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The 24th century BC was a century that lasted from the year 2400 BC to 2301 BC.

Events

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Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley civilization
Letter in Sumerian cuneiform, c. 2400 BC, found in Girsu

Inventions, discoveries and introductions

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Korean Chronology

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In modern Korean national mythology, the character Dangun, whose mother was originally a bear, founded the state Gojoseon in 2333 BC and ruled it for about 2000 years. Some Koreans think of it as the earliest Korean state and of Dangun as the ancestor of Koreans. From 1948 until December 1961, the Republic of Korea officially[2] reckoned years by adding 2333 to the Common Era year. The year 2333 BC and the related myth are sometimes presented matter-of-factly as history rather than mythology in Korea.[3]

Biblical Chronology

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Genesis flood narrative. In Jewish and Christian history, sometime near the middle of the 24th century BC,[4] the (known) world was flooded, covering the tops of mountains, and destroying the human and land animal populations. Only the family of a man named Noah, and one breeding pair of each animal type survived the flood by floating in/on a large wooden boat for several months.[5]

References

[edit]
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24th century BC

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The 24th century BC (c. 2400–2301 BC) marked a dynamic phase in ancient Near Eastern history, featuring the maturation of urban societies in southern Mesopotamia's late Early Dynastic III period, the administrative and religious innovations of Egypt's Fifth Dynasty during the , and the administrative peak of the kingdom of in , evidenced by extensive archives detailing trade, diplomacy, and governance. In , the period represented the culmination of the Early Dynastic era (c. 2900–2350 BC), with independent city-states such as , , , Kish, and competing for dominance through warfare, alliances, and economic control over and temple economies. Rulers like of (earlier in the century) had previously expanded influence via military victories, but by mid-century, figures such as of (c. 2350 BC) implemented reforms to curb corruption and temple abuses, as recorded on terracotta cones. Toward the century's close, of achieved temporary unification of Sumerian city-states around 2350 BC, paving the way for Sargon's conquests and the Akkadian Empire's emergence c. 2334 BC. This era saw advancements in writing, monumental architecture like the ziggurats at , and irrigation systems supporting surplus production. In , the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2494–2345 BC) dominated the 24th century, with pharaohs centralizing power through divine kingship tied to the sun god , leading to the construction of solar temples at and reduced-scale s compared to the prior dynasty. Key rulers included (r. 2494–2487 BC), who founded the dynasty and built a at ; (r. 2487–2475 BC), known for naval expeditions to Punt for and ; (r. 2475–2465 BC), who erected a at ; and (r. 2375–2345 BC), the last pharaoh, whose contains the earliest —funerary spells emphasizing the afterlife and cult. These reigns featured bureaucratic expansion, with viziers managing Nile-based agriculture, and foreign trade yielding luxury goods like and . Northwest of , the kingdom of (modern Tell Mardikh, ) reached its apogee c. 2400–2300 BC during the Late Early Syrian period, functioning as a Semitic-speaking with a sophisticated palace-centered administration documented in over 17,000 tablets from Palace G. These archives reveal Ebla's role as a trade hub exchanging textiles, metals, and timber with Mesopotamian cities like Kish and Mari, as well as distant regions including and , under kings like Irkab-Damu and viziers such as Ibrium. Military campaigns against neighbors like Armi and Mari expanded its influence, while standardized weights and a royal underscored economic complexity; the kingdom's destruction c. 2300 BC is attributed to Akkadian forces. Beyond the Near East, the century aligned with the Mature Harappan phase in the Indus Valley (c. 2600–1900 BC), where major urban centers like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro developed with advanced urban features, standardized crafts, and an undeciphered script. Globally, this period preceded major climate shifts around 2200 BC that impacted these civilizations, but it exemplified the Bronze Age's early urbanization and interconnected exchange networks.

