Hubbry Logo
CauliflowerCauliflowerMain
Open search
Cauliflower
Community hub
Cauliflower
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Cauliflower
Cauliflower
Cauliflower
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Cauliflower
Cauliflower, cultivar unknown
SpeciesBrassica oleracea
Cultivar groupBotrytis Group
OriginNortheast Mediterranean, South Asia
Cultivar group membersMany; see text.
Cauliflower plants growing in a nursery

Cauliflower is one of several vegetables cultivated from the species Brassica oleracea in the genus Brassica, which is in the Brassicaceae (or mustard) family. Cauliflower usually grows with one main stem that carries a large, rounded "head" made of tightly clustered, immature white or off-white flower buds called the "curd".[1] Typically, only the "head" is eaten.

An annual plant that reproduces by seed, the cauliflower head is composed of a (generally) white inflorescence meristem. Although cauliflower heads resemble those in broccoli, the latter differs in having flower buds as the edible portion.

The global cauliflower production (combined with broccoli) in 2023 was 26.5 million tonnes, led by China and India with 72% of the total.

Description

[edit]

There are four major groups of cauliflower.[2]

  1. Italian: This specimen is diverse in appearance, biennial, and annual in type. This group includes white, Romanesco, and various brown, green, purple, and yellow cultivars. This type is the ancestral form from which the others were derived.
  2. Northern European annuals: These are used in Europe and North America for summer and fall harvests. They were developed in Germany in the 18th century and include the old cultivars Erfurt and Snowball.
  3. Northwest biennial: Used in Europe for winter and early spring harvest, developed in France in the 19th century and includes the old cultivars Angers and Roscoff.
  4. Asian: A tropical cauliflower used in China and India, it was developed in India during the 19th century from the now-abandoned Cornish type[3] and includes old varieties Early Benaras and Early Patna.

Domestication

[edit]

Cauliflowers are an "arrested inflorescence" subspecies of B. oleracea that arose around 2,500 years ago.[4] Genomic analysis finds initially evolved from broccoli with three MADS-box genes, playing roles in its curd formation. Nine loci and candidate genes are linked with morphological and biological characters.[4]

Varieties

[edit]

There are hundreds of historic and current commercial varieties used around the world. A comprehensive list of about 80 North American varieties is maintained at North Carolina State University.[5]

Colors

[edit]
  • White cauliflower is the most common color of cauliflower, having a contrasting white head (also called "curd", having a similar appearance to cheese curd),[6] surrounded by green leaves.[6]
  • Orange cauliflower contains beta-carotene as the orange pigment, a provitamin A compound. This orange trait originated from a natural mutant found in a cauliflower field in Canada.[7] Cultivars include 'Cheddar' and 'Orange Bouquet'.
  • Green cauliflower in the B. oleracea Botrytis Group is sometimes called broccoflower. It is available in the normal curd (head) shape and with a fractal spiral curd called Romanesco broccoli. Both have been commercially available in the U.S. and Europe since the early 1990s. Green-headed varieties include 'Alverda, 'Green Goddess', and 'Vorda'. Romanesco varieties include 'Minaret' and 'Veronica'.
  • The purple color is caused by the presence of anthocyanins, water-soluble pigments that are found in many other plants and plant-based products, such as red cabbage and red wine.[8] Varieties include 'Graffiti' and 'Purple Cape'.

Phytochemicals

[edit]

Cauliflower contains several non-nutrient phytochemicals common in the cabbage family that are under preliminary research for their potential properties, including isothiocyanates and glucosinolates.[9] Boiling reduces the levels of cauliflower glucosinolates, while other cooking methods, such as steaming, microwaving, and stir frying, have no significant effect on glucosinolate levels.[10]

Etymology

[edit]

The word "cauliflower" derives from the Italian cavolfiore, meaning "cabbage flower".[11] The ultimate origin of the name is from the Latin words caulis (cabbage) and flōs (flower).[12]

Nutrition

[edit]
Cauliflower, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy25 kcal (100 kJ)
5 g
Sugars1.9 g
Dietary fiber2 g
0.3 g
1.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
4%
0.05 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
5%
0.06 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.507 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
13%
0.667 mg
Vitamin B6
11%
0.184 mg
Folate (B9)
14%
57 μg
Vitamin C
54%
48.2 mg
Vitamin E
1%
0.08 mg
Vitamin K
13%
15.5 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
22 mg
Iron
2%
0.42 mg
Magnesium
4%
15 mg
Manganese
7%
0.155 mg
Phosphorus
4%
44 mg
Potassium
10%
299 mg
Sodium
1%
30 mg
Zinc
2%
0.27 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water92 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[13] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[14]

Raw cauliflower is 92% water, 5% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), raw cauliflower provides 25 calories of food energy, and has a high content (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (54% DV) and moderate levels of several B vitamins, vitamin K, and potassium (10–14% DV; table). Contents of other micronutrients are low (below 5% DV).

Cultivation

[edit]

History

[edit]

Cauliflower is the result of selective breeding and likely arose in the Mediterranean region, possibly from broccoli.[15]

Pliny the Elder included cyma among cultivated plants he described in Natural History: "Ex omnibus brassicae generibus suavissima est cyma"[16] ("Of all the varieties of cabbage the most pleasant-tasted is cyma").[17] Pliny's description likely refers to the flowering heads of an earlier cultivated variety of Brassica oleracea.[18]

In the Middle Ages, early forms of cauliflower were associated with the island of Cyprus, with the 12th- and 13th-century Arab botanists Ibn al-'Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar claiming its origin to be Cyprus.[19][20] This association continued into Western Europe, where cauliflowers were sometimes known as Cyprus colewort, and there was extensive trade in Western Europe in cauliflower seeds from Cyprus, under the French Lusignan rulers of the island, until well into the 16th century.[21]

It is thought to have been introduced into Italy from Cyprus or the east coast of the Mediterranean around 1490 and then spread to other European countries in the following centuries.[15]

François Pierre La Varenne employed chouxfleurs in Le cuisinier françois.[22] They were introduced to France from Genoa in the 16th century and are featured in Olivier de Serres' Théâtre de l'agriculture (1600), as cauli-fiori "as the Italians call it, which are still rather rare in France; they hold an honorable place in the garden because of their delicacy",[23] but they did not commonly appear on grand tables until the time of Louis XIV.[24] It was introduced to India in 1822 by the British.[25]

Horticulture

[edit]

Cauliflower is relatively difficult to grow compared to cabbage, with common problems such as an underdeveloped head and poor curd quality.[26]

Climate

[edit]

Because the weather is a limiting factor for producing cauliflower, the plant grows best in moderate daytime temperatures 21–29 °C (70–85 °F), with plentiful sun and moist soil conditions high in organic matter and sandy soils.[6] The earliest maturity possible for cauliflower is 7 to 12 weeks from transplanting.[26] In the northern hemisphere, fall season plantings in July may enable harvesting before autumn frost.[6]

Long periods of sun exposure in hot summer weather may cause cauliflower heads to discolor with a red-purple hue.[6]

Seeding and transplanting

[edit]

Transplantable cauliflowers can be produced in containers such as flats, hotbeds, or fields. In soil that is loose, well-drained, and fertile, field seedlings are shallow-planted 1 cm (1⁄2 in) and thinned by ample space – about 12 plants per 30 cm (1 ft).[6] Ideal growing temperatures are about 18 °C (65 °F) when seedlings are 25 to 35 days old.[6] Applications of fertilizer to developing seedlings begin when leaves appear, usually with a starter solution weekly.

