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Coincidence
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An image of a total solar eclipse at Orin Junction, Wyoming in 2017. A total solar eclipse happens when the Moon completely blocks the face of the Sun. It is the result of a cosmic coincidence. Even though the Sun is about 400 times bigger than the Moon, it is also about 400 times farther away. This makes the Sun and the Moon appear almost exactly the same size in our sky.
A total solar eclipse at Orin Junction, Wyoming in 2017. A total solar eclipse happens when the Moon completely blocks the face of the Sun. It is the result of a cosmic coincidence: Even though the Sun is about 400 times bigger than the Moon, it is also about 400 times farther away. This makes the Sun and the Moon appear almost exactly the same size in Earth's sky. [1]

A coincidence is a remarkable concurrence of events or circumstances that have no apparent causal connection with one another.[2] The perception of remarkable coincidences may lead to supernatural, occult, or paranormal claims, or it may lead to belief in fatalism, which is a doctrine that events will happen in the exact manner of a predetermined plan. In general, the perception of coincidence, for lack of more sophisticated explanations, can serve as a link to folk psychology and philosophy.[3]

From a statistical perspective, coincidences are inevitable and often less remarkable than they may appear intuitively. Usually, coincidences are chance events with underestimated probability.[3] An example is the birthday problem, which shows that the probability of two persons having the same birthday already exceeds 50% in a group of only 23 persons.[4] Generalizations of the birthday problem are a key tool used for mathematically modelling coincidences.[5]

Etymology

[edit]

The first known usage of the word coincidence is from c. 1605 with the meaning "exact correspondence in substance or nature" from the French coincidence, from coincider, from Medieval Latin coincidere. The definition evolved in the 1640s as "occurrence or existence during the same time". The word was introduced to English readers in the 1650s by Sir Thomas Browne, in A Letter to a Friend (circa 1656 pub. 1690)[6] and in his discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658).[7]

Synchronicity

[edit]
Main article: Synchronicity

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung developed a theory that states that remarkable coincidences occur because of what he called "synchronicity," which he defined as an "acausal connecting principle."[8]

The Jung-Pauli theory of "synchronicity", conceived by a physicist and a psychologist, both eminent in their fields, represents perhaps the most radical departure from the world-view of mechanistic science in our time. Yet they had a precursor, whose ideas had a considerable influence on Jung: the Austrian biologist Paul Kammerer, a wild genius who committed suicide in 1926, at the age of forty-five.

— Arthur Koestler, The Roots of Coincidence[9]

One of Kammerer's passions was collecting coincidences. He published a book titled Das Gesetz der Serie (The Law of Series), which has not been translated into English. In this book, he recounted 100 or so anecdotes of coincidences that led him to formulate his theory of seriality.

He postulated that all events are connected by waves of seriality. Kammerer was known to make notes in public parks of how many people were passing by, how many of them carried umbrellas, etc. Albert Einstein called the idea of seriality "interesting and by no means absurd."[10] Carl Jung drew upon Kammerer's work in his book Synchronicity.[11]

A coincidence lacks an apparent causal connection. A coincidence may be synchronicity — the experience of events that are causally unrelated — and yet their occurrence together has meaning for the person who observes them. To be counted as synchronicity, the events should be unlikely to occur together by chance, but this is questioned because there is usually a chance, no matter how small and in vast numbers of opportunities such coincidences do happen by chance if it is only non-zero (see law of truly large numbers).

Some skeptics (e.g., Georges Charpak and Henri Broch) argue synchronicity is merely an instance of apophenia.[12] They argue that probability and statistical theory (exemplified, e.g., in Littlewood's law) suffice to explain remarkable coincidences.[13][14]

Charles Fort also compiled hundreds of accounts of interesting coincidences and strange phenomena.

Causality

[edit]
Main article: Causality

Measuring the probability of a series of coincidences is the most common method of distinguishing a coincidence from causally connected events.