Events

Mesopotamia and Near East

The Early Dynastic period in Mesopotamia (c. 2900–2334 BC) featured persistent inter-city-state warfare, particularly among Lagash, Umma, and Uruk, as these polities vied for control over fertile lands and water resources in southern Mesopotamia during the 24th century BC. Rulers like Entemena of Lagash (c. 2400 BC), nephew of the earlier conqueror Eannatum, continued these conflicts by defeating Ur-Lumma of Umma, slaying 60 of his elite warriors, and restoring the boundary ditch of the Guedinna region, as recorded in Entemena's cone inscriptions that emphasize divine favor from Ningirsu, the city's patron god. These engagements, often framed in royal texts as divine mandates, underscored the militarized competition that defined urban development, with Lagash asserting dominance through tactical victories and infrastructure projects like canal maintenance. En-anna-tum II, another successor in the Lagash dynasty, faced similar border skirmishes with Umma around the mid-century, though his campaigns yielded less decisive outcomes compared to Entemena's. Archaeological excavations at (modern Telloh), the religious and administrative heart of , provide direct evidence of these military and administrative activities circa 2400 BC through tablets recovered from the site's Tablet Hill area. One notable example is a letter on AO 4238, sent by the Lu'enna to the king of (possibly ), reporting the death of the king's son in combat against an unnamed enemy, illustrating the personal toll of ongoing warfare and the role of priestly officials in relaying battlefield news. These documents, inscribed in Sumerian, also document routine administrative tasks intertwined with , such as for troops, reflecting the integrated nature of governance and defense in Early Dynastic city-states. In the , the kingdom of (modern Tell Mardikh, ) reached its height c. 2400–2300 BC, with a palace-centered administration documented in over 17,000 tablets revealing trade in textiles, metals, and timber with Mesopotamian cities like Kish and Mari, as well as and . Under kings like Irkab-Damu and viziers such as Ibrium, Ebla conducted military campaigns against Armi and Mari; its destruction c. 2300 BC is linked to Akkadian expansion. The Early Dynastic IIIb phase (c. 2500–2350 BC) concluded amid widespread upheaval, evidenced by destruction layers at key sites like (modern Fara), where burned structures and flood deposits suggest cataclysmic events—possibly invasions or natural disasters—that disrupted urban networks across southern around 2350 BC. This instability facilitated the rise of external powers, culminating late in the century with the founding of the circa 2334 BC by , a Semitic ruler who began as cupbearer to of Kish before usurping him and using the city as a launchpad for broader conquests. Sargon's campaigns systematically subdued Sumerian rivals, including the defeat of of in a decisive battle that dismantled its walls and captured its king, followed by the subjugation of , where he installed his daughter as high priestess of Nanna to consolidate control. These victories over Kish, Uruk, and Ur unified disparate city-states into the world's first known multi-ethnic empire, shifting from fragmented polities to centralized imperial rule and enabling expansions into , , and beyond.

Ancient Egypt

The late Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, spanning the mid-24th century BC, was marked by the reigns of pharaohs Menkauhor Kaiu (c. 2392–2384 BC) and Djedkare Isesi (c. 2384–2356 BC), who continued the tradition of monumental construction centered on royal mortuary complexes. Menkauhor Kaiu, the seventh ruler of the dynasty, is attested by inscriptions in private tombs and king lists, and his reign is associated with the construction of a sun temple known as Akhet-Re ("Horizon of Re") near Abusir, the last such solar cult structure built by a Fifth Dynasty king. His pyramid, possibly located in North Saqqara, shifted the royal necropolis away from Abusir, reflecting evolving burial preferences while maintaining the dynasty's focus on solar and funerary architecture. Djedkare Isesi, succeeding Menkauhor, ruled for nearly three decades and oversaw significant administrative reforms alongside architectural projects, including his pyramid complex at South , which featured a with detailed reliefs depicting royal rituals. This site, approximately 6 km south of , included a valley temple connected by a and emphasized the pharaoh's eternal sustenance through offerings, as evidenced by surviving fragments of the temple's decorative program. Unlike his predecessors, Djedkare did not build a sun temple, signaling a subtle decline in solar cult emphasis, though his reign maintained the centralized authority of through temple endowments at and . The reign of (c. 2375–2345 BC), the final Fifth Dynasty pharaoh, exemplified artistic and architectural innovation with the construction of his pyramid at , the smallest of royal pyramids but notable for containing the earliest known inscribed on its interior walls. These hieroglyphic spells, dating to around 2350–2323 BC, represent the first extensive religious corpus in Egyptian pyramid architecture, detailing the pharaoh's transformation into an akh (transfigured spirit) and ascension to the through rituals invoking gods like and Re. The texts underscore evolving beliefs in royal immortality, blending solar and chthonic elements to ensure the king's eternal provision and protection in the (underworld). The transition to the Sixth Dynasty occurred around 2345 BC with the accession of , whose reign marked the culmination of pyramid-building grandeur before the gradual onset of economic and political strains leading to decline. 's pyramid at , constructed adjacent to Djoser's , incorporated advanced casing techniques and a , symbolizing continuity in pharaonic ideology amid increasing reliance on provincial administration. This period's stability was underpinned by the predictable inundations, which facilitated agricultural prosperity; tomb reliefs from elite burials at and depict seasonal flooding enabling and cultivation, herding, and fishing, essential to the state's grain-based economy. Economic vitality extended to maritime trade, with expeditions to the around 2400 BC sourcing luxury goods like , , and , as inferred from administrative records and reliefs in Fifth Dynasty tombs illustrating and overseas voyages. These activities, tied to the Nile's role as a transport artery, reinforced societal cohesion under pharaonic rule, with evidence from mastabas showing organized labor for harvesting and tribute transport during inundation cycles.