Transplanting to the field normally begins in late spring and may continue until mid-summer. Row spacing is about 38–46 cm (15–18 in). Rapid vegetative growth after transplanting may benefit from such procedures as avoiding spring frosts, using starter solutions high in phosphorus, irrigating weekly, and applying fertilizer.[6]

Disorders, pests, and diseases

[edit]

The most important disorders affecting cauliflower quality are a hollow stem, stunted head growth or buttoning, ricing, browning, and leaf-tip burn.[6] Among major pests affecting cauliflower are aphids, root maggots, cutworms, moths, and flea beetles.[26] The plant is susceptible to black rot, black leg, club root, black leaf spot, and downy mildew.[6]

Harvesting

[edit]

When cauliflower is mature, heads appear clear white, compact, and 15–20 cm (6–8 in) in diameter, and should be cooled shortly after harvest.[6] Forced air cooling to remove heat from the field during hot weather may be needed for optimal preservation. Short-term storage is possible using cool, high-humidity storage conditions.[6]

Pollination

[edit]

Many species of blowflies, including Calliphora vomitoria, are known pollinators of cauliflower.[27]

Cauliflower production
2023, millions of tonnes
 China 9.7
 India 9.5
 United States 1.1
 Mexico 0.8
 Spain 0.6
World 26.5
Source: FAOSTAT
of the United Nations[28]

Production

[edit]

In 2023, world production of cauliflower (combined for production reports with broccoli) was 26.5 million tonnes, led by China and India which had 72% of the total (table). Secondary producers were the United States, Spain, and Mexico.

Korean fried cauliflower
Korean fried cauliflower
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

Culinary

[edit]

Cauliflower heads can be roasted, grilled, boiled, fried, steamed, pickled, or eaten raw. When cooking, the outer leaves and thick stalks are typically removed, leaving only the florets (the edible "curd" or "head"). The leaves are also edible but are often discarded.[29]

Cauliflower can be used as a low-calorie, gluten-free alternative to rice and flour. Between 2012 and 2016, cauliflower production in the United States increased by 63%, and cauliflower-based product sales increased by 71% between 2017 and 2018. Cauliflower rice is made by pulsing cauliflower florets and cooking the result in oil.[30][31] Cauliflower pizza crust is made from cauliflower flour.[32] Mashed cauliflower is a low-carbohydrate alternative to mashed potatoes.[33]

In culture

[edit]
See also: Romanesco broccoli § Fractal structure

Cauliflower has been noticed by mathematicians for its distinct fractal dimension,[34][35] calculated to be roughly 2.8.[36][37] One of the fractal properties of cauliflower is that every branch, or "module", is similar to the entire cauliflower. Another quality, also present in other plant species, is that the angle between "modules", as they become more distant from the center, is 360 degrees divided by the golden ratio.[38]

The fancied resemblance of the shape of a boxer's ear to a cauliflower gave rise to the term "cauliflower ear".

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cauliflower

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Cauliflower ( var. botrytis) is a cool-season annual in the family, cultivated worldwide for its edible, compact head of undeveloped white flower buds known as the . The plant grows to a height of 30-60 cm, featuring a short, thick stem topped by a rosette of large, broad, wavy green leaves that often partially envelop the developing to protect it from . While the traditional variety produces a white head, has yielded colorful types, including purple, orange, and green cultivars, which retain similar nutritional profiles but offer visual appeal in culinary applications. Cauliflower traces its origins to the and Asia Minor regions, where cultivation began over 2,000 years ago. It spread to during the , gaining popularity in the through Italian and French growers who refined varieties for larger, more tender heads. Introduction to the occurred later, with commercial production starting in the early in , though widespread adoption in the U.S. did not occur until the , primarily in states like and . As of 2023, global production of cauliflower and combined was approximately 26.5 million metric tonnes, led by and . In cultivation, cauliflower thrives in fertile, well-drained soils with a of 6.0 to 7.5 and requires consistent , full sun, and temperatures between 60°F and 70°F (15°C to 21°C) for optimal head development. Seeds are typically sown indoors 4 to 6 weeks before the last spring frost or started as transplants spaced 12 to 24 inches apart in rows 24 to 36 inches wide, with maturity ranging from 60 to 100 days depending on variety and . To prevent discoloration and maintain quality, heads are often blanched by tying leaves over the or using self-blanching varieties; occurs when the head is firm and compact, ideally before flower stalks elongate. Pests like cabbage worms and diseases such as clubroot pose common challenges, managed through , resistant varieties, and . Nutritionally, cauliflower is low in calories (about 25 kcal per 100 g) and provides significant amounts of (nearly 50% of daily needs per cup), , , , and antioxidants like glucosinolates, which support immune function and may reduce cancer risk. It is commonly prepared steamed, roasted, or raw in salads, and serves as a low-carbohydrate substitute for or mashed potatoes in modern diets.

Botany and Description

Botanical Characteristics

Cauliflower ( var. botrytis) is an herbaceous annual or biennial plant in the family, cultivated as a cool-season for its edible central flowering head, known as the , which consists of condensed, abortive inflorescences. The plant exhibits a rosette of large, light green, ribbed leaves that branch from the top of a thickened central stem, forming a compact basal structure that protects the developing head. Typical stem height ranges from 20 to 100 cm, depending on variety and growing conditions, while the curd measures 15 to 25 cm in diameter at maturity, composed of proliferated meristems that remain arrested in development. The life cycle of cauliflower is biennial in , involving vegetative growth in the first year followed by flowering and production in the second, but it is commercially grown as an , with harvest occurring 60 to 100 days after planting during the vegetative to early reproductive phase. formation is triggered by specific environmental cues, such as cool temperatures and photoperiod, leading to the proliferation of s from the apical rather than progression to full flower development. This process results in a compact, dome-shaped head of undifferentiated floral primordia, distinguishing it from , where proliferation advances to form distinct florets and buds. Like other cultivars, cauliflower displays during flowering, a genetic mechanism that prevents and promotes through recognition of S-locus glycoproteins. The plant's shallow and overall morphology support efficient uptake in cool, moist soils, contributing to its adaptation as a temperate .