The mathematically naive person seems to have a more acute awareness than the specialist of the basic paradox of probability theory, over which philosophers have puzzled ever since Pascal initiated that branch of science [in 1654] .... The paradox consists, loosely speaking, of the fact that probability theory is able to predict with uncanny precision the overall outcome of processes made up of numerous individual happenings, each of which in itself is unpredictable. In other words, we observe many uncertainties producing certainty, and many chance events creating a lawful total outcome.

— Arthur Koestler, The Roots of Coincidence[15]

To establish cause and effect (i.e., causality) is notoriously difficult, as is expressed by the commonly heard statement that "correlation does not imply causation." In statistics, it is generally accepted that observational studies can give hints but can never establish cause and effect. But, considering the probability paradox (see Koestler's quote above), it appears that the larger the set of coincidences, the more certainty increases, and the more it seems that there is some cause behind a remarkable coincidence.

... it is only the manipulation of uncertainty that interests us. We are not concerned with the matter that is uncertain. Thus we do not study the mechanism of rain; only whether it will rain.

— Dennis Lindley, "The Philosophy of Statistics," The Statistician (Series D, 2000)

It is no great wonder if in the long process of time, while fortune takes her course hither and thither, numerous coincidences should spontaneously occur.

— Plutarch, Parallel Lives, vol. II, "Sertorius"

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Coincidence

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A coincidence is the remarkable concurrence of two or more events that appear meaningfully related or synchronized, yet occur without any apparent causal connection between them. In the realm of probability and statistics, coincidences are analyzed as surprising but ultimately chance-based occurrences of rare events, often attributable to factors such as hidden causes, perceptual biases in human and , or the multiplicity of potential outcomes in large datasets. A classic illustration is the , where the probability of at least two people sharing a in a group of just 23 individuals reaches 50%, defying intuitive expectations and highlighting how seemingly improbable alignments become likely under random distribution. These events are systematically studied through methods like probabilistic modeling and to distinguish genuine rarity from illusion, with principles such as the explaining why remarkable alignments emerge frequently in expansive scales of observation. From a psychological perspective, the of coincidence arises from innate cognitive processes, including and Bayesian causal induction, where individuals infer connections from co-occurrences that provide weak support for hypothetical causes but are in fact random. This perception can lead to phenomena like the , where noticing an event once heightens awareness of its repetitions, amplifying the sense of significance. indicates that such interpretations reflect rational cognition's search for repetitions against chance baselines, though they may also stem from selective or . Philosophically, coincidences challenge explanations of event relations, traditionally defined as pairs of facts neither causing one another nor sharing a , prompting debates on whether they require deeper accounts beyond mere chance or if they reveal limits in our explanatory frameworks. While some views emphasize their non-causal nature as a fundamental aspect of contingency in the world, others explore integrated approaches combining statistical, psychological, and metaphysical insights to understand why certain alignments feel profoundly notable despite their randomness.

Definition and Origins

Definition

A coincidence refers to the occurrence of two or more events or circumstances that happen simultaneously or in close proximity by chance, appearing connected or meaningful yet lacking any causal relationship between them. This concurrence is often perceived as remarkable due to its unexpected nature, but it arises purely from random alignment rather than or underlying mechanism. For instance, the term encapsulates situations where disparate elements align without explanation, emphasizing the absence of deliberate linkage. While a coincidence involves mere chance association, it differs from , which denotes a measurable statistical relationship between variables without necessarily implying causation. In coincidences, the alignment is typically anecdotal and non-systematic, whereas correlations are identified through patterns that may or may not suggest deeper connections. An everyday example is unexpectedly bumping into an in a distant , where the meeting feels serendipitous but stems from independent paths rather than any coordinated effort. The scope of coincidences encompasses a wide range, from trivial instances that pass unnoticed to profound events that profoundly impact individuals or history. Trivial examples include glancing at two unrelated clocks that happen to display the same time, a simple overlap of mechanical functions without significance. In contrast, profound coincidences might involve life-altering chance encounters, such as meeting a future collaborator during an unplanned delay at an , potentially shaping trajectories or personal destinies. The English word "coincidence" first appeared in written records around 1605, used by philosopher to describe exact correspondences in ideas or events. Similar concepts emerged earlier in other languages, with the French "coïncidence" documented in the late 16th century from roots meaning "to fall together," reflecting a longstanding recognition of chance alignments across European linguistic traditions. , a related but distinct framework, interprets such events as acausal yet meaningful connections beyond mere chance.