Indus Valley and South Asia

The mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, known as the Integration Era or Mature Harappan period (c. 2600–1900 BC), reached its peak during the 24th century BC, marked by the flourishing of major urban centers such as and along the in present-day . These cities, which likely housed 30,000 to 60,000 residents each, exemplified sophisticated with grid-like street layouts, multi-story baked-brick houses, and an extensive network of covered drainage systems featuring brick-lined sewers and soak pits for . Standardized fired bricks, measuring uniformly around 28 x 14 x 7 cm in the Indus ratio of 1:2:4, were used extensively in construction, reflecting centralized production and quality control across the civilization's expanse. Extensive trade networks connected the Indus Valley to regions as distant as around 2400 BC, facilitating the exchange of goods like beads, shell artifacts, and textiles for Mesopotamian metals and woolen fabrics. Archaeological evidence from Sumerian sites, including and Kish, includes Indus-style square stamp seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script, as well as imported from the Indus region, underscoring the scale and regularity of these interactions. The was underpinned by a robust agricultural base, with evidence of cultivated crops including , barley, and the earliest known domesticated (Gossypium arboreum), harvested from sites like where impressions on and fabric fragments date to this period. Large granaries, such as the multi-chambered structure at capable of storing surplus grain, supported a estimated at 1 to 5 million across more than 1,000 settlements spanning over 1 million square kilometers from the Indus plains to and beyond. The , appearing on over 4,000 stamp seals and clay impressions, consists of more than 400 distinct symbols in short inscriptions typically 4–5 signs long, likely serving administrative functions such as marking ownership, trade goods, or bureaucratic records, though it remains undeciphered. Notably, the absence of monumental palaces, temples, or elite burials across excavated sites suggests an egalitarian societal structure without clear evidence of centralized kingship or priestly hierarchies, where public infrastructure like and wells appears accessible to the broader . This contrasts with contemporary civilizations, emphasizing collective resource management in a monsoon-dependent environment.

East Asia and Other Regions

In , the , spanning approximately 3000 to 1900 BC in the middle and lower valley, represented a key phase characterized by advanced ceramic technology and emerging social complexity. Notable for its highly polished black pottery, often thin-walled and egg-shell-like, this culture produced vessels that indicated specialized craftsmanship and possible ritual uses. Fortified settlements, such as the site in southern Province dated around 2300 BC, featured rammed-earth walls enclosing elite residences, administrative structures, and burials with status markers like and artifacts, evidencing and early . Hints of early silk production appear in remnants of fabric found in Longshan tombs, suggesting small-scale alongside agriculture. To the north, the in northeastern and experienced its decline around 2900 BC, marking the end of a period from about 4700 to 2900 BC known for ritualistic practices and monumental . This culture is renowned for intricate artifacts, including bi discs and cong tubes used in burials and ceremonies, which symbolized cosmological beliefs and elite authority. Altar complexes, such as those at Niuheliang with stone platforms and tomb clusters, served as ritual centers, highlighting organized religious activities without evidence of centralized states. On the Korean peninsula, the pre-Gojoseon period around 2400 BC fell within the late Chulmun culture (c. 8000–1500 BC), featuring dispersed villages with comb-pattern pottery—vessels decorated by incising patterns with combs before firing—that reflected continuity in traditions transitioning to . Early evidence of farming emerges in this , with phytoliths and charred grains from sites indicating experimental cultivation of wet-rice alongside millet, laying foundations for later agricultural intensification. In other regions, archaeological evidence remains sparse and unaligned with major cultural shifts. In , the (c. 3600–2800 BC) persisted into the late third millennium BC, with tell settlements—multi-layered mound villages like those near Balaton in —showing fortified enclosures and tools but no widespread urbanism. Across the , the pre-Olmec Archaic period (c. 8000–2000 BC) featured mobile foraging groups in , with sites yielding ground stone tools and early domestication but lacking permanent villages or monumental constructions.