Varieties and Colors

Cauliflower cultivars exhibit significant diversity in color, shape, and post-harvest characteristics, primarily due to and natural mutations that alter pigment accumulation in the , the head formed by tightly packed flower buds. Traditional white varieties dominate commercial production, but colored types—including , orange, and —have gained popularity for their visual appeal and nutritional profiles. Specialty forms like Romanesco feature distinctive spirals in a lime-green hue, resembling a hybrid between cauliflower and . These variations arise from differences in genetic expression affecting and pathways, leading to distinct appearances without compromising the plant's overall botanical structure. Notable examples include the Snowball series, such as Snowball Y, a , self-blanching where inner leaves naturally cover the to maintain its creamy appearance and prevent discoloration. Purple varieties like Purple Cape derive their vibrant hue from high content, while orange types such as Cheddar result from enhanced beta-carotene storage, giving the a golden-orange color. cultivars, often called , blend traits of and cauliflower for a milder flavor and smoother texture. These specific selections highlight how breeders have targeted traits like density and color retention for market demands. Color variations stem from targeted genetic mutations; for instance, the Or gene mutation in orange cauliflower enables the accumulation of beta-carotene in the , a trait first identified in a spontaneous discovered in around 1970 and later characterized by researchers. In purple cultivars, activation of anthocyanin biosynthetic pathways, often linked to mutations like the Pr gene, leads to pigment deposition that imparts deep violet tones. These pigments not only define the visual traits but also contribute to greater stability during storage compared to white types. White cauliflower varieties are particularly susceptible to yellowing when exposed to sunlight post-harvest, as chlorophyll degradation reveals underlying , reducing marketable shelf-life to about 3-4 weeks under optimal cool storage at 0-4°C and high humidity. In contrast, colored varieties demonstrate enhanced stability; purple and orange types retain their hues longer due to protective pigments like anthocyanins and , which act as natural antioxidants against oxidative browning.

Phytochemical Composition

Cauliflower contains a variety of non-nutritive bioactive , primarily , , , and , which contribute to its chemical profile and biological functions. , such as and glucobrassicin, are sulfur-containing compounds characteristic of species, serving as precursors to bioactive like upon enzymatic hydrolysis. , including and glycosides, and , such as beta-carotene and , are also prominent, with their presence influencing the plant's pigmentation and capacity. Total concentrations in fresh cauliflower florets typically range from 42 to 94 mg per 100 g fresh weight, with a mean of approximately 62 mg per 100 g, though levels can reach up to 120 mg per 100 g depending on the . These compounds are hydrolyzed by the enzyme , released during tissue damage such as chopping, to form isothiocyanates like , which is present in low yields of about 1.5 µmol per 100 g in raw mature cauliflower. In , glucosinolates and their products play a crucial role in defense mechanisms, deterring herbivores through bitter and pungent tastes and inhibiting pathogens via antimicrobial activity. Phytochemical profiles vary significantly by cauliflower variety, particularly in colored types. Purple varieties exhibit elevated levels of anthocyanins, a subclass of responsible for their hue, often showing higher total phenolic content compared to white counterparts. Orange varieties, in contrast, contain increased concentrations of , notably beta-carotene, which imparts their distinctive color and enhances provitamin A potential. These variations arise from genetic differences influencing biosynthetic pathways, with outer leaves sometimes accumulating higher levels than florets.

Taxonomy and Etymology

Taxonomy

Cauliflower is classified within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Brassicales, family Brassicaceae, genus Brassica, species Brassica oleracea, and variety botrytis. This classification places cauliflower among the cruciferous vegetables, characterized by their four-petaled flowers and sulfur-containing compounds. As part of the complex, cauliflower shares a common wild ancestor, B. oleracea subsp. oleracea, with other cultivated varieties such as (var. capitata), (var. italica), and (var. acephala). These cultivars diverged through , emphasizing different morphological traits from the same diploid species, which has a chromosome number of 2n=18. The botrytis variety is distinguished by its arrested development, forming the edible , in contrast to var. italica (broccoli), which features elongated flowering stems. Genetically, cauliflower exhibits , a sporophytic system that prevents and promotes within the species. Key genes, such as BoCAL (a homologous to Arabidopsis CAL), play a critical role in curd formation by regulating identity and preventing floral transition. Allelic variations in BoCAL underlie the of the , distinguishing cauliflower from other B. oleracea forms.

Etymology

The term "cauliflower" entered the in the late , specifically around the 1590s, derived from the Italian cavolfiore, meaning " flower." This Italian compound combines cavolo, signifying "" and tracing back to the Latin caulis (stem or cabbage), with fiore, denoting "flower" and originating from the Latin flos (genitive floris). The name aptly reflects the plant's morphology, where the edible head, or curd, consists of undeveloped white flower buds clustered on a central stem, evoking a flowering within the species. In other Romance languages, similar etymological patterns emerged, emphasizing the vegetable's cabbage-like base and floral appearance. The French term chou-fleur, adopted in the , merges chou (, from Latin caulis) with fleur (flower, from Latin flos), mirroring the Italian form. Likewise, the Spanish coliflor combines col or colo (short for col from Latin caulis, meaning ) with flor (flower, from Latin flos). These linguistic parallels across European languages underscore the shared Roman heritage of nomenclature, where the "cabbage flower" motif highlights the plant's distinctive . Modern usage maintains these distinctions while differentiating cauliflower from related brassicas like . In English and other languages, "cauliflower" specifically refers to the white-headed variety (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis), whereas "broccoli" derives from the Italian broccolo (sprout or cabbage crest, diminutive of brocco meaning shoot), denoting the green-flowering cultivar (Brassica oleracea var. italica). This etymological separation—cauliflower as "flower" versus broccoli as "sprout"—persists in botanical and culinary contexts, avoiding confusion despite their common ancestry in wild .

History and Domestication

Origins and Early Cultivation

Cauliflower, a of var. botrytis, traces its wild ancestry to var. sylvestris, the wild , which grows natively along the coastal regions of the , including areas such as and western . These wild populations exhibit leafy, non-heading forms adapted to rocky, seaside habitats, serving as the foundational genetic stock for . Genetic analyses further identify , a close relative endemic to the Aegean and , as the most proximate wild , with high in hybrids supporting this linkage. Domestication of cauliflower began around 500–600 BCE in the , evolving from these wild forms through human selection for non-bolting traits and enlarged flower structures. This process marked a divergence from the leafy wild ancestors, with early cultivators favoring mutations that arrested floral development to produce compact, edible inflorescences rather than seeds. The timeline aligns with broader B. oleracea domestication events, where initial agricultural practices in the region transformed wild perennials into annual or biennial crops suited for cultivation. Archaeological and textual evidence for early cauliflower cultivation is sparse but points to Assyrian records from the 8th century BCE, which reference vegetable ingredients in royal feasts that may include Brassica-like plants from the region. By the 6th century BCE, Greek sources describe related cole crops, indicating established use in the . The crop spread westward through Greek and Roman trade and colonization, reaching and beyond by the 1st century CE, where it was further selected for curd quality. Initial selection pressures focused on amplifying inflorescence size from the modest flower clusters of wild B. oleracea, transforming leafy, bitter forms into the dense, white heads characteristic of early cauliflower varieties. This involved preferential propagation of plants with hypertrophic meristems, a trait governed by genetic variations in floral identity genes, laying the groundwork for the crop's distinct morphology.

