the by defeating Venetian-backed resistance and capturing key sites like . During the 1461 campaign against Trebizond, he advanced ahead of the main army across the Zigana Pass, positioned forces at Skylolimne, and negotiated the surrender of the city on August 15, ending the without a full assault, though subsequent resistance in the countryside required further suppression. In 1463, he led the invasion of Bosnia, violating a recent , and conquered the kingdom, annexing it as an Ottoman province despite initial Hungarian interventions.

Leadership in Balkan Conquests

Mahmud Pasha Angelović, serving as from 1456, directed Ottoman military efforts that consolidated control over Balkan territories fragmented after the fall of in 1453. His commands emphasized rapid sieges, exploitation of internal divisions among Christian rulers, and integration of conquered regions through administrative reorganization and forced conversions. These operations targeted the remnants of Serbian, Greek, and Bosnian principalities, expanding Ottoman southward and westward. In the campaign against the , Mahmud Pasha suppressed rebellions near and negotiated with local leaders, including his brother Mihailo Angelović, facilitating the Ottoman advance. By early 1459, he besieged , the capital, capturing its outer fortifications after taking surrounding castles, though the inner citadel resisted until Sultan arrived and seized it on June 20, 1459, ending independent . This victory incorporated as an Ottoman province, with Mahmud overseeing the deportation of elites and settlement of Turkish garrisons. Mahmud Pasha contributed to the subjugation of the in 1460, joining II's forces in besieging Mistras and other strongholds held by Despot Demetrios II . The campaign, launched after partial gains in 1458, resulted in the annexation of the by May 1460, dismantling the last Byzantine remnant outside and securing Ottoman dominance in southern amid Venetian encroachments. His most direct command came in the 1463 invasion of Bosnia, where he led an army of approximately 30,000 despite a renewed just months earlier with King Stephen Thomas Kotromanić. On May 19, 1463, Ottoman forces under Mahmud besieged Bobovac fortress; reinforced them the next day. Mahmud's troops decisively defeated the Bosnian army at the Battle of Ključ on May 20, killing or capturing much of the nobility and forcing Thomas to flee. Subsequent sieges captured by October, though some resistance persisted until 1464, leading to Bosnia's partition into sanjaks with mass enslavements and conversions. This conquest violated prior agreements but exploited Bosnia's internal Catholic-Orthodox schisms and weakened monarchy. Amid these gains, Mahmud Pasha countered Venetian alliances in and during the Ottoman-Venetian War (1463–1479), pursuing figures like without decisive victory but diverting resources from Ottoman consolidation elsewhere. His Balkan leadership yielded over 100,000 square kilometers of territory, bolstering II's resources for further expansions, though it strained relations with European powers.

Administrative Tenure as Grand Vizier

First Term (1456–1466): Policies and Reforms

During his first term as from 1456 to 1466, Mahmud Pasha Angelović prioritized the centralization of Ottoman administration amid rapid territorial expansion following the conquest of in 1453. He administered internal state affairs and conducted with foreign emissaries while Sultan focused on military campaigns, thereby facilitating the integration of diverse conquered territories into a cohesive imperial structure. This role underscored his function as a stabilizing force, managing the (council) and overseeing bureaucratic operations to enforce sultanic authority over provincial governors and local elites. Mahmud Pasha contributed to early efforts in standardizing governance through support for legal and fiscal reforms, including the compilation of tahrir defterleri (cadastral registers) in newly acquired Balkan regions such as during campaigns in 1458. These surveys systematically assessed land, population, and tax potential, enabling more efficient revenue extraction and distribution of timars (fiefs) to loyal military retainers, which reduced reliance on semi-autonomous warlords and enhanced central fiscal control. His policies aligned with II's broader centralizing agenda, promoting the devşirme system's expansion to staff key administrative posts with converted Christian elites, thereby diluting entrenched Anatolian Turkish factions and fostering a merit-based loyal to the sultanate. In organizational terms, Mahmud Pasha advanced the codification of palace protocols and administrative hierarchies, laying groundwork for the kanunname (law codes) that later formalized Ottoman governance under . These measures included regulating the vizierial apparatus and judicial processes to curb corruption and ensure uniform application of şeriat (Islamic law) alongside sultanic decrees, particularly in urban centers like , where he supervised land allocations and establishments to stabilize the economy and support infrastructure development. By 1466, these reforms had strengthened imperial cohesion, though they provoked resistance from traditional power holders, contributing to his eventual dismissal.