Inventions, Discoveries, and Introductions

Administrative and Communication Advances

In during the mid-third millennium BC, the earliest known letters appear from the reign of (c. 2400–2300 BC), indicating the use of an organized courier system employing runners to transport written documents such as pharaonic decrees and administrative reports across the Nile Valley. These communications were essential for coordinating governance in a centralized state, with evidence preserved in temple records from that include letters alongside accounts and duty rosters, suggesting runners relayed official messages between the capital and provincial officials. inscriptions from further corroborate the role of such couriers in disseminating royal orders, as seen in administrative notations implying structured delivery networks for state correspondence. In , particularly at (ancient ), early administrative texts from around 2400 BC document sophisticated bureaucratic practices, including letters that detail military victories, resource recoveries, and diplomatic exchanges. For instance, a letter from Luenna, the sanga of Ninmar, to Enetarzi, the ensi of , reports the defeat of Elamite raiders, the capture of prisoners, and the reclamation of goods like silver vessels and garments, highlighting the use of writing for real-time governance and coordination. These texts also cover , such as temple inventories of grain, metals, and precious stones, and labor management through records of personnel assignments, slave sales (averaging 20 shekels), and infrastructure projects like canal digging, reflecting a temple-centered economy that supported urban societies. Reforms by rulers like further illustrate administrative oversight, with decrees standardizing rations for craftsmen and prohibiting arbitrary seizures of labor or assets. The development of seal impressions in the Indus Valley Civilization during the 24th century BC facilitated bureaucratic control in and administration, with steatite stamps pressed onto clay to authenticate goods and documents in urban centers like and . These impressions, often featuring motifs like the or animals alongside short inscriptions, served as markers of ownership and authority, enabling the regulation of commodities in a vast network without a centralized script for narratives. Archaeological finds of sealed clay tags and storage jars demonstrate their role in preventing tampering during resource distribution, mirroring West Asian practices but adapted to the Indus' decentralized yet organized economy.

Agricultural and Material Innovations

In during , the first documented evidence of organized appears around 2420 BC in reliefs from the Sun Temple of Niuserre (Nyuserra) at Abu Ghurob, depicting workers managing hives, extracting , and processing for elite consumption such as in food, , and rituals. These scenes illustrate cylindrical hives made from mud or reeds, with beekeepers using smoke to calm bees and hand-held tools for harvesting, highlighting apiculture's role in supporting the pharaonic economy and symbolic associations with fertility and divine offerings. In Mesopotamia, agricultural efficiency advanced with improvements to the ard plough during the Early Dynastic III period around 2350 BC, incorporating a seed funnel for simultaneous plowing and sowing in irrigated fields, which boosted yields of staple crops like barley and emmer wheat by allowing deeper soil penetration and better seed distribution. This innovation, evident in textual records and artistic depictions from sites like Lagash, reduced labor demands and supported population growth in urban centers by optimizing dry-farming techniques in the alluvial plains, where annual Nile-like floods were less reliable. Material crafts transitioned with the emergence of early working in around 2400 BC, as seen in arsenical tools and artifacts from , representing a shift from pure to deliberate alloying with for harder, more durable implements like axes and sickles. These alloys, containing 2-5% , improved casting properties and edge retention, facilitating expanded trade and warfare while marking the onset of the in the , with production centered in temple workshops. In the Indus Valley Civilization, cotton textile production became prominent around 2400 BC, as inferred from abundant terracotta spindle whorls and fabric impressions on seals at sites like and Mohenjo-Daro, indicating widespread spinning of fibers for clothing and trade goods. These lightweight whorls, often disc-shaped and weighing 10-20 grams, enabled efficient hand-spinning of fine yarns, supporting a specialized economy.