Historical Development

Cauliflower's cultivation spread to in the medieval period through Arab intermediaries, with early references appearing in the works of 12th- and 13th-century botanists and Ibn al-Baitar, who associated it with origins in . By the 16th century, emerged as a primary hub for its growth, particularly in regions like , where extensive cultivation was documented. This European foothold facilitated further dissemination, building on ancient foundations in the Mediterranean. Colonial activities accelerated global expansion in subsequent centuries. Spanish and other European explorers introduced cauliflower to the by the late , initially among early settlers. In , it arrived in in the early 19th century (1822), introduced by Dr. Jemson, superintendent of the Company's garden in , via British colonial channels, and reached southern by the mid-19th century, adapting to tropical conditions through local selection. Breeding advancements marked significant milestones in the 18th and 20th centuries. In England, self-blanching varieties, such as early forms of Snowball, were developed around the late 18th to early 19th century, allowing leaves to naturally cover and protect the curd without manual tying. The 20th century saw the rise of hybrid varieties focused on disease resistance, particularly against pathogens like downy mildew, enhancing yield stability and uniformity through controlled cross-pollination techniques. In the post-2000 era, trends shifted toward organic production and varieties, driven by growing consumer interest in health benefits such as elevated levels in and orange types, which offer superior nutritional profiles compared to traditional cultivars.

Cultivation Practices

Climate and Soil Requirements

Cauliflower thrives in cool climates, with optimal daytime temperatures ranging from 15 to 20°C (59 to 68°F) and nighttime temperatures between 10 and 15°C (50 to 59°F) for best development and quality. The is frost-tolerant down to about -2°C (28°F) for short periods once established, allowing it to withstand light freezes common in early spring or late fall plantings. However, it is highly sensitive to heat, with temperatures exceeding 25°C (77°F) often causing premature bolting, where the shifts to flowering instead of forming compact curds, resulting in poor yields. Certain varieties of cauliflower are classified as long-day plants, requiring photoperiods of 12 to 16 hours or more to initiate curd formation effectively. This photoperiod sensitivity varies by cultivar, with some summer types relying on extended daylight in temperate regions to trigger the transition from vegetative growth to reproductive curd development. Cauliflower prefers well-drained, fertile loamy soils rich in to support its shallow and prevent waterlogging, which can lead to . The ideal ranges from 6.0 to 7.5, ensuring optimal nutrient availability, particularly calcium and , while avoiding acidic conditions below 6.0 that promote diseases like clubroot. Heavy clay or sandy soils should be amended with to improve structure and moisture retention without compromising drainage. While temperate zones with mild summers and cool winters provide the most favorable conditions for open-field cultivation, season extensions are possible in cooler or transitional climates using protected methods such as high tunnels or row covers to moderate fluctuations and extend the growing period. These adaptations allow production in regions with short frost-free periods by protecting young transplants from extreme cold during establishment.

Planting and Maintenance

Cauliflower is typically started from indoors 4 to 6 weeks before the last expected to ensure proper establishment, with optimal at temperatures around 75°F (24°C) before cooling to about 60°F (16°C) for subsequent growth. External nitrogen is usually not critical for the initial sprouting stage of cauliflower seeds, as they rely primarily on stored reserves, though it supports early seedling growth. Transplants are set out at the 4- to 6-leaf stage, ideally when they are 4 to 6 weeks old, with spacing of 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 inches) between plants in rows 60 to 90 cm (24 to 36 inches) apart to allow for adequate air circulation and growth. For direct seeding in cooler climates, are sown 1.3 to 1.9 cm (½ to ¾ inch) deep and thinned to the final spacing once seedlings emerge. Nitrogen is essential for promoting vegetative development, leaf production, and overall plant vigor in cauliflower, leading to improved curd size, yield, and quality. Fertilization includes a pre-plant nitrogen application of 20–50 kg/ha, followed by sidedressings to achieve total seasonal N rates of 160–240 kg/ha depending on tests and region. is essential for consistent , providing 25 to 38 mm (1 to 1.5 inches) of water per week depending on rainfall and , while avoiding waterlogging to prevent stress. Ongoing maintenance includes blanching for white varieties by tying or folding leaves over the developing curd when it reaches 5 to 8 cm (2 to 3 inches) in , a process that takes 1 week in summer or up to 1 month in cooler fall conditions to protect the head from and maintain color. Weeding is managed through mulching or shallow cultivation in the first 30 days after to minimize competition, taking care not to damage the shallow . Thinning is applied to direct-seeded stands to achieve uniform spacing and promote stronger plants. Modern cultivation often employs hybrid varieties for improved uniformity in maturity and quality, enhancing yield predictability in commercial settings. Row covers are commonly used to exclude pests and provide mild frost protection, allowing earlier planting in spring or extension into fall while maintaining optimal temperatures around 18 to 24°C (65 to 75°F).

Pests, Diseases, and Disorders

Cauliflower crops are susceptible to various pests, diseases, and physiological disorders that can reduce yield and quality if not managed properly. Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches, which combine cultural, biological, and chemical strategies, are recommended to minimize these threats while reducing reliance on synthetic pesticides.

Major Pests

Common insect pests affecting cauliflower include the cabbage root maggot (Delia radicum), aphids (such as the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae), and cabbage worm (primarily the imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae). Cabbage root maggots lay eggs near the plant base, with larvae feeding on roots, leading to stunted growth, wilting, and increased susceptibility to secondary infections; this pest thrives in cool, moist soils. Aphids cluster on stems and undersides of leaves, sucking sap and causing curled foliage, honeydew excretion, and sooty mold; they also transmit viral diseases. The imported cabbageworm, a green caterpillar, chews large holes in leaves and heads, often leaving frass; it is part of the broader cabbageworm complex including loopers and diamondback moth larvae. Control measures emphasize prevention through to disrupt pest life cycles, avoiding planting brassicas in the same field for at least two to three years. Physical barriers like floating row covers exclude adult flies and moths from laying eggs. For cabbage worms, (Bt) sprays target larvae effectively when applied early in infestations, while can be managed biologically with natural predators such as lady beetles or through insecticidal soaps if populations exceed economic thresholds (e.g., 10% of plants infested). Chemical insecticides are used judiciously based on and action thresholds to avoid resistance and non-target effects.

Diseases

Fungal and bacterial diseases pose significant risks to cauliflower, with clubroot caused by the Plasmodiophora brassicae, black rot by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, and downy mildew by the Hyaloperonospora brassicae being among the most destructive. Clubroot symptoms include swollen, club-shaped roots, yellowing foliage, and stunted plants, particularly in acidic, waterlogged soils where the persists as resting spores for years. Black rot starts with V- or wedge-shaped yellow lesions on leaf margins, progressing to blackened veins and rotting heads, favored by warm, humid conditions and spread via splashing water or contaminated seeds. Downy mildew appears as irregular yellow spots on upper leaf surfaces with grayish-purple fuzz on undersides, leading to defoliation and reduced head quality in cool, moist environments. Management relies on resistant varieties, such as hybrids bred for tolerance to clubroot and black rot, selected during planting to reduce infection rates. Cultural practices include liming to raise above 7.0 for clubroot suppression, sanitation by removing infected debris, and avoiding overhead to limit moisture on foliage. Fungicides and bactericides, like copper-based products for black rot, are applied preventively when conditions favor disease development, guided by IPM scouting protocols.