Second Term (1472–1474): Diplomatic Efforts

Mahmud Pasha was reappointed as on September 5, 1472, succeeding Rum Mehmed Pasha amid escalating threats from Akkoyunlu ruler and Karamanid forces, who had sacked earlier that year. In this role, he provided strategic counsel on foreign policy, persuading Sultan in late 1472 to postpone the Ottoman campaign against until spring 1473 to avoid winter hardships, thereby enabling better logistical preparations for the confrontation. A key aspect of his tenure involved indirect overtures to during the ongoing Ottoman-Venetian War (1463–1479). In late 1472, intermediaries Alessio Span and John Kantakouzenos met Venetian envoy Niccolò da Molin in Medoa, , relaying proposals attributed to "Maut bassa" (a reference to Mahmud Pasha) that envisioned Venetian naval and financial assistance in exchange for retaining control over , Negroponte, , and other beyond the Straits, alongside joint efforts to seize fortifications and Ottoman territories up to . These terms, framed as potential peace initiatives but entailing partition of Ottoman holdings, prompted a positive Venetian response; on April 5, 1473, the pledged fleet support, alliances with the Pope and King Ferrante of , and annual payments including 40,000 ducats to Mahmud Pasha personally, with secret directives issued to naval commanders. The negotiations faltered by May 1474, yielding no treaty, as Mahmud Pasha's influence waned amid suspicions of disloyalty linked to these clandestine channels. Complementing such efforts, he leveraged his position to extend mercy post-battle, interceding in August 1473 after the Ottoman victory at Otlukbeli for clemency toward Karahisar commander Dara , reflecting pragmatic handling of defeated adversaries to stabilize eastern frontiers. Overall, Mahmud Pasha's diplomatic activities prioritized containment of multi-front threats—eastern nomadic incursions and western naval rivalry—while administering state affairs during Mehmed II's absences, though they were constrained by the empire's expansionist priorities and internal rivalries.

Cultural and Architectural Patronage

Literary Works under Pseudonym Adni

Mahmud Pasha Angelović composed poetry in both Persian and Turkish under the pen name Adni, derived from the Arabic term for "paradise-like" or "Edenic," reflecting themes of beauty and longing common in classical Ottoman lyric traditions. His works demonstrate a command of Persian literary conventions, influenced by earlier masters, while also contributing to the emerging Turkish poetic corpus during the under II's court. The core of his surviving output is the Diwan of Adni, a collection primarily in Persian that includes 45 ghazals—lyrical poems typically exploring , , and —along with 21 mufrads (standalone verses) and 3 qasidas ( odes). Several ghazals take the form of naziras, imitative responses or parodies that closely mirror the structure and imagery of poems by Persian poets such as Zahir Faryabi (d. 1258) and (d. 1390), earning praise for their fidelity and skill in adaptation. Turkish poems in the Diwan are fewer and less documented, but they align with the era's blend of Perso-Arabic forms into Ottoman vernacular expression. Beyond verse, Adni authored official correspondence and at least six formal letters in Persian, underscoring his administrative bilingualism and role as a cultural patron who supported poets like Enveri and Tursun . His literary efforts, though not innovative in form, highlight the vizier's scholarly depth amid military and political duties, bridging Balkan Christian heritage with Islamic in the early . Manuscripts of the Diwan preserve these works, attesting to Adni's place in Turkish literary history despite his execution in 1474 curtailing further production.

Construction of Mosques and Complexes

Mahmud Pasha Angelović commissioned the construction of the Mahmud Pasha Külliye in Istanbul's Mahmutpaşa district, one of the earliest Ottoman vizierial complexes established after the 1453 conquest of . Begun in 1463 and substantially completed by 1464, with some elements extending to 1477, the complex functioned as a pious endowment (vakıf) supporting religious, educational, and charitable activities. It included a central , for religious instruction, imaret (public ), (bathhouse), , courtroom, and primary school (sıbyan mektebi), reflecting the Ottoman model that integrated worship with community welfare. The mosque itself, the külliye's focal point, adopted a multi-domed type drawing from pre-Ottoman Balkan and Anatolian precedents, featuring two identical domes each 12.5 meters in over a rectangular hall, flanked by eyvans (vaulted halls) and preceded by a . This design, constructed with dressed stone, contrasted with the emerging single-dome imperial style promoted by Sultan , emphasizing Mahmud Pasha's preference for established regional forms amid the transition to centralized . The complex's strategic location near the Grand Bazaar underscored its role in urban revitalization and economic integration of the former Byzantine capital. In addition to Istanbul, Mahmud Pasha sponsored mosques in , , utilizing similar multi-domed layouts that recycled older architectural traditions during his tenure as beylerbeyi of Rumeli, which oversaw Balkan territories. These constructions supported the expansion of Islamic infrastructure in newly incorporated regions, funded through his extensive vakıf revenues derived from properties across the empire. While the külliye exemplified elite patronage in the capital, the Sofia projects aligned with his administrative responsibilities in consolidating Ottoman control over Christian-majority areas.

Downfall, Execution, and Controversies

Accusations and Dismissal

Mahmud Pasha Angelović faced his initial dismissal as in 1466, ostensibly due to irregularities in the resettlement of populations from the following Ottoman campaigns there, amid reported machinations by his successor, Rum Mehmed Pasha. These charges reflected broader court rivalries and administrative pressures to repopulate with deportees from conquered regions, though Mahmud's effectiveness in prior conquests suggests intrigue played a significant role. He was reappointed in 1472 after demonstrating continued loyalty during . The accusations culminating in his final dismissal in mid-1474 centered on the sudden death of , II's favored son, in January of that year. Ottoman chroniclers alleged that Mahmud Pasha poisoned the prince out of jealousy, suspecting an illicit affair between Mustafa and Mahmud's second wife, whom he had divorced upon hearing the rumors but whose involvement fueled suspicions of deeper motives, including potential threats to the . This narrative, preserved in histories, portrayed the act as personal vendetta escalating to treasonous , though modern analyses attribute it partly to factional struggles and II's paranoia over succession amid his own health concerns and the execution of other officials. Mahmud's extensive wealth and independent power base, including a , likely amplified perceptions of disloyalty. Imprisoned in pending investigation, he was stripped of his vizierate, marking the end of his administrative dominance.