Etymology

The term "coincidence" derives from the Latin verb coincidere, meaning "to fall together" or "to occupy the same place," formed by the prefix co- (together) and incidere (to fall upon, from in- upon + cadere to fall). Borrowed into English around 1600 via the French coïncidence (from coincidentia), it first denoted an exact correspondence in substance or nature, often in a geometric sense such as coinciding points or lines. The records its earliest use in 1605, in a philosophical context by , referring to precise alignment or agreement. By the 1640s, the word expanded to describe occurrences happening at the same time, and in the 1680s, it evolved to signify a of events without apparent causal link, as seen in Thomas Browne's writings where he explored such alignments in natural and esoteric phenomena. This shift in the 18th and 19th centuries reflected broader philosophical interest in chance happenings, transforming the term from literal spatial overlap to improbable temporal alignments. Related terms in other languages highlight varying cultural emphases on chance; for example, the German Zufall (from Middle High German zuoval, meaning "what falls to one") conveys or coincidence as an unexpected befalling, shaping perceptions of as passive reception rather than mere alignment. The geometric origins of "coincidence" still subtly inform contemporary definitions, underscoring alignments of independent elements.

Psychological Aspects

Perception and Meaning-Making

Apophenia refers to the human tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated or random events, which plays a central role in how individuals interpret coincidences as significant patterns rather than mere chance occurrences. This cognitive process, often described as patternicity, arises from the brain's innate drive to detect order in the environment, transforming neutral coincidences into perceived signals or insights. For instance, encountering a familiar name in an unexpected context might be attributed to a deeper link, even when statistical randomness explains the event. Coincidences frequently elicit strong emotional responses, including at their apparent improbability, anxiety from their nature, or comfort through interpretations of fate or guidance. These reactions shape personal narratives, where individuals weave coincidences into stories of destiny or , enhancing a of connectedness or purpose in life. Psychological studies indicate that such experiences can promote by fostering reflection and reducing feelings of isolation, particularly when they align with ongoing personal challenges. However, in high-stress situations, the same events may heighten unease by suggesting uncontrollable external forces. Neurologically, the of coincidences engages the brain's pattern-recognition systems, facilitating the rapid linking of contextual cues, enabling the to complete patterns from partial or ambiguous inputs, which underlies the subjective meaningfulness of coincidences. Activation in these areas heightens during coincidental encounters, as the operates as a predictive mechanism, anticipating connections to minimize . Research employing daily diary methods reveals that individuals commonly experience several minor coincidences in everyday life, yet they selectively recall and emphasize only those carrying personal significance, filtering out routine . This selective contributes to the that meaningful coincidences are rarer or more profound than they statistically are. Cognitive biases like can briefly amplify this effect by prioritizing events that align with preexisting expectations.