Physiological Disorders

Non-pathogenic disorders in cauliflower often result from environmental stresses, including buttoning and riciness. Buttoning occurs when young form prematurely small, button-like heads due to stressors such as low , irregular moisture, cold temperatures, or root damage from , limiting vegetative growth before curd initiation. Riciness, or fuzzy s, develops in maturing heads exposed to high temperatures above 80°F (27°C), direct sunlight, or rapid post-heading growth, causing individual florets to elongate and separate into a loose, rice-like texture. Light brown spots on cauliflower curds arise from oxidation, a natural enzymatic process triggered by exposure to air and light, similar to the browning of cut apple slices; these spots represent a physiological response and are generally safe for consumption if the head remains firm and free of other spoilage signs. These disorders are mitigated through consistent cultural practices, such as maintaining even and fertility via balanced fertilization and mulching, alongside selecting heat-tolerant varieties for warmer planting windows. Blanching leaves over developing curds can prevent sun exposure and reduce riciness in self-blanching cultivars.

Integrated Pest Management

IPM for cauliflower integrates monitoring, cultural controls like and sanitation to break pest and disease cycles, biological agents such as Bt for lepidopteran pests and predatory for , and targeted chemical applications only when pest or disease levels reach established thresholds (e.g., 5-10% defoliation for worms). Regular of fields, starting from , allows early detection, while on well-drained soils minimizes stress-induced disorders and buildup. This holistic strategy sustains productivity by preserving beneficial organisms and reducing environmental impacts.

Harvesting and Pollination

Cauliflower heads, or curds, are typically harvested 60 to 100 days after transplanting, depending on the variety and growing conditions, when the curd measures 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches) in diameter and remains compact and firm before the florets begin to loosen or separate. Harvesting is done by hand using a sharp knife to cut the main stem just below the head, ideally leaving 2 to 4 wrapper leaves attached to protect the curd from physical damage and sun exposure during transport and storage. Each plant generally produces one primary head, contributing to overall yields of approximately 8 to 12 pounds per 10-foot row in home gardens. Post-harvest, cauliflower maintains quality best when stored at 0°C (32°F) with 95 to 98% relative , where it can remain viable for 2 to 4 weeks without significant , yellowing, or decay; longer storage beyond 3 weeks risks quality loss, though wrapper leaves help extend by reducing moisture loss and sensitivity. For seed production, cauliflower relies on cross-pollination mediated by insects such as bees, as the species exhibits self-incompatibility that prevents successful self-fertilization and inbreeding depression. To ensure varietal purity, seed production fields must be isolated from other Brassica oleracea crops by at least 0.5 to 1 mile to minimize unintended cross-pollination. As a biennial plant, cauliflower requires vernalization through overwintering in the first year to bolt and flower in the second season, after which seeds are collected from mature pods; in controlled breeding, hand-pollination techniques are employed to facilitate controlled crosses.

Production and Economics

Global Production Statistics

Global production of cauliflower and , which are often reported together due to similar cultivation, reached approximately 26 million tonnes in 2022, marking a modest increase of 0.3% from the previous year. This figure reflects steady growth in the , driven by rising consumer demand for nutrient-dense amid and wellness trends, as well as advancements in hybrid varieties that enhance disease resistance and overall output. Official data for 2023 indicates production totaled 26.5 million tonnes, with estimates for 2024 suggesting around 26 million tonnes, supported by expanded acreage in key growing areas despite localized climate challenges like erratic weather patterns affecting yields in some regions. Average global yields for cauliflower hover around 18-20 tonnes per , though they vary significantly by region and farming method, typically ranging from 20 to 40 tonnes per in optimal conditions with modern hybrids. Conventional systems generally achieve higher yields compared to organic production, where outputs are about 20-25% lower due to restricted synthetic inputs, though organic methods are gaining traction for sustainable practices. Post-2020, yields have shown resilience with incremental improvements from better and pest , countering some negative impacts from variability such as droughts in parts of and . International trade in fresh or chilled cauliflower and broccoli totaled $1.82 billion in 2023, up 14.6% from 2022, underscoring its role in global food supply chains. Major export flows include shipments from to the , accounting for a significant portion of North American trade, and from to European markets like the and , facilitating year-round availability in import-dependent regions. These dynamics highlight cauliflower's increasing economic importance, with exports bolstering production in leading regions such as and the Mediterranean.

Major Producing Regions

China is the world's leading producer of cauliflower, accounting for approximately 36% of global output with around 9.6 million tonnes in 2023, primarily due to its extensive and suitable temperate climates in provinces such as , , and . follows closely as the second-largest producer, contributing about 35% or 9.2 million tonnes, with significant cultivation in northern states like and where it serves as a key winter crop sown from September to November to leverage the cool, dry season. Other major producers include the (around 1 million tonnes), (352,000 tonnes), and (226,000 tonnes), each benefiting from specialized regional conditions that support high yields. Regional adaptations play a crucial role in production dominance; Mediterranean countries like and enable year-round cultivation thanks to mild winters and hot summers, allowing multiple harvests per year in areas such as and . In northern Europe, including , cauliflower is grown as a summer crop from May to , taking advantage of long daylight hours and cooler temperatures to produce compact heads suitable for export. Asian producers, particularly in and , align planting with cycles, irrigating during wet summers and harvesting in cooler periods to mitigate heat stress on the . Economic factors further bolster these regions' prominence. In the United States, California's Central and coastal areas drive production through advanced systems and access to markets in and , supported by government subsidies for water infrastructure. Low labor costs and government incentives in and facilitate large-scale farming, while the provides subsidies under the to Italian and Polish growers, enhancing competitiveness despite higher operational expenses. However, challenges persist, including in India's region, where over-reliance on for winter crops has led to depleting aquifers and calls for sustainable practices. In the , stringent pesticide regulations limit chemical use to protect , increasing costs for Italian and Polish producers who must adopt to comply.

Nutrition and Health

Nutritional Profile

Cauliflower is a low-calorie , providing approximately 25 kcal per 100 grams of raw serving, with a high water content of about 92%. It contains modest amounts of macronutrients, including 4.97 grams of carbohydrates (of which 2 grams are and 1.91 grams are sugars), 1.92 grams of protein, and 0.28 grams of . The is particularly rich in several vitamins, notably at 48.2 mg (53% of the Daily Value, DV), at 15.5 µg (13% DV), and at 57 µg (14% DV). Among minerals, it offers at 299 mg (6% DV) and at 0.155 mg (7% DV), while being low in sodium with only 30 mg (1% DV).
NutrientAmount per 100g Raw% Daily Value
Calories25 kcal1%
Water91.98 g-
Protein1.92 g4%
Total Fat0.28 g0%
Carbohydrates4.97 g2%
2 g7%
Sugars1.91 g-
48.2 mg53%
15.5 µg13%
57 µg14%
299 mg6%
0.155 mg7%
Sodium30 mg1%
Cooking methods can affect nutrient levels; for instance, may reduce content by up to 50% due to leaching into . Variations in cauliflower color influence certain nutrients; orange varieties contain higher levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to , compared to white types.