Execution and Immediate Aftermath

Mahmud Pasha Angelović was dismissed as in early 1474 amid growing tensions with Sultan , including strained relations stemming from his divorce of , the mother of , Mehmed's favored son. He was subsequently imprisoned in the before being executed by strangulation or beheading on July 18, 1474, at the sultan's direct order. Contemporary accounts attribute the execution primarily to suspicions of Mahmud's complicity in plots against , whose death occurred later that year on December 25, possibly from suspected poisoning amid ongoing family rivalries; alternative interpretations point to intrigue by rivals who highlighted Mahmud's Serbian Christian heritage and his extensive independent wealth as threats to imperial authority. The swift dismissal and death eliminated a key figure who had shaped Ottoman administration for nearly two decades, signaling II's intolerance for potential disloyalty among high officials. In the immediate aftermath, Mahmud's substantial properties, including pious endowments (waqfs) funding mosques and madrasas, were seized by the state, redirecting resources to bolster the sultan's treasury and centralize fiscal control. was appointed shortly thereafter, maintaining continuity in military campaigns but under closer sultanic oversight, as accelerated purges of influential viziers to consolidate power. The event reinforced the precarious tenure of Ottoman grand viziers, often ending in execution to curb factionalism and prevent power accumulation rivaling the throne.

Family and Historical Legacy

Descendants and Kin

Mahmud Pasha Angelović's immediate kin included his brother Michael Angelović (Mihailo Anđelović), a prominent Serbian who initially served Christian rulers in the , including negotiations with Ottoman forces, before joining Ottoman service as a timariot following brief captivity. Michael Angelović died in 1473, predeceasing his brother by a year, and maintained ties to both Serbian nobility and Ottoman administration, reflecting the family's cross-cultural networks. Mahmud Pasha married Selçuk Hatun, daughter of the Ottoman vizier Zagan Pasha and his wife Sitti Nefise Hatun, forging alliances within the Ottoman elite. He had at least one daughter, who was married to , the son of Sultan Mehmed II, in a union intended to bind the grand vizier's family to the imperial line; however, the marriage ended in divorce amid personal and political tensions, contributing to suspicions against Pasha. Historical accounts attribute no surviving sons or prominent descendants to Pasha, with his execution in 1474 leading to the confiscation of family properties and the attenuation of his direct lineage's influence in Ottoman affairs.

Assessments of Impact and Criticisms

Mahmud Pasha Angelović is evaluated by historians as a transformative figure in the Ottoman Empire's transition from a to a centralized imperial state during II's reign. Theoharis Stavrides, in his detailed study, portrays him as the "Sultan of Vezirs" for his extensive authority in military, administrative, and diplomatic spheres, particularly in consolidating control after the of . His first term (1456–1466) saw key reforms, including the compilation of a kanunname (imperial law code) that standardized taxation, , and judicial practices, enhancing fiscal efficiency and reducing provincial autonomy. These measures supported rapid territorial expansion, with Mahmud leading campaigns that annexed (1458–1459), the (1460), Trebizond (1461), and Bosnia (1463), securing Ottoman dominance in the and Black Sea region. His architectural patronage, including the establishment of a major waqf complex in featuring a , , imaret, and han, is credited with fostering urban development and economic activity, such as boosting the camlet trade through Ankara's covered market. Literary contributions under the pseudonym , alongside support for poets and chroniclers like Enveri and Tursun Beg, positioned him as a cultural patron bridging Persianate and Ottoman traditions. Modern scholarship, drawing on Ottoman defters and chronicles critically analyzed against biases in court , affirms his role in institutionalizing devşirme elites in high office, though this system's reliance on converted like himself fueled long-term tensions over loyalty. Criticisms of Mahmud Pasha are sparse in primary sources but center on perceptions of overreach and ruthlessness. Contemporary Ottoman accounts, such as those by Tursun Beg, imply his ambitious accumulation of wealth and estates alienated rivals and contributed to his 1466 dismissal amid rumors of disloyalty tied to his Serbian origins. His 1474 execution, following accusations of conspiring with or involvement in Crown Prince Mustafa's 1473 poisoning, is widely regarded by historians as palace intrigue rather than evidence of treason, given his prior loyalty and II's pattern of eliminating powerful viziers. Some Balkan historiographies, influenced by nationalist narratives, critique his role in subjugating Christian territories, including his birthplace , as emblematic of , though this overlooks his voluntary integration into Ottoman service. Overall, assessments emphasize his net positive impact on state centralization, with criticisms often attributed to factional envy rather than failures.

References

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