Cognitive Biases Involved

Cognitive biases play a significant role in the overinterpretation of coincidences, leading individuals to attribute undue meaning to random events through systematic errors in judgment. These biases distort perception by favoring intuitive shortcuts over objective analysis, often resulting in the illusion of patterns or connections where none exist. Confirmation bias contributes to this by prompting people to seek and emphasize that aligns with a preconceived notion of meaningful coincidence while disregarding contradictory information. For instance, when encountering a series of seemingly related events, individuals may selectively recall supporting instances, such as personal anecdotes that fit a of fate, and overlook the vast number of unrelated occurrences that do not. This bias manifests in everyday scenarios, like interpreting a chance meeting as predestined by focusing only on shared details and ignoring the of social interactions. Empirical studies demonstrate that this selective processing strengthens beliefs in coincidental significance, as participants in hypothesis-testing tasks consistently prioritize confirming data over disconfirming . The exacerbates the perceived improbability of coincidences by causing overestimation based on how readily examples come to mind, particularly vivid or media-highlighted ones. Memorable stories of "miracles," such as dramatic reunions or timely interventions reported in news outlets, become disproportionately influential, leading people to judge such events as rarer and more meaningful than they statistically are. This exploits recency and emotional salience, making recent or emotionally charged coincidences seem indicative of deeper patterns rather than chance. Clustering illusion further fuels misperception by causing individuals to detect non-existent patterns in random data, mistaking natural streaks for deliberate sequences. For example, people may view a sequence of clustered heads in flips as non-random, preferring more alternated patterns despite the independence of each flip. Similarly, lottery participants often see clusters of numbers as omens, interpreting draws with repeated digits as evidence of predictability rather than randomness. This arises from an expectation of even distribution in small samples, leading to erroneous causal attributions in coincidental alignments. Seminal 1970s research by and quantified these effects through experiments revealing how heuristics inflate the perceived significance of coincidences. In one study, participants overestimated co-occurrences in random data, such as linking unrelated traits in clinical descriptions, due to availability-driven illusory correlations, with error rates far exceeding objective probabilities. Another demonstrated insensitivity to in sequences, where subjects rejected legitimate random patterns (e.g., clustered heads in coin flips) as non-random, preferring alternations that mimicked representativeness, thus heightening the sense of orchestrated coincidences in everyday variability. These findings established that such es systematically bias probability judgments, providing a framework for rational analysis of apparent synchronicities.

Philosophical and Scientific Explanations

Causality and Determinism

In philosophy, causality is often distinguished from mere regular patterns of events, a view prominently articulated by . Hume argued that what we perceive as causation arises from the constant conjunction of events—where one event (the cause) is regularly followed by another (the effect)—rather than any observable necessary connection between them. True causes, in this account, require not just temporal priority and contiguity but a lawlike necessity that Hume deemed unprovable through experience, leading to skepticism about inferring deeper causal links. Applied to coincidences, such events represent accidental or spurious conjunctions lacking this necessary tie; for instance, two unrelated occurrences happening simultaneously might appear linked due to habituated expectation but remain non-causal, as they do not stem from an essential productive relation. The debate over versus further illuminates how coincidences interact with . In a strictly deterministic universe, as envisioned by Pierre-Simon Laplace's hypothetical "demon"—an intellect knowing all positions and momenta of particles at one time—every event would be perfectly predictable from prior states and natural laws, rendering true coincidences (as surprising alignments) impossible since all outcomes follow inexorably. However, introduces through inherent randomness, such as probabilistic , allowing for genuine contingencies where events align without deterministic necessity, thus permitting coincidences as manifestations of probabilistic outcomes rather than strict causal chains. This tension suggests coincidences challenge classical by highlighting limits in predictability, even if macro-level appears robust. Philosophers like and offer contrasting perspectives on these issues. Spinoza's monistic metaphysics posits that everything is causally interconnected through the single substance of or , where effects necessarily follow from the of causes in an infinite chain of determination, leaving no space for uncaused coincidences—all apparent alignments are integral to the deterministic order of modes expressing divine necessity. Kant, conversely, views as a fundamental category of human understanding imposed on sensory experience, enabling knowledge of phenomena but delimiting it to the realm of appearances; coincidences may thus signal the boundaries of cognition, where alignments occur beyond our grasp of noumenal reality, underscoring the limits of rational in explaining seemingly arbitrary connections. These views bear implications for within deterministic frameworks. Coincidences can be interpreted as evidence of contingency—random or unexplained intersections in causal chains—that injects room for agentic choice, challenging by suggesting systems allow for non-necessary outcomes compatible with libertarian free will, as argued in critiques of agent-causal models where "wild coincidences" arise from statistical laws without undermining . In deterministic systems, such events highlight how initial conditions or micro-level variations create apparent freedoms, supporting compatibilist positions where operates amid causal necessity. Probability serves briefly as a tool to quantify these non-causal alignments, estimating their occurrence without resolving underlying philosophical tensions.