Health Benefits

Cauliflower consumption has been associated with several health benefits, primarily due to its content of bioactive compounds such as and glucosinolates, as well as essential nutrients like and . These components contribute to protective effects against chronic diseases through mechanisms including detoxification enzyme induction and antioxidant activity. The anticancer potential of cauliflower is linked to , an derived from , which induces phase II detoxification enzymes such as glutathione S-transferase, aiding in the elimination of carcinogens. Epidemiological studies indicate that higher intake of , including cauliflower, is associated with reduced risk of colorectal and cancers. and animal models further demonstrate sulforaphane's ability to inhibit cancer cell proliferation and promote in and colon cancer lines. Cauliflower exhibits antioxidant effects through its high vitamin C content and glucosinolate breakdown products, which neutralize free radicals and reduce in cells. These compounds also exert actions by inhibiting the signaling pathway, a key regulator of pro-inflammatory , thereby lowering markers like TNF-α and IL-6 in inflammatory models. Clinical trials have shown that regular cruciferous vegetable intake correlates with decreased oxidative damage and inflammation in humans. For digestive health, the in cauliflower promotes bowel regularity by increasing stool bulk and transit time, with one cup providing about 2 grams of to support daily requirements. Additionally, oligosaccharides in cauliflower act as prebiotics, selectively stimulating beneficial gut bacteria such as species, which enhances microbial diversity and short-chain production. Studies on cruciferous consumption reveal shifts in composition that favor profiles and improved . Cardiovascular benefits of cauliflower include blood pressure regulation via its potassium content, which counters sodium effects and promotes vascular relaxation, with epidemiological data linking higher Brassica intake to a 15-25% reduced risk of hypertension. Observational studies further associate cruciferous vegetable consumption with lower incidence of heart disease, attributed to combined effects of fiber on cholesterol levels and anti-inflammatory phytochemicals on endothelial function. A randomized trial demonstrated that daily intake of cruciferous vegetables lowered systolic blood pressure by 3-5 mmHg in adults with mild hypertension.

Culinary Applications

Preparation Techniques

Before preparation, inspect the cauliflower for signs of spoilage to ensure food safety. Discard if dark brown or black spots are present, texture is mushy or slimy, fuzziness indicates mold, or a sour or off smell is detected, as these signal spoilage. Cauliflower preparation begins with thorough cleaning to remove and potential contaminants. To eliminate , florets are soaked for 30 minutes in a solution of 4 teaspoons of salt per of , followed by draining and rinsing under cool . The outer leaves and tough stem are then trimmed away, leaving the compact head intact for cutting into florets or slices as needed. Various cooking methods suit cauliflower, each influencing texture, flavor, and retention. preserves more nutrients by exposing florets to gentle in a over for 3 to 5 minutes until just fork-tender. offers a quicker approach but leads to greater leaching of water-soluble nutrients; florets are submerged in salted for 5 to 7 minutes. develops caramelized edges and nutty flavors by tossing oiled florets at 400°F (204°C) for 20 to 25 minutes. Microwaving provides convenience, cooking covered florets with minimal on high for 4 to 6 minutes, stirring midway. Preservation techniques extend cauliflower's shelf life while aiming to retain quality. Freezing requires blanching florets in water for 3 minutes, shocking in ice water, and then packaging airtight for storage up to 10 to 12 months. uses or fermented brines for shelf-stable results; florets are briefly boiled in salt water (4 teaspoons per gallon) before jarring with spices and acid. involves blanching, then dehydrating at 140°F (60°C) until brittle, after which the pieces can be ground into powder, though levels diminish significantly. Key tips ensure optimal results during . Overcooking should be avoided to prevent mushy textures; instead, check frequently with a for crisp-tender consistency. For colored varieties like purple cauliflower, dry-heat methods such as better retain vibrant hues by minimizing leaching, while adding acid like lemon juice to can help preserve color in moist cooking. generally minimizes nutrient loss across methods, supporting overall quality.

Common Dishes and Uses

Cauliflower features prominently in various global cuisines, often prepared as a versatile vegetable that absorbs spices and flavors effectively. In Indian cooking, aloo gobi is a staple dish where cauliflower florets are simmered with potatoes, , , and seeds, typically served alongside or flatbreads as a comforting vegetarian . Similarly, gobi manchurian, originating from Kolkata's Indo-Chinese fusion scene, involves batter-fried cauliflower tossed in a sweet-spicy made with soy, , and chilies, enjoyed either dry as an appetizer or with gravy over . In Middle Eastern traditions, showcases pickled cauliflower mixed with other vegetables, herbs, and vinegar, serving as a tangy side or to balance rich meals in Persian and broader regional fare. Italian cuisine highlights cauliflower in cavolfiore al gratin, a baked dish of boiled florets smothered in and topped with cheese for a creamy, golden crust, often enjoyed as a side or light . Regional specialties extend to Chinese stir-fried cauliflower with , where blanched florets are quickly wok-tossed with minced , soy sauce, and sometimes chilies or for a simple, savory accompaniment to rice-based meals. In Mexican-inspired modern adaptations, cauliflower tacos feature roasted or spiced florets as a filling, topped with lime crema, cilantro, and salsa in corn tortillas, providing a plant-based alternative to traditional . Contemporary uses have elevated cauliflower's role in health-focused and vegan diets, transforming it into innovative substitutes for grains and proteins. Cauliflower rice, created by pulsing raw florets into grain-like pieces and sautéing lightly, serves as a low-carbohydrate base for stir-fries, bowls, or pilafs, gaining popularity since the early 2010s for its neutral texture. Buffalo cauliflower wings mimic classic chicken wings by coating battered and baked florets in spicy hot sauce and serving with blue cheese dip, a vegetarian staple at sports bars and gatherings. As a pizza crust, riced cauliflower is mixed with eggs, cheese, and seasonings, then baked into a thin base topped with sauce and ingredients, offering a gluten-free option that has surged in demand for low-carb eating. Its mild flavor and firm texture also make it an ideal meat substitute in vegan curries, burgers, or purees for soups, enhancing creaminess without overpowering other elements.