Chronologies and Mythologies

Korean Chronology

The Korean mythological tradition traces the founding of Gojoseon, considered the first Korean kingdom, to 2333 BC by Dangun Wanggeom, a semi-divine figure born to the heavenly prince Hwanung and a bear-woman named Ungnyo who transformed from a after a period of devotion. According to the legend, Hwanung descended from heaven to Mount Taebaek with 3,000 followers to govern humans, animals, and plants; Ungnyo, one of the animals, achieved human form through eating and while abstaining from sunlight for 100 days, leading to her union with Hwanung and the birth of Dangun. Dangun then established his capital at , a location mythically identified near modern-day in northern Korea, marking the symbolic unification of heaven, earth, and humanity under the principle of hongik insang (broad benefit to humankind). The myth portrays Dangun's reign lasting approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years, after which he retreated to become the mountain god Sansin on Mount Baekdu, emphasizing themes of harmony between the divine and mortal realms central to Korean shamanistic cosmology. This narrative, preserved in the 13th-century chronicle (Memorabilia of the ) compiled by Iryeon, serves as the primary textual source for the Dangun legend, drawing from earlier oral traditions and records to affirm Korean independent of Chinese influences. The specifies the founding date as the 25th year of the Chinese Emperor Yao's reign, corresponding to 2333 BC in the , positioning Gojoseon as a foundational in East Asian antiquity. In modern history, the Republic of Korea officially adopted 2333 BC as the nation's cultural starting point through the Dangun era (Dangi) calendar system, which numbered years from Dangun's founding and was used in official documents from 1948 until its replacement by the in 1961 to align with international standards. This era underscored national identity during the post-colonial period, with October 3 designated as Gaecheonjeol (Opening of the Heavens Day) to commemorate the myth, a still observed today. Archaeologically, the legendary date of 2333 BC aligns broadly with the period in Korea, characterized by comb-pattern pottery (chulmuntogi) villages that emerged around 3500–2000 BC, featuring semi-subterranean pit houses and evidence of settled communities along rivers like the Han and Imjin. Sites such as Amsa-dong near yield pottery with incised comb designs dating to circa 4000–3000 BC, indicating cultural continuity into the around 1500 BC, though no material evidence directly corroborates the existence of Dangun or Gojoseon as described in the myth, which remains a foundational ethnomyth rather than historical record.

Biblical Chronology

In Biblical chronology, the 24th century BC corresponds primarily to the period immediately following the narrative and the early postdiluvian generations, based on the of the . According to the calculations of , the Flood commenced in 2348 BC, marking a pivotal event where and his family survived a global deluge that repopulated the earth. This date derives from summing the genealogical ages in Genesis 5 and 7, placing Noah's 600th year at that point after Creation in 4004 BC. Post-Flood, the narrative in Genesis 8–11 describes the repopulation through Noah's sons—Shem, , and —and their descendants, with the incident occurring around 2242 BC in Ussher's timeline. This event, involving human dispersion and language confusion, is dated approximately 101 years after the , based on the genealogy in Genesis 11:10–16, where Arphaxad's birth follows the by two years and subsequent lifespans lead to , associated with the earth's division. Ancient chroniclers, including Berosus and Africanus, align the with the mid-24th century BC, supporting Ussher's framework within a decade. Variations exist across textual traditions. The version of Genesis extends the antediluvian and postdiluvian genealogies, pushing the to approximately 3100–3000 BC, outside the 24th century BC, with Creation around 5500 BC. For instance, the Chronographer () dated the to 3043 BC using figures. The Samaritan Pentateuch further compresses timelines, placing the around 2500 BC in some reconstructions, but still overlapping the late 26th to early 25th centuries BC. These differences stem from variances in reported ages at fatherhood in Genesis 5 and 11, with the yielding the shortest chronology. Scholarly defenses of the Masoretic dating emphasize its alignment with references, such as 2 Peter 3:5–6, which affirm a historical reshaping the world, without specifying dates but supporting a recent timeline relative to patriarchal eras. No archaeological correlations are claimed for these events in mainstream , as Biblical relies on internal textual summation rather than external validation.

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