Probability and Statistical Analysis

Coincidences often appear remarkable due to their apparent improbability, but probability theory demonstrates that they are expected outcomes in large populations. The law of truly large numbers posits that with a sufficiently large sample size, even highly unlikely events become probable. For instance, in a population of 250 million people, an event with a one-in-a-million probability occurs approximately 250 times per day, or over 90,000 times per year. This principle explains why rare coincidences, such as two individuals sharing an unusual name or experiencing similar life events, arise frequently across vast numbers of opportunities. A classic illustration is the birthday paradox, which highlights how counterintuitive probability can be in moderate group sizes. The probability that at least two people in a group of 23 share the same (ignoring and assuming uniform distribution over 365 days) is approximately 50.7%. This is calculated as 1−P(no shared birthdays)1 - P(\text{no shared birthdays}), where P(no shared birthdays)=∏k=122365−k365P(\text{no shared birthdays}) = \prod_{k=1}^{22} \frac{365 - k}{365}, yielding about 0.4927, so the complement is roughly 0.5073. In larger groups, such as 70 people, the probability exceeds 99.9%, showing that shared birthdays are commonplace rather than coincidental anomalies. To assess the probability of a specific set of coincidences, such as the parallels between and (e.g., both elected in years ending in 60, both assassinated on Fridays, both succeeded by Southerners named Johnson), one must break it down into independent or near-independent events while accounting for . For example, the chance of two presidents being elected 100 years apart is low if pre-specified (roughly 1/200 for century-spanning U.S. history up to ), but considering all pairs of presidents increases the likelihood significantly. Similarly, the probability of both being assassinated (2 out of 36 presidents up to Kennedy, or about 1/18 each) multiplies to around 1/324 if independent, but the full list of 10-15 parallels, when adjusted for cherry-picking from historical data, yields an overall probability far higher than one in a million—often estimated at 1 in thousands when all possible presidential pairs are considered. This stepwise approach reveals that such clusters are not impossibly rare but arise from selective enumeration of matching traits amid non-matches. Regression to the mean further demystifies perceived clusters of coincidences by showing that extreme outcomes tend to be followed by results closer to the due to random variation. If a rare coincidence occurs (an "extreme" event influenced by chance), subsequent observations are statistically likely to normalize, creating an illusion of clustering followed by sparsity. For example, after noticing an unusual alignment like two friends booking the same flight by chance, future bookings are expected to revert to typical , making additional matches seem less frequent. This arises because extremes often include random , which regresses toward equilibrium in repeated trials. Scientific studies on twins reared apart provide that seemingly impossible coincidences can stem from chance environmental factors. The Study of Twins Reared Apart, conducted in the 1980s and published in 1990, examined identical twins separated at birth and found striking similarities, such as the "Jim twins" (James Lewis and James Springer) who both married women named Linda, divorced, remarried women named Betty, owned dogs named Toy, and vacationed at the same beach—despite no contact. While genetics explained much of their behavioral concordance, analyses attributed specific quirky coincidences to random environmental exposures and chance, with similarity rates for non-genetic traits like brand preferences aligning with probabilistic expectations rather than causation. These findings underscore how large-scale random factors produce "impossible" alignments without invoking deeper meaning.

Synchronicity and Alternative Interpretations

Jung's Theory of

Carl Gustav Jung introduced the concept of as an acausal connecting principle that describes meaningful coincidences between inner psychological states and external events, without reliance on traditional causal mechanisms. In this framework, posits that certain events align in a way that carries profound significance for the individual, transcending mere chance or probability. A classic illustration is the case of a who dreamed of receiving a as a gift, symbolizing rebirth and transformation; during the session, a real scarabaeid appeared at Jung's window, which he captured and presented to her, facilitating a breakthrough in her therapy. The development of synchronicity emerged from Jung's long-term collaboration with physicist , spanning from the 1930s to the early 1950s, during which they explored intersections between psychology and quantum physics. This partnership influenced Jung's 1951 Eranos lecture and culminated in his seminal 1952 monograph, Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle, published as part of his Collected Works (Volume 8). Jung drew on empirical observations, including astrological data and parapsychological experiments, to argue that synchronicity operates as a complementary principle to , particularly in moments of psychological intensity. Central to synchronicity is its linkage to Jung's broader theories of archetypes and the , where universal symbolic patterns reside in a shared psychic substrate beyond individual experience. Synchronicitous events, in this view, manifest when personal symbols or archetypal images from the collective unconscious align with objective outer occurrences, creating a psychoid bridge between psyche and matter— a co-developed with Pauli to explain how archetypal energies might influence physical without causal mediation. Despite its influence in , Jung's theory of has faced significant criticism for its lack of empirical testability and reliance on subjective interpretation. Philosopher , a key proponent of as a criterion for scientific theories, regarded Jungian concepts like as pseudoscientific, arguing they evade rigorous disproof by accommodating any outcome as potentially meaningful. Skeptics contend that without reproducible experimental validation, remains more philosophical speculation than verifiable principle.

Modern and Cultural Variations

In the and spiritualism movements, interpretations of coincidence extend Jung's foundational theory of as a Western precursor, reframing it within practices that emphasize personal empowerment and cosmic alignment. , in his 2003 book The Spontaneous Fulfillment of Desire: Harnessing the Infinite Power of Coincidence, popularizes by linking it to quantum field theories, suggesting that meaningful coincidences arise from aligning intention with the underlying interconnectedness of reality, allowing individuals to manifest outcomes through heightened awareness and effortless action. This approach, influential in and early 2000s wellness literature, portrays coincidences not as random but as signals from a universal intelligence, encouraging practices like to invite synchronistic events. Eastern philosophies offer alternative frameworks for coincidental flow, integrating concepts of causality and harmony without relying on Western psychological models. In and , karma functions as a and cosmic law where past actions generate future outcomes, reflecting accumulated ethical consequences and guiding personal growth. For instance, what appears as chance in daily life is viewed through karma as the ripening of prior intentions, promoting to navigate these interconnections toward liberation. Similarly, Taoist —effortless action in alignment with the —interprets events as natural expressions of universal rhythm. The serves as a divinatory tool for consulting hexagrams that reveal harmonious paths amid apparent , fostering intuitive . On the fringes of , post-2000 speculations have explored coincidences through lenses like and , positing them as evidence of underlying non-local connections rather than pure probability. Chaos theory highlights sensitive dependence on initial conditions, where minor variations can amplify into significant alignments. inspires interpretations of coincidences as acausal correlations, with entangled particles exhibiting instantaneous influences regardless of distance, fueling philosophical extensions to human experiences of meaningful parallelism. These ideas, while speculative and not mainstream, appear in interdisciplinary papers examining entanglement's implications for broader non-local phenomena. Cultural variations in African spirituality emphasize coincidences as ancestral guidance, embedded in oral traditions that underscore communal wisdom and spiritual continuity. In communities such as those in rural , , ancestors are seen as active guardians who intervene through signs like recurring dreams or unexpected encounters, transforming apparent into messages that reinforce ethical living and social harmony, distinct from individualistic Western views. This perspective highlights the diversity of African beliefs, where such guidance is context-specific to ethnic and regional traditions.

Notable Examples and Implications

Historical and Personal Coincidences

One of the most famous historical coincidences involves the lives and assassinations of U.S. Presidents and . Lincoln was elected in 1860, exactly 100 years before Kennedy's election in 1960; both were assassinated on a Friday while seated next to their wives; their assassins, and , were both born in Southern states; Booth was born in 1838, while Oswald was born in 1939; and both presidents were succeeded by Southerners named Johnson—, born in 1808, and Lyndon Johnson, born in 1908. Additionally, Lincoln was shot at , and Kennedy was assassinated in a Lincoln automobile made by Ford. Another striking historical parallel is found between the 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic and Morgan Robertson's 1898 novel Futility, or the Wreck of the Titan. In the book, the Titan is depicted as the largest and supposedly unsinkable of its time, striking an in the North Atlantic in April and sinking with heavy loss of life due to insufficient lifeboats; the real Titanic shared these details, including its size (approximately 800 feet long, close to the Titan's 800 feet), speed (traveling near 25 knots, like the Titan), and the circumstances of the disaster on its maiden voyage. Robertson, a former , drew on contemporary maritime trends for his story, but the specifics remain a notable coincidence. Personal coincidences often manifest in everyday life through seemingly chance encounters or errors that lead to significant outcomes. For instance, wrong-number phone calls have been documented in psychological case studies as triggering serendipitous connections, such as a receiving a misdialed call from a stranger who later becomes a key figure in her life, altering her career path. In another anonymized example from coincidence research, an individual dials a wrong number and connects with a long-lost relative, facilitating reconciliation after decades of separation. These anecdotes, gathered through surveys and interviews in literature, highlight common patterns where minor mishaps yield meaningful results. Historians verify the authenticity of such coincidences by cross-referencing primary sources like official records, eyewitness accounts, and contemporary documents to distinguish verifiable events from embellished tales. For example, they avoid urban legends such as the purported "curse" on presidents elected every 20 years (e.g., Harrison, Lincoln, , McKinley, Harding, Roosevelt, and Kennedy), which lacks empirical support and stems from selective rather than causal evidence. underscores that while these events appear extraordinary, they occur within the vast scope of human experience and are not impossible.

Cultural and Literary Representations

In literature, coincidences often serve as pivotal plot devices to underscore themes of fate and human interconnection. In ' A Tale of Two Cities (1859), the striking physical resemblance between and functions as a central coincidence that drives the narrative's twists, enabling Carton's sacrificial act and highlighting moral redemption amid revolutionary chaos. Similarly, Dickens employed coincidences throughout his oeuvre to forge emotional and moral links among characters, evolving from episodic structures in earlier works to more integrated plots that reflect on . In William Shakespeare's (1606), prophetic encounters with the coincide with Macbeth's battlefield return, igniting his ambition through foretellings of kingship that blur the boundaries between chance, fate, and . Film and media have similarly leveraged coincidences to build suspense and explore moral dilemmas. Alfred Hitchcock's Strangers on a Train (1951) initiates its thriller plot via a chance meeting on a train, where two strangers propose swapping murders, transforming the public space of the locomotive into a site of intimate, fateful convergence that propels the narrative's tension. In contemporary television, the series The Good Place (2016–2020) employs contrived coincidences—such as the improbable grouping of four flawed souls in an apparent afterlife paradise—to unravel ethical philosophies, revealing systemic flaws in judgment and human improvement. Coincidences in frequently symbolize the tension between destiny and randomness, challenging linear causality. ' short stories, such as those in Ficciones (1944), weave coincidences into labyrinthine narratives where chance events—like accidental discoveries of fictional encyclopedias—expose infinite possibilities, merging with aleatory elements to question the nature of reality and identity. These devices invite readers to confront the illusory boundaries between , as seen in tales where predestined paths intersect with unpredictable occurrences. European folklore perpetuates coincidence myths through fairy tales, where serendipitous meetings or objects often signify divine intervention or moral equilibrium, as in variants of Sleeping Beauty where a prince's arrival aligns fortuitously with a curse's end. This motif extended into 20th-century popular culture, influencing adaptations in films and literature that recast folkloric chance as ironic commentary on modernity, thereby sustaining cultural narratives of wonder and inevitability. Such representations enhance storytelling's psychological appeal by mirroring audiences' desire for meaningful patterns in life's randomness.

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  40. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/16/10/1300
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  42. https://cs.nyu.edu/~yap/kids/lincoln-kennedy.html
  43. https://www.mentalfloss.com/history/titanic/novel-predicted-titanic-disaster
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  45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2290058
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  47. https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_do_historians_determine_the_credibility_sources_in_modern_history
  48. https://appliednetsci.springeropen.com/articles/10.1007/s41109-019-0233-1
  49. https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijhsse/v4-i4/1.pdf
  50. https://www.academia.edu/6264760/Wonderful_Chains_Dickens_and_Coincidence
  51. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1661&context=cgu_etd
  52. https://journals.openedition.org/filmj/1477
  53. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11070366
  54. https://www.aacademica.org/2.congreso.internacional.de.ciencias.humanas/264.pdf
  55. https://www.academia.edu/39131607/Coincidence_in_Fiction_and_Literature
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