Cultural Significance

In Folklore and Art

In ancient Greek mythology, the —to which cauliflower belongs—was linked to divine origins through the legend of Zeus's sweat. According to tradition, drops of perspiration fell from the god's brow as he grappled with contradictory oracles from and , sprouting the first cabbages on the earth; cauliflower, as a related variety within the , shares this cruciferous lineage. Ancient herbals further embedded cauliflower's precursors in , emphasizing medicinal roles tied to and purity. , in his (Book XX), extolled —a close relative—for alleviating stomach disorders, recommending it as a remedy to restore bodily balance and clarity—qualities symbolically aligned with the vegetable's pale, unblemished form evoking purity in early European herbal traditions. In , cauliflower featured in and still lifes as a symbol of abundance and natural bounty. Dutch Golden Age artists depicted vegetables, including elements, as lavish items in scenes, representing prosperity amid 17th-century economic flourishing. Literary references to cauliflower trace its folkloric name and garden symbolism from medieval to Victorian eras. Early English texts referred to it as "cole-florie" or flowered cole, as in John Gerarde's 1597 , evoking its cabbage-like roots with blossoming heads symbolizing cultivated elegance. In Victorian novels, such as those depicting rural estates, cauliflower embodied orderly domesticity and moral purity in kitchen gardens, contrasting urban vice with wholesome, white-curded virtue—exemplified in period accounts of estate management where it signified reliable abundance for the household.

Modern Cultural Role

In the 2010s, cauliflower surged in popularity within health-conscious communities, particularly as a low-carbohydrate substitute in ketogenic and paleo diets, where it replaced staples like , potatoes, and grains in dishes such as cauliflower and crusts. This boom was driven by the diets' emphasis on reducing carb intake, with cauliflower's mild flavor and versatile texture making it an ideal stand-in, leading to widespread adoption in meal plans and recipes by 2015. By the mid-2010s, demand spiked to the point of shortages in some markets, underscoring its role as a dietary staple for these movements. Post-2015 nutritional research further elevated cauliflower's status as a superfood, highlighting its rich content of bioactive compounds like glucosinolates, phenolics, and flavonoids, which contribute to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects across all plant parts. Media outlets reinforced this perception, dubbing it the "new 'it' vegetable" in 2017 due to its nutrient density and adaptability in gluten-free and low-carb lifestyles. These findings aligned with broader wellness trends, positioning cauliflower as a multifunctional food that supports preventive health without compromising on variety. As of 2025, its role in plant-based and low-carb diets remains prominent. In , cauliflower has become a staple, especially surrounding cauliflower pizza crust, which symbolizes transformation and resilience with phrases like "If cauliflower can be , you can be anything" circulating widely on social platforms since around 2018. It frequently features in cooking competitions, such as : The Professionals, where contestants tackle challenges like preparing cauliflower steaks or multi-component garnishes to demonstrate precision and creativity. These appearances not only entertain but also normalize cauliflower's experimental uses in mainstream media. Sustainability efforts have spotlighted cauliflower in plant-based initiatives, where its low environmental footprint and versatility promote reduced meat consumption and resource efficiency. In urban gardening, it supports by thriving in small-scale setups, as seen in community programs distributing seeds for micro-gardens that include cauliflower to enhance local access. Commercially, brands have leaned into its "versatile veggie" image through campaigns, such as Sol Cuisine's 2022 ode to cauliflower emphasizing its role in plant-based innovation, and quirky ads like Strong Roots' 2021 push for cauliflower as a singular obsession. Events like the annual Margaretville Cauliflower Festival in New York celebrate this through vendor showcases and gatherings focused on the crop's cultural and culinary adaptability.

References

  1. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=261913
  2. https://www.gardenia.net/plant/brassica-oleracea-botrytis-group
  3. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Brassica%2Boleracea%2Bbotrytis
  4. https://itechmag.org/paper/volume7/10-13.pdf
  5. https://www.eatright.org/food/food-groups/vegetables/all-about-cauliflower
  6. https://www.uaex.uada.edu/publications/PDF/FSA-6007.pdf
  7. https://polk.extension.wisc.edu/files/2013/09/Cauliflower_Veggie-Bite-Polk-County.pdf
  8. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL
  9. https://extension.umn.edu/vegetables/growing-cauliflower
  10. https://horticulture.oregonstate.edu/oregon-vegetables/cauliflower-0
  11. https://extension.usu.edu/yardandgarden/research/cauliflower-in-the-garden
  12. https://cvp.cce.cornell.edu/crop.php?id=10
  13. https://www.clevelandmetroschools.org/cms/lib05/OH01915844/Centricity/Domain/91/Cauliflower_Facts.pdf
  14. https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/cauliflower/infos
  15. http://www.hort.cornell.edu/bjorkman/lab/pubs/PDFs/DuclosBjorkmanBroccoliGA.pdf
  16. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18332227/
  17. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/334326
  18. https://blogs.extension.iastate.edu/answerline/2019/10/14/the-many-colors-of-cauliflower-purple-green-orange-and-white/
  19. https://www.syngentavegetables.com/news/innovation-impact/living-color-wonderful-world-cauliflower
  20. https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2007/orange-cauliflower-gene-eyed-as-nutrition-booster/
  21. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2019.01716/full
  22. https://www.postharvest.biz/violet-cauliflower-interesting-properties-for-minimal-processing-due-to-the-high-color-stability-on-the-cut-surface-area
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3550995/
  24. https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/13/8/1163
  25. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8533432/
  26. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10101597
  27. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jsfa.2740350712
  28. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0308814687900124
  29. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/isothiocyanates
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9563729/
  31. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193041
  32. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/14/12/2128
  33. https://www.gbif.org/species/3042854
  34. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=3715
  35. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8476135/
  36. https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-981-97-8949-8_21
  37. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9084216/
  38. https://isvsvegsci.in/index.php/vegetable/article/download/493/442
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226737772_The_Genetics_of_Brassica_oleracea
  40. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11176064/
  41. https://www.etymonline.com/word/cauliflower
  42. https://bresov.eu/about/broccoli-and-cauliflower
  43. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-french/cauliflower
  44. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-spanish/cauliflower
  45. https://www.etymonline.com/word/broccoli
  46. https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/12424/1/maggioni_l_150720.pdf
  47. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350691782_The_Evolutionary_History_of_Wild_Domesticated_and_Feral_Brassica_oleracea_Brassicaceae
  48. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-024-01744-4
  49. https://academic.oup.com/hr/article/doi/10.1093/hr/uhac033/6532230
  50. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10722-017-0516-2
  51. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.06.438638v1
  52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41001172
  53. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982295000728
  54. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41438-019-0164-0
  55. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/vegetable-breeding/cauliflower-origin-production-and-varieties-india/68621
  56. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/hyg-1613
  57. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/bolting-in-spring-vegetables
  58. https://www.gardening.cornell.edu/homegardening/scene595b.html
  59. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/cauliflower/cultural-tips/index.html?src=307-pageViewHLS
  60. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS1466
  61. https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/cole-crop-production.html
  62. http://www.gardening.cornell.edu/homegardening/scene595b.html
  63. https://horticulture.oregonstate.edu/oregon-vegetables/rate-timing-application-source-and-placement-nitrogen-fertilizer-yield-cauliflower-1994
  64. https://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/7219.pdf
  65. https://www.haifa-group.com/fertilization-cabbage-and-cauliflower-open-field-1
  66. https://www.canr.msu.edu/resources/cole_crops_integrated_pest_management_e3231
  67. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/cauliflower/index.html
  68. https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publications/E-99/E-99.html
  69. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/insect-and-related-pests-of-vegetables/pests-of-crucifers
  70. https://www.umass.edu/agriculture-food-environment/vegetable/fact-sheets/cabbage-broccoli-cauliflower-other-brassica-crops
  71. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/bp/bp-22-w.html
  72. https://www.uvm.edu/d10-files/documents/2024-11/PDC_BrassicaDiseases.pdf
  73. https://mtvernon.wsu.edu/path_team/photo-gallery-of-vegetable-problems/brassicaceae/
  74. https://smfarm.cfans.umn.edu/pests-and-diseases/pests-crop-specific-information/brassicas-crucifers-cabbage-broccoli-and
  75. https://www.vegetables.cornell.edu/pest-management/disease-factsheets/biopesticides/biopesticides-for-managing-diseases-of-brassicas-organically/
  76. https://sites.udel.edu/weeklycropupdate/?p=23060
  77. https://njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs/commercial-veg-rec/cole-crops.pdf
  78. https://sites.udel.edu/weeklycropupdate/?p=20727
  79. https://www.canr.msu.edu/resources/commercial_vegetable_recommendations_cole_crops_e1591
  80. https://www.southernliving.com/dark-spots-on-cauliflower-8706527
  81. https://thishealthytable.com/blog/cauliflower-gone-bad/
  82. https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstreams/0981985f-5861-4a9e-95eb-c50d93314b63/download
  83. https://pestmanagement.rutgers.edu/ipm/vegetable/guidelines/cauliflower/
  84. https://extension.arizona.edu/publication/vegetable-planting-calendar-maricopa-county
  85. https://yardandgarden.extension.iastate.edu/how-to/growing-cauliflower-home-garden
  86. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/growing-cauliflower-home-garden
  87. https://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/produce-facts-sheets/cauliflower
  88. https://extension.usu.edu/yardandgarden/research/harvest-and-storage-of-vegetables-and-fruits
  89. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7098457/
  90. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9730131/
  91. https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/geneva-ny/plant-genetic-resources-unit-pgru/docs/brassica-production/
  92. https://www.csun.edu/sites/default/files/SeedSavers_PlantSpeciesBookletpdf.pdf
  93. https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/2750e/
  94. https://www.helgilibrary.com/charts/which-country-produces-the-most-cauliflower/
  95. https://www.marketdataforecast.com/market-reports/cauliflower-and-broccoli-market
  96. https://www.atlasbig.com/countries-cauliflower-and-broccoli-production
  97. https://www.indexbox.io/blog/cauliflower-and-broccoli-world-market-overview-2024-4/
  98. https://producepay.com/blog/mapping-the-worlds-growing-broccoli-and-cauliflower-trade/
  99. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/1/272
  100. https://www.mdpi.com/2311-7524/8/11/1032
  101. https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/cauliflowers-and-broccoli-freshchilled
  102. https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2021/tradeflow/Exports/partner/WLD/product/070410
  103. https://www.helgilibrary.com/charts/production-of-cauliflower-and-broccoli-fell-213-to-352-kt-in-italy-in-2022/
  104. https://www.tridge.com/intelligences/cauliflower/production
  105. https://www.reportlinker.com/dataset/d9a5c6055620f22a4dc235ec2ce9f7c5cfd9b59e
  106. https://www.apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/horticulture/vegetable-crops/cauliflower
  107. https://www.scienceagri.com/2023/11/10-worlds-largest-producers-of.html
  108. https://www.wri.org/insights/growing-water-risks-food-crops
  109. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/europes-illegal-pesticide-trade-surges-farmers-cut-costs-2025-07-10/
  110. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169986/nutrients
  111. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6049644/
  112. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cruciferous-vegetables-fact-sheet
  113. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2579766/
  114. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3793502/
  115. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7346151/
  116. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1756464611000843
  117. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/benefits-of-cauliflower
  118. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2728691/
  119. https://foodrevolution.org/blog/benefits-of-cauliflower/
  120. https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/health-benefits-cauliflower
  121. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11367748/
  122. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/jaha.117.008391
  123. https://www.thekitchn.com/how-to-tell-if-cauliflower-has-gone-bad-235522
  124. https://thishealthytable.com/blog/spoiled-cauliflower/
  125. https://nchfp.uga.edu/how/freeze/vegetable/freezing-cauliflower/
  126. https://extension.sdstate.edu/sites/default/files/2024-04/S-0001-13-Cauliflower-Preserve_It.pdf
  127. https://extension.usu.edu/nutrition/research/cauliflower
  128. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6615361/
  129. https://extension.unr.edu/publication.aspx?PubID=4620
  130. https://nchfp.uga.edu/how/pickle/vegetable-pickles/pickled-cauliflower-or-brussel-sprouts/
  131. https://apps.chhs.colostate.edu/preservesmart/produce/drying/cauliflower/
  132. https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/drying-vegetables/
  133. https://extension.illinois.edu/gardening/preparing-cauliflower
  134. https://www.tasteatlas.com/aloo-gobi
  135. https://www.tasteatlas.com/gobi-manchurian
  136. https://insaneinthebrine.com/torshi-makhloot-persian-pickle/
  137. https://memoriediangelina.com/2014/02/02/cavolfiore-al-gratin-gratineed-cauliflower/
  138. https://omnivorescookbook.com/spicy-cauliflower-stir-fry/
  139. https://mexicanmademeatless.com/roasted-cauliflower-tacos/
  140. https://foodprint.org/real-food/cauliflower/
  141. https://www.escoffier.edu/blog/culinary-arts/cauliflower-pizza-crust-and-other-versatile-uses-for-cauliflower/
  142. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25634171-600-the-surprising-origin-of-sprouts-the-vegetable-we-either-love-or-hate/
  143. https://www.britannica.com/topic/coleslaw
  144. https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/9/19/17874782/cauliflower-trend-vegetarian-paleo-rice
  145. https://lifehacker.com/replace-carbs-with-cauliflower-to-stick-to-a-low-carb-o-1699480767
  146. https://grist.org/food/theres-a-run-on-cauliflower-friend-of-the-paleo-diet-enemy-to-flavor/
  147. https://time.com/4845148/cauliflower-rice-menu/
  148. https://www.fooddive.com/news/cauliflower-in-power-the-veggie-catches-up-to-the-hype/520560/
  149. https://www.popsugar.com/fitness/cauliflower-memes-44837362
  150. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xw-sa52bXoo
  151. https://gfs.com/en-us/ideas/lead-plant-based-trend-craveable-spicy-cauliflower/
  152. https://www.rockflower.org/micro-gardens-for-food-security
  153. https://www.campaigncanada.ca/article/1854644/sol-cuisine-founder-performs-ode-cauliflower
  154. https://www.adweek.com/commerce/why-does-this-gloriously-weird-ad-want-you-to-eat-nothing-but-cauliflower-hash-browns/
  155. https://www.margaretvillecauliflowerfestival.org/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
Contribute something
User Avatar
No comments